Introduction to Geography (Earth Science). Stage I

1 lesson in 10th grade.

Geography is one of the fundamental sciences on which knowledge of the surrounding world rests. It has its own subject, methods, main goals and areas of interaction with related sciences. The main object of geographical research is the environment in all its diversity and complexity, its nature and complex changes that occur as a result of natural cyclical fluctuations and as a result of increasing and increasingly complex anthropogenic influence.

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Lesson in 10th grade.

Introduction.

Lesson-lecture.

GOALS:

identify the relevance of geographical science at the present stage,
to familiarize students with the structure of the course in economic and social geography of the world, its objects of study, methods of geographical research and leading economic geographers,
to form a new geographical concept of “ecumene”.

LECTURE PLAN:

PROGRESS OF THE LECTURE:

Relevance of geographical science.

Many people still identify geography mainly with discoveries and descriptions of previously unknown lands. Meanwhile, she has long delved into the study of problems of interaction between society and nature. It is on this path that geography as a synthetic science gains new perspectives.

The increasing complexity of problems, the use of modern methods, and the emergence of new branches of geography lead to the fact that many key problems in the theory and practice of geographical science require serious and multilateral discussion, combining efforts in the field of scientific theory and research technology.

Nowadays we can talk about three main blocks of geographical science: natural, social and technical geography. The latter includes remote methods, geographic information systems, and cartographic research paths. And the first two blocks contain both traditional areas (for example, various types of regional studies and regional geography), and rapidly developing branches of social geography, as well as areas that bring geography closer to geoecology and environmental problems in general.

The prospect for the development of geographical research in the 21st century is the tendency towards the integration of geographical sciences to ensure the so-called sustainable (Supporting) development. Different branches of geography provide an opportunity to comprehensively consider the problems of further development of different territories and the world as a whole.

Recognition of the imbalance between the resource potential of the planet and its use by humanity is becoming the main reason for the “renaissance of geographical thought.” Even in rich industrial countries, it is impossible to solve only with the help of the latest technology and technologies such global problems of humanity as desertification, deforestation, environmental degradation, lack of clean water resources, air, soil and water pollution, and deteriorating public health. It is necessary to participate in the universal efforts of the entire system of geographical sciences, the entire arsenal of its methods.

It is worth emphasizing that the increasingly widespread term “sustainable development” does not yet have a generally accepted meaning and is interpreted differently. In the same way, understanding of the complex issues of sustainable development is very different even in developed countries with high public awareness.

Sustainable development must be the result, first of all, of political efforts at all territorial levels. Balanced development at the local level largely depends on the degree of involvement of the local population in the implementation of development programs. An important factor in balance is culture, including the culture of land use, which includes the historical experience of a given people and all of humanity.

Geography is now paying serious attention to informatization. An important branch of geographical science has emerged - geoinformatics. A variety of geographic information systems are being widely developed. They are actively used in developing the socio-economic future of various territories, cities and rural areas. The importance of geographic information systems is especially great in territorial planning, in regional planning and in monitoring the state of the environment.

One of the main slogans of the future of humanity: “Living in diversity” implies harmonious relationships between different ethnic groups, cultural traditions, past and future, industrial and less developed countries, city and countryside, man and nature. The role of geography in preserving biological, ethnocultural and socio-economic diversity is invaluable.

Methods of geographical research.

New practical requirements have given rise to newmethods of geographical research.In addition to such traditional methods as statistical, cartographic, historical, precise mathematical research methods are becoming increasingly widespread. The use of these methods, in turn, made it possible to move on to mathematical modeling of many physical and economic geographical phenomena and processes. In recent years, geographers have increasingly begun to use space methods to study our planet.

Objects of study of economic and social geography.

Economic and social geography of the world –is a social geographical science that studies the territorial organization of human society.

Sociology – the science of society and human behavior.

Economic geography studies patterns of population and economic distribution both on the globe as a whole and in individual countries of the world.

In the structure of economic and social geography, general and regional geography are distinguished, the object of which is individual states.

Many scientists made a great contribution to the development of economic and social geography of foreign countries, but primarily N.N. Baransky, and I.A. Witwer.

The earth is the habitat of man.

Human life takes place on the surface of the Earth, an area of 510 million square kilometers. Of these, 149 million square kilometers are on the mainland. For life to exist on Earth, three sources of existence are needed: solar energy, air and clean water.

Man is an integral part of nature. Its home is the geographic envelope, the sphere of interaction between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Ecumene – part of the Earth inhabited by humans. To develop the Earth, humanity spent enormous amounts of effort. At the same time, each people made their contribution to the development of the planet. No wonder T. Heyerdahl said about this: “We are all sitting on the same raft. To survive on it, you need to cooperate. But the raft gets wet and can sink. This cannot be allowed!”

HOMEWORK: page 5-7.

Stage I. Familiarization and elaboration of theoretical material.

1.1 Introduction: geography as a science. Methods of geographical research and sources of geographical information.

You cannot engage in politics and economics without knowing geography.

Each scientific discipline contributes to shaping our understanding of the world. The role of geography in the system of sciences is unique, since only it gives an idea of the nature of our planet and human society, and forms the image of a specific territory. Geographical knowledge and skills are one of the necessary elements of culture.

♦ How did geography develop as a science?

The ancient peoples already possessed certain geographical knowledge. The first written information about this that has reached us dates back to the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. These are basically maps of territories.

A special place in the history of geography belongs to the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The main incentives for travelers at that time were the search for new trade routes and military conquests.

In the XVII-XIX centuries. Geography developed most intensively in foreign Europe and Russia. Along with the discovery and description of new lands, geographers searched for patterns in the distribution of geographical objects. The breadth and depth of geographical research of that time can be judged by the example of works Carl Ritter And Peter Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

Geographic mosaic: K. Ritter and P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky

K. Ritter (1779-1859) - German geographer, honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. He developed the comparative method in geography, applying it to the study of landforms. In explaining social phenomena he joined the school

so-called geographical determinism, which proves the decisive influence of nature on the destinies of peoples. The main work is “Earth Science”. During the scientist’s lifetime, 19 volumes devoted to Asia and Africa were published. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) - Russian traveler, geographer, botanist, entomologist, statistician, public and statesman. In 1856-1857 traveled to the Tien Shan, established the non-volcanic origin of the mountains, discovered a vast glacial region, explored lake. Issyk-Kul, compiled the first diagram of the location of the Tien Shan ridges. For these studies in 1906 he received the prefix Tian-Shansky to his surname. Compiled the “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire.” He was the initiator of the first general census of Russia. He proposed a zoning scheme for Russia. Together with the historian V.I. Lamansky, he directed the multi-volume publication “Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland." He was a member of many Russian and foreign scientific societies. Published the three-volume “History of half a century of activity of the Russian Geographical Society.”

The main goals of modern geography are the geographical substantiation of the rational territorial organization of society and environmental management, the creation of a strategy for the environmentally safe development of civilization. The most important areas of interest of geography are the processes of interaction between man and nature, patterns of placement and interaction of components of the geographical environment and their combinations at the local, regional, national (state), continental, oceanic and global levels.

♦ What elements form the system of scientific knowledge in geography?

Like any other science, geography has its own system of scientific knowledge. Famous Russian geographer Vladimir Maksakovsky formulated their characteristics.

Teaching- a set of theoretical provisions (theories, concepts, etc.). An example is the doctrine of the biosphere, noosphere, nature management, the origin of cultivated plants, soils, geographic envelope, geographic zonality, PTC, etc.

Theory- a system of basic ideas in a particular branch of knowledge. An example is the theory of lithospheric plate tectonics and economic zoning.

Law- a necessary, essential, stable, repeating relationship between phenomena in nature and society. An example is the laws of the origin and geographical distribution of the world’s soils, developed by the famous Russian soil scientist Vasily Dokuchaev.

Pattern- compliance with the law, consistent manifestation of the law.

Concept- a set of the most essential elements of the theory, a point of view, the main idea for understanding the essence of certain processes and phenomena. In economic geography, the concept of the supporting framework of a territory, put forward in the middle of the 20th century, is known. Nikolai Baransky, big loop concept Nikolai Kondratiev etc.

Hypothesis- an assumption about the causes of any phenomena that has not been tested or confirmed by experiment. Examples: hypotheses of the formation of the Solar system, continental drift, stabilization of the Earth's population, etc.

Concept- a thought reflecting the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena; is considered as an element of teachings, theories, concepts and hypotheses.

Term- a word or phrase that denotes a concept and captures it in a brief summary. Concepts and terms are the language of science. Mastery of geographic terminology is the first step to mastering geographic culture.

♦ What sources contain geographic information?

In modern geographical science, as in all spheres of human activity, the flow of information is constantly increasing. There are various sources for obtaining geographic information: statistical, cartographic, historical documents, scientific literature, encyclopedias, periodicals, the Internet, etc.

The modern world is developing very quickly, the situation is changing literally before our eyes. Internet sources can be widely used to obtain up-to-date information. For example, general trends in the socio-economic development of the world, its individual regions and countries can be considered on the basis of UN data (http://www.un.org/russian). Current information about the population and economy of Russia is contained on the website of the Federal State Statistics Service (http://www.gks.ru). To obtain the most complete and objective information, you need to use several different sources.

♦ What methods of geographical research exist?

As in any other science, there are various research methods in geography. Some of them are typically geographical, others are general scientific (Fig. 2).

A special place among methods of geographical research is occupied by geographic forecasting, which has always been the traditional method in geography. Without a forecast, it is impossible to imagine the prospects for the development of any country or territory. In order to determine changes in a specific territory that may occur as a result of human economic activity, scientists create a hypothesis for the future development of the object. For example, a geographical forecast has been created for the development of the situation in the Aral Basin, where various problems are closely intertwined.

Info

Title of textbook book:

Textbook subject: Geography

Student class: 5th grade

Book publisher: Russian word...

Parts (textbooks) of the book: 1 textbook.

Year of publication of the textbook, book: 2013

Pages in the textbook: 160 pages.

Textbook format: file in pdf.

Volume (manual) of the textbook: 34.4 MB.

Minor description of the textbook (manual):

The textbook (manual) covers geographic topics; they will always help schoolchildren (students in the 5th grade) to get acquainted with geography not only as the subject of the location of, say, a continent, but also as a science, to learn about the development of the Earth and the history of its discovery. The textbook meets all state education standards. The textbook is specialized for general educational institutions: lyceums, schools and gymnasiums...

Domogatskikh E.M. Geography 5th grade, reading online

Geography and an introduction to geography, all this information is collected in this book. No, there is no point in discussing this compulsory school discipline here, but we will only bring to your attention how diligently you can study using a textbook online.

So, the student manual from the author Domogatsky has twenty-eight paragraphs, which seem to have very little information, in fact, everything in the textbook says the opposite. Simply, it is laid out here compactly enough so that students can easily understand it. And when you start reading the book online, you will remember every phrase well, because geography is a very important science that is needed by the whole society. Moreover, those phrases that easily give answers to endless questions should be easily learned in all classes on this subject.

Object, subject, concepts and methods of geography. Characteristics of the system of geographical sciences. Analysis of the main achievements of geography in different periods of its development. Features of the Earth as a planet of the solar system, properties and composition of its geographical shell.

Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

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Test

on the topic: Introduction to geography (Earth science)

1. Define geography. Why is it important to distinguish between the object of study and the subject in defining geography?

Geography is a system of natural and social sciences that study natural and industrial geographic complexes and their components.

The phenomenon of modern geography is that it combines sciences that study both natural phenomena - physical geography, and sciences that study social patterns - socio-economic geography.

The subject of geography is the properties of various elements of geographical reality, the patterns of the structure of the functioning and development of its individual aspects, the patterns of its relationship with other objects.

The definition of geography looks like this: geography is a system of natural (physical-geographical) and social (economic-geographical) sciences that study the geographic envelope of the Earth, natural and industrial geographic complexes and their components.

Geographical sciences are united by the close relationship between the objects studied and the commonality of the final goal. This goal is a comprehensive study of nature, population, and economy.

Thus, geography combines two very different branches, which is why geographers prefer to say: not a geographical science, but a system of geographical science, and even a system of geographical sciences.

2. Describe the system of geographical sciences

The Geography system distinguishes:

Natural sciences, which usually include physical geography in the full sense of the word (including landscape science, general geosciences and paleogeography), climatology, geomorphology, land hydrology, glaciology, oceanology, geocryology, as well as soil geography and biogeography,

Social geographical sciences are regional and general economic geography, agricultural geography, geography of economic sectors (geography of transport and geography of industry), political geography and population geography,

Cartography is a technical science, which is also included in the system of modern geographical sciences due to historical reasons and the commonality of its main tasks with other geographical sciences.

Regional studies is also commonly referred to as geography.

3. Why is cartography considered an integral science?

The model-cognitive concept considers it as the science of understanding reality through cartographic modeling, and the map itself as a model of reality. According to the communication concept, cartography is considered the science of transmitting spatial information, and the map is a channel of information, a means of communication. The concept of map semiotics considers cartography as the science of the language of the map, and the map itself as a special text composed using conventional signs (written in the language of the map).

Gradually, in modern cartography, the trend of convergence begins to prevail, different points of view on the subject of cartography are coming together, and there is an integration of ideas about the model, communicative, and linguistic functions of maps and cartography.

In the 1980s An integral geoinformation concept began to take shape, according to which cartography is considered as a science of systemic information-cartographic modeling and knowledge of geosystems. It is closely related to geoinformation science, earth sciences and social sciences. The map appears as a figurative-sign geoinformation model of reality, in other words, it is simultaneously a tool of cognition, a method of analog modeling of reality, and a means of transmitting information in digital form.

4. What is “Geographical horizon”?

Geographical horizons is a concept that presupposes the sum of human knowledge about the external features of the earth's surface (the outlines of continents and oceans, main rivers and mountain systems, etc.), about the nature of its various parts - relief, climate, vegetation cover, etc. , about geographical differences in the lives of peoples, the economic uniqueness of countries and a whole range of other geographical knowledge.

5. Define the concept “Geographical picture of the world”

The geographical picture of the world is a holistic idea of the world in its spatio-temporal and unique certainty; it contains many elements of physical, biological and other private scientific pictures of the world, but does not completely coincide with them.

6. What are the main achievements of geography in ancient times? Name the most outstanding geographers of the ancient period

Discovery of the shape of the Earth.

Knowledge about the shape of our planet was extremely important for the further development of geography and especially for the creation of reliable maps. In ancient times (VIII century BC - IV century AD), the highest development of knowledge, including geographical knowledge, was in ancient Greece. Travelers and merchants of that time reported on the newly discovered lands. Scientists were faced with the task of bringing this disparate information into one whole. But the first thing that is important is to decide which Earth - flat, cylindrical or cubic - the data obtained concerns. Did Greek scientists think about many things? Why? "Why does a ship, moving away from the shore, suddenly disappear from sight? Why does our gaze come across some obstacle - the horizon line? Why does the horizon expand as it rises? The idea of a flat Earth did not answer these questions. Then hypotheses about the shape of the Earth appeared. In science hypotheses are unproven assumptions or guesses.

Geographical literature and maps.

The information received by travelers and seafarers about previously unknown lands was summarized by Greek scientists and philosophers. They wrote a lot of works. The first geographical works were created by Aristotle, Eratosthenes, and Strabo.

First information about Ukrainian lands.

VVst. BC e Greek traveler and historian Herodotus visited the Northern Black Sea region - where Ukraine is now located. He outlined everything he saw and heard during this and other travels in 9 books of “History”. For this legacy, Herodotus is called the father of history. However, in his descriptions he provided a lot of geographical information. The information of Herodotus is not the only attraction of the geography of southern Ukraine. At that time there was a large country called Scythia, the size of which caused the greatest surprise to the overseas guest. For centuries, people have learned about Europe, Asia and Africa from Herodotus's History. The learned Greek left us reliable information about our area. Guided by them and the later testimony of Strabo, 500 years later, We received a clear understanding of our land.

7. What is the era of great geographical discoveries famous for?

Discovery of America and the “South Sea”

First circumnavigation of the world

Completion of the discovery of a new world

Northeast sea route

Searches for the Southern Continent

10. Describe the outstanding achievements of Russian geography at the beginning of the 19th century

8. Formation of the Russian Geographical Society and its contribution to the development of geography. Contribution of A.I. Voeikova and V.V. Dokuchaev in the development of geography?

The All-Russian public organization "Rumskoye Geographical Society" (abbreviated as VOO "RGO") is a geographical public organization of Russia, founded on August 18, 1845.

9. Describe the main directions of development of geography during the Soviet period

During Soviet times, the study of the geography of our country was continued. New scientific schools were created.

Traditions and innovation are the most important features of Soviet geography. Several periods can be distinguished.

I period. After the revolution, the first difficulty emerged - the lack of maps. A gigantic amount of work was carried out to create a million-scale map of the country's territory. Work began in 1918 and ended in 1946. A total of 180 map sheets were compiled. For example, the coastline of the Arctic Ocean (AO) was re-mapped. At the same time, on the one hand, new islands were discovered (Severnaya Zemlya), on the other, old ones were established, that is, “closed” (Vasilievsky Island to the west of the New Siberian Islands). This island was mapped in 1912 by the famous polar explorer B.A. Vilkitsky, and in 1936 there was a shoal on the site of the island. It was also established that the legendary islands of “Sannikov Land” (north of the New Siberian Islands) and “Andreev Land” (west of Wrangel Island) do not exist.

In mountainous countries, altitudes were determined, the highest peaks of the USSR were discovered - Communism Peak - 7,495 m, Lenin Peak - 7,134 m, new ridges were identified, and the location of mountain systems was clarified.

Particularly large discoveries have been made in the northeast of the country. For example, it has been established that the so-called Chersky Ridge is actually a mountain system of 9 parallel chains. For the first time, the Suntar-Khayata ridge was put on the map. In Central Asia, the “Roof of the World” - the Pamirs - was studied in detail, hard-to-reach mountain areas were photographed - for example, the ridges of the Academy of Sciences, the longest Fedchenko glacier in the USSR, Kamchatka was studied in detail. For the first time, accurate maps were compiled and a unique region of geysers was discovered.

The whole country became an arena for the activities of surveyors, who were often pioneers. Currently, there are accurate maps for the entire territory of the CIS, the significance of which is enormous. Modern detailed special maps are created on the basis of aerial photography and space photography. All farms are provided with special maps of soils and forests, scale 1: 10,000, 1: 25,000.

II period. Tremendous work has been done to study the Arctic. The development of the northern regions required knowledge of natural resources and reliable transport services. But for this it was necessary to know the peculiarities of the nature of the northern seas, ice drift, etc. Can the Northern Sea Route, which Lomonosov dreamed of, be a reliable transport route? The first positive answer to this question was the through flight of Sibiryakov in 1932.

In 1934, the icebreaker Litke passed from Vladivostok to Murmansk during one navigation along the Northern Sea Route (NSR). In 1939, the first double through voyage of the icebreaker Joseph Stalin took place in history. geography science earth

In the study of the Arctic, an entire era is associated with drifting stations, which received the romantic name “North Pole” - “SP”. The history of "SP" was opened in 1937 by the station "SP - 1". It was headed by a legendary man, a hero of the Arctic and then a hero of the Great Patriotic War - I.D. Papanin (1894 -- 1986). The following took part in the drift: geophysicist E.K. Fedorov, oceanologist P.G. Shirshov, radio operator E.T. Krenkel. The station received a lot of interesting data about ice drift, ocean depths, characteristics of sea waters (salinity, temperature, etc.), and studied magnetic phenomena.

Much time has passed since then, but the station is still drifting in the ice; in 1987 it was the 29th.

Pilots played a huge role in the exploration of the North. Mobile “jumping” teams landed on the ice, not without risk, and carried out a series of observations. In 1937 V.P. Chkalov flew across the relatively inaccessible North Pole (north of Wrangel Island).

Almost the entire water area of the Arctic Ocean became accessible for navigation by icebreaking vessels after the creation of nuclear engines. Successful voyages to the geographic North Pole were carried out by nuclear-powered icebreakers Lenin, Arktika, and Sibir. Now there is a whole system of ground and drifting stations operating in the Arctic. Observations are also carried out from specially equipped aircraft and icebreakers. Satellites and rockets monitor the weather. This huge amount of information is processed automatically. All scientific and organizational work in the Arctic is controlled by the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute.

III period. An important achievement in the study of the natural environment is the observation system newly created after the revolution. This includes a network of meteorological stations, observatories, and hydrological posts - water flow is studied at special sites, and the influence of sea waves on the coast is studied at coastal stations.

Research in nature reserves. Complex - climate, vegetation, fauna. Geological museums.

A great achievement was the creation of the “Water Cadastre of the USSR,” which summarized data on all rivers and lakes in the country. Creation of reference books on the climate of various territories.

Large-scale work has been completed and summarized on water balance and agroclimatology. General monographs have been created on climate, relief, soils, vegetation and other components of the natural environment.

In 1937, the Great Soviet Atlas of the World was created, in 1950 - 1953 - a three-volume Marine Atlas, an atlas of heat balance, in 1964 - a Physiographic Atlas of the World, a climate atlas, an agricultural atlas and numerous other special atlases were compiled for countries as a whole, and individual republics, territories and regions.

A series of books have been published containing a comprehensive physical-geographical or economic-geographical characteristics of the country and regions, for example, the “Soviet Union” series.

10. Methods of geography

Methods of geographical research - methods of obtaining geographical information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography, Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky, is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises out of nowhere, therefore, to understand modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative production indicators, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, fertility, mortality and natural population growth, balance of migration, resource availability, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Geographical zoning method. Identification of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the research methods of geographical science.

6). Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison allows us to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observation. Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and offices. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature conservation, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. Creating geographic models is an important method for studying geography. The simplest geographical model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science must not only describe the objects and phenomena being studied, but also predict the consequences that humanity may come to in the course of its development. Geographic forecast helps to avoid

many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rational use of resources, solve global problems

11. Solar system. Features of the Earth as a planet in the solar system. Earth movements and their consequences

The solar system is a planetary system that includes the central star - the Sun - and all natural space objects revolving around the Sun. It was formed by gravitational compression of a gas and dust cloud approximately 4.57 billion years ago.

The movement of the Earth around the Sun: change of seasons - the Earth's climate changes throughout the year; The earth revolves around the sun every year (365 days); Changes in the speed of the Earth's movement when passing through different parts of the Earth's orbit are different processes in nature at different times of the year.

Movement around its axis: Change of day and night; The occurrence of ebbs and flows; local time different at the same moment on different meridians.

12. The concept of Geographical envelope. Properties of G.O

The geographic envelope is a material system that arose on the earth's surface as a result of the interaction and interpenetration of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere saturated with organisms.

The main properties of the geographical shell are: the rhythm of natural phenomena, the circulation of substances and energy, integrity and unity, self-regulation.

13. Atmosphere. Structure and composition

The atmosphere is the outer gaseous shell of the Earth.

Structure:

Exosphere

Thermosphere (ionosphere)

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere

Composition: The atmosphere consists of constant and variable components. Constants include nitrogen (78% by volume), oxygen (21%) and inert gases (0.93%). The constancy of the amount of active components of nitrogen and oxygen is determined by the balance between the processes of release of free oxygen and nitrogen and their absorption during chemical reactions. Noble gases do not participate in reactions occurring in the atmosphere. Variable components are carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone, aerosols.

14. Air masses. Atmospheric circulation

Air masses are large volumes of air in the lower part of the earth's atmosphere - the troposphere, having horizontal dimensions of many hundreds or several thousand kilometers and vertical dimensions of several kilometers, characterized by approximately uniform temperature and moisture content horizontally.

Atmospheric circulation is a set of air currents over the earth's surface. Air currents vary in scale from tens and hundreds of meters (such movements are created by local winds) to hundreds and thousands of kilometers, leading to the formation of cyclones, anticyclones, monsoons and trade winds in the troposphere. In the stratosphere, predominantly zonal transfers occur (which determines the existence of latitudinal zonality).

15. Climate formation factors

Factors: solar radiation, atmospheric circulation and terrain.

Solar radiation is a factor that determines the flow of solar energy to certain areas of the earth's surface. The amount of heat is determined by geographic latitude. All life processes on Earth, as well as other climate indicators - pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, atmospheric circulation, etc., directly depend on the amount of heat.

Atmospheric circulation is a factor that determines the movement of air masses both vertically and along the earth's surface. Thanks to this, inter-latitudinal exchange of air occurs, as well as its redistribution from the surface to the upper layers of the atmosphere and vice versa. Air masses carry clouds, which determines precipitation; they significantly redistribute pressure, temperature and humidity of the air and form winds.

Relief is a factor that qualitatively changes the influence of the first two climate-forming factors. Mountain elevations and ridges have a specific temperature and precipitation regime depending on the exposure, orientation of the slopes and the height of the ridges. They can reflect large amounts of solar energy, creating vast shaded mountain areas, and the highest peaks, thousands of meters away from the plain, receive less solar energy and are often covered with ice and snowfields throughout the year. Mountains serve as mechanical barriers to the movement of air masses and fronts, in some cases they are the boundaries of climatic regions, sometimes they change the nature of the atmosphere or exclude the possibility of air exchange. There are many areas on the surface of the Earth where, due to this, either a lot of precipitation falls or there is not enough of it. Thus, the dryness of Central Asia is explained by the fact that powerful mountain systems rise along its outskirts.

16. Structure, structure of the hydrosphere. Properties of natural waters

The hydrosphere is the totality of all the waters of the Earth: continental, oceanic and atmospheric. The hydrosphere includes all natural waters of the Earth that participate in the global cycle of substances, including groundwater in the upper part of the earth’s crust, atmospheric moisture and water of living organisms (V.N. Mikhailov, A.D. Dobrovolsky, 1991). The upper boundary of the hydrosphere is drawn along the surface of the ocean, since water vapor in the atmosphere constitutes a very small part of the hydrosphere. The lower boundary is drawn along the ocean floor, in the lithosphere - along the boundary of the distribution of groundwater, i.e. at a depth of several hundred meters. Chemically bound water is water in minerals; it is not included in the hydrosphere. According to V.N. Mikhailov and A.D. Dobrovolsky, the boundaries of the hydrosphere coincide with the boundaries of the GO, since the hydrosphere is a continuous shell formed by the interaction of all geospheres of the GO.

The hydrosphere occupies 361 million km 3 and contains 1,454,000 thousand km 3 of water. The main mass of water is concentrated in the oceans - 1370.0 million km 3, or 94.2% (97.2% according to other sources) of all water in the hydrosphere, of which about 35 thousand km 3 are icebergs.

Groundwater takes second place - 60 million km 3 (4.12%). About 4 million km 3 circulates in the zone of active water exchange. According to scientists, in the 10-15 kilometer thickness of the lithosphere there is about 150 million km 3 of water, which does not participate in moisture circulation, but represents a reserve of liquid water.

The third place in terms of water volume is occupied by polar glaciers, they contain 24 million km 3 of water. Polar glaciers contain about 90% of the fresh water on Earth.

Surface waters on land concentrate a small fraction of the planet's water. The volume of lake water is estimated at 279 thousand km 3, the volume of rivers is only 1.2 thousand km 3.

Water is an excellent solvent of acids, alkalis and salts, many gases, including those important for life such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. At the same time, substances that do not contain charged or polarized groups in their molecules are practically insoluble in water. The ability to interact with the hydrogen bonds of water divides all substances into hydrophilic - soluble or, at least, wetted by water, and hydrophobic - insoluble and even actively, with the release of energy, displaced by water and aqueous solutions. The combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of various organic substances is used by living organisms to create very strong structures of ultramicroscopic dimensions - cell membranes and other “molecular structures” that ensure the occurrence of the most important life processes at the cellular level.

Although fresh water makes up a small part of all water on Earth, it largely determines the level and very possibility of life on land, and its quality is of the most immediate importance for humans and their economy. Depending on the rocks underlying reservoirs and watercourses, natural waters can not only have different total salinity, but also vary greatly in the content of various elements, acidity and suspended particle content. This, as well as differences in temperature, seasonal changes in composition, content of dissolved gases and other physicochemical characteristics of natural reservoirs, largely determines both the total “amount of life” in them and the presence of various adaptations in aquatic plants and animals developed over a long period of time. evolution. These adaptations cover all levels of life organization, from biochemical processes at the cellular level and physiological regulation of organ systems to morphological characteristics and behavioral features associated with periodic changes in the state of water bodies.

17. Boundaries of the lithosphere. Dynamics of the lithosphere

Earth's crust

Upper mantle

Lower mantle

Outer core

Inner core

18. Biosphere. Soil cover

The biosphere is a special volume of the geographical envelope, a kind of supersphere that unites almost all geospheres where life exists or existed.

The upper biologically active shell of the earth is usually called soil. Its most important quality is fertility, which makes it suitable for cultivating plants and thereby using the land as the main means of agricultural production.

Famous Russian scientist V.V. Dokuchaev identified five factors of soil formation: parent rock, plant and animal organisms, climate, terrain, and age of the country. Their various combinations lead to the formation of many thousands of types and varieties of soils. The quality of soils is determined by their physical condition, mechanical and chemical composition, humus content and many other parameters. Their favorable combination is achieved through a set of various reclamation measures. The main indicator of the quality of lands used in agriculture is their fertility, the ability to provide the water, air and food regimes necessary for the growth and development of plants. Fertile soils are distinguished by good moisture holding capacity, a high content of active humus, aggregated soil mass, and rich in beneficial microflora.

19. Stages of development of the geographical shell

Scientists identify three historical stages in the development of the geographical envelope.

The first stage is geological (or prebiogenic). This is the earliest stage of Earth's history. At this stage, at first there was no life yet, and then, although it appeared, it still did not have a significant impact on the geographical envelope. Life was represented exclusively by the simplest organisms, and they did not have a significant influence on the formation of the geographical envelope. There was very little molecular oxygen in the atmosphere, but there was a lot of carbon dioxide.

This stage lasted from the formation of the Earth (about 4.5 billion years ago) until about 600 million years ago. That is, this stage is the longest, it lasted about 3 billion years.

During the geological stage, the formation of the earth's crust took place, continents appeared, life originated in the ocean and reached its peak there.

The second stage is biological. It began approximately just under 600 million years ago. At this time, the atmosphere and hydrosphere became as they are now, the ozone layer appeared, life spread over land, and soil was formed. Living organisms had a significant influence on the development of the geographical envelope. Rocks of organic origin were formed. The third stage is anthropogenic (modern). The exact moment of the appearance of man is unknown, but scientists believe that the anthropogenic stage of development of the geographical envelope began approximately 40 thousand years ago, when man began to have a noticeable impact on nature.

20. Laws and patterns of the geographical envelope

The development of GO has its own patterns and characteristic features: integrity, rhythm and zonality, cycles of matter and energy. The integrity of GO is manifested in the fact that a change in one component of nature inevitably causes a change in all the others. The rhythmicity of natural phenomena lies in the repeatability of similar phenomena over time. Examples of rhythm: daily and annual periods of the Earth's rotation. Zoning is a natural change in all components of GO from the equator to the poles. It is caused by the rotation of the spherical Earth with a certain inclination of the axis of rotation around the Sun.

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