1237 who ruled in Rus'. Nomads do not fight in winter

Period 1237 – 1242 is the time when the Russian principalities were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion under the leadership of Khan Batu, as well as the time of the struggle of the north-west of Rus' with the aggression of the Swedish and German knights. Rus' at that time was fragmented into many principalities. The princes were at enmity with each other, committed fratricides, and there was no unity of the Russian lands.

An indicator of this was the battle on the Kalka River in 1223, which ended in the defeat of the Russian troops due to discord and inconsistency in the actions of the Russian princes. In 1237, Batu began an invasion of Rus'. One after another, Russian cities perished: Suzdal, Vladimir, Rostov, Uglich, etc. On December 6, 1240, Kyiv fell. The Russian lands found themselves politically and economically weakened and subsequently became dependent on the Golden Horde yoke. At the same time, Rus' had to fight with foreign principalities. Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated the Swedish army on the Neva River in 1240, and then defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle of the Ice in 1242.

Alexander Nevsky had a very great influence on what was happening in the country during this period.

In the Battle of the Neva, it was the unexpected and lightning-fast attack on the Swedes that helped the Russian squads led by Alexander Yaroslavich win a brilliant victory. When the Order of the Swordsmen and the Teutonic Order united into the Livonian Order, they decided to march on Rus'. In 1240, they captured the Pskov lands, which were later liberated by Alexander Yaroslavich. On April 5, 1242, the Battle of the Ice took place on Lake Peipus. Successful military operations of Russian soldiers took place here. They defeated the knights of the Livonian Order and prevented their further invasion of Russian lands. Alexander Nevsky worked very hard for the good of Rus', with unprecedented dedication, sparing no effort, he fiercely fought Western enemies, prudently built relations with the Mongol-Tatars. He was called a “guardian angel,” and the church canonized Alexander Nevsky.

Also, a prominent representative of this period is Batu Khan, a Mongol commander and statesman who played a significant role in the history of many countries of the east, Rus', and Eastern Europe. He created the most powerful state - the Golden Horde. Batu went down in history as the “evil destroyer” of Rus' and the destroyer of Eastern Europe.

Let's consider the cause-and-effect relationships for each of the events. The reasons for Russia's defeat in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars are fragmentation, lack of unity of the Russian lands, as well as the high military skill of the Mongol army. The Golden Horde managed to seize Russian lands, weaken the political and economic position of Rus', and subject it to dependence. And the Swedish and German knights sought to seize new lands and spread Catholicism. Thanks to the Grand Russian Duke Alexander Nevsky, they do not succeed, instead, the north-west of Rus' remains independent, Orthodoxy is preserved, and the morale of the Russian people rises.

Scientists have different opinions about the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'. Karamzin believed that Igo had an extremely positive impact on the development of the state, because Civil strife between the princes ceased, and the unification of Rus' took place. The growth of cities began. Kargalov believed that the Igo had an exclusively negative effect: a delay in economic and political development, dependence. Gumilyov believed that the Mongol-Tatar Yoke did not exist at all, there was only a military alliance, but the real danger was from the west.

From the above it follows that the period from 1237 to 1242 is very important in the formation of our state. Russian troops won brilliant victories and also lost in fierce battles. It was this period that became the reason for the unification of Russian lands and the cessation of civil strife.

Effective preparation for the Unified State Exam (all subjects) -

This is an article about the Mongol invasions of Rus' in 1237-1240. For the 1223 invasion, see Battle of the Kalka River. For later invasions, see List of Mongol-Tatar campaigns against Russian principalities.

Mongol invasion of Rus'- invasions of the troops of the Mongol Empire into the territories of the Russian principalities in 1237-1240. during the Western campaign of the Mongols ( Kipchak campaign) 1236-1242 under the leadership of Genghisid Batu and the military leader Subedei.

Background

For the first time, the task of reaching the city of Kyiv was set to Subedei by Genghis Khan in 1221: He sent Subeetai-Baatur on a campaign to the north, ordering him to reach eleven countries and peoples, such as: Kanlin, Kibchaut, Bachzhigit, Orosut, Machzharat, Asut, Sasut, Serkesut, Keshimir, Bolar, Rural (Lalat), to cross the high-water the rivers Idil and Ayakh, as well as reach the city of Kivamen-kermen When the united Russian-Polovtsian army suffered a crushing defeat in the battle on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223, the Mongols invaded the southern Russian border lands (the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary calls it the first Mongol invasion of Russia), but abandoned the plan to march on Kyiv, and then were defeated in Volga Bulgaria in 1224.

In 1228-1229, having ascended the throne, Ogedei sent a 30,000-strong corps to the west, led by Subedei and Kokoshay, against the Kipchaks and Volga Bulgars. In connection with these events, in 1229 the name of the Tatars reappears in Russian chronicles: “ Bulgarian watchmen came running from the Tatars near the river, whose name is Yaik"(and in 1232 Tatarov arrived and winter did not reach the Great Bulgarian City).

The “Secret Legend”, in relation to the period 1228-1229, reports that Ogedei

However, in 1231-1234 the Mongols waged a second war with Jin, and the movement to the west of the united forces of all uluses began immediately after the decision of the kurultai of 1235.

Gumilyov L.N. estimates the size of the Mongol army similarly (30-40 thousand people). In modern historical literature, another estimate of the total number of the Mongol army in the western campaign is dominant: 120-140 thousand soldiers, 150 thousand soldiers.

Initially, Ogedei himself planned to lead the Kipchak campaign, but Munke dissuaded him. In addition to Batu, the following Genghisids took part in the campaign: the sons of Jochi Orda-Ezhen, Shiban, Tangkut and Berke, the grandson of Chagatai Buri and the son of Chagatai Baydar, the sons of Ogedei Guyuk and Kadan, the sons of Tolui Munke and Buchek, the son of Genghis Khan Kulhan, the grandson of Genghis Khan's brother Argasun. The importance the Chingizids attached to the conquest of the Russians is evidenced by Ogedei’s monologue addressed to Guyuk, who was dissatisfied with Batu’s leadership.

The Vladimir chronicler reports in 1230: “ That same year, the Bulgarians bowed to Grand Duke Yuri, asking for peace for six years, and make peace with them" The desire for peace was supported by deeds: after the conclusion of peace in Rus', famine broke out as a result of a two-year crop failure, and the Bulgars brought ships with food to Russian cities free of charge. Under 1236: " The Tatars came to the Bulgarian land and took the glorious Great Bulgarian City, slaughtered everyone from old to young and even to the last child, and burned their city and captured all their land" Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky accepted Bulgarian refugees on his land and resettled them in Russian cities. The Battle of the Kalka River showed that even the defeat of the combined forces in a general battle is a way to undermine the forces of the invaders and force them to abandon plans for a further offensive. But in 1236, Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky and his brother Yaroslav of Novgorod, who had the largest military potential in Rus' (under 1229 in the chronicle we read: “ and bowed to Yuri, who is his father and master"), did not send troops to help the Volga Bulgars, but used them to establish control over Kiev, thereby putting an end to the Chernigov-Smolensk struggle for it and taking into their own hands the reins of the traditional Kyiv collection, which at the beginning of the 13th century was still recognized by all Russian princes . The political situation in Rus' in the period 1235-1237 was also determined by the victories of Yaroslav of Novgorod over the Order of the Sword in 1234 and Daniil Romanovich of Volyn over the Teutonic Order in 1237. Lithuania also acted against the Order of the Sword (Battle of Saul in 1236), resulting in its remnants uniting with the Teutonic Order.

First stage. North-Eastern Rus' (1237-1239)

Invasion 1237-1238

The fact that the Mongol attack on Rus' at the end of 1237 was not unexpected is evidenced by the letters and reports of the Hungarian missionary monk, Dominican Julian:

The Mongols directed the main attack on the Ryazan principality (see Defense of Ryazan). Yuri Vsevolodovich sent a united army to help the Ryazan princes: his eldest son Vsevolod with all the people, the governor Eremey Glebovich, the forces retreating from Ryazan led by Roman Ingvarevich and the Novgorod regiments - but it was too late: Ryazan fell after a 6-day siege on December 21. The sent army managed to give the invaders a fierce battle near Kolomna (on the territory of Ryazan land), but was defeated.

The Mongols invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Yuri Vsevolodovich retreated to the north and began to gather an army for a new battle with the enemy, waiting for the regiment of his brothers Yaroslav (who was in Kyiv) and Svyatoslav (before this, he was last mentioned in the chronicle in 1229 as a prince sent by Yuri to reign in Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny) . " Within the land of Suzdal"The Mongols were caught up by those returning from Chernigov" in a small squad“The Ryazan boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat, together with the remnants of the Ryazan troops and thanks to the surprise of the attack, was able to inflict significant losses on them (some editions of “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” tell about the solemn funeral of Evpatiy Kolovrat in the Ryazan Cathedral on January 11, 1238). On January 20, after 5 days of resistance, Moscow fell, which was defended by Yuri’s youngest son Vladimir and governor Philip Nyanka “ with a small army", Vladimir Yuryevich was captured and then killed in front of the walls of Vladimir. Vladimir himself was taken on February 7 after a five-day siege (see Defense of Vladimir), and the entire family of Yuri Vsevolodovich died. In addition to Vladimir, in February 1238, Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Gorodets, Kostroma, Galich-Mersky, Vologda, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Dmitrov and Volok Lamsky were taken, the most stubborn resistance except Moscow and Vladimir were supported by Pereyaslavl-Zalessky (taken by the Chingizids together in 5 days), Tver and Torzhok (defense of February 22 - March 5), which lay on the direct route of the main Mongol forces from Vladimir to Novgorod. One of the sons of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich died in Tver, whose name has not been preserved. The Volga region cities, whose defenders had gone with their princes Konstantinovich to Yuri on the Sit, were attacked by the secondary forces of the Mongols, led by Temnik Burundai. On March 4, 1238, they unexpectedly attacked the Russian army (see Battle of the City River) and were able to defeat it, however, they themselves “ suffered a great plague, and many of them fell" In the battle, Vsevolod Konstantinovich Yaroslavsky died along with Yuri, Vasilko Konstantinovich Rostovsky was captured (later killed), Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Vladimir Konstantinovich Uglitsky managed to escape.

Summing up the defeat of Yuri and the ruin of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, first Russian historian Tatishchev V.N. says that the losses of the Mongolian troops were many times greater than the losses of the Russians, but the Mongols made up for their losses at the expense of prisoners (prisoners covered their destruction), who at that time turned out to be more numerous than the Mongols themselves ( and especially the prisoners). In particular, the assault on Vladimir was launched only after one of the Mongol detachments that took Suzdal returned with many prisoners. However, eastern sources, which repeatedly mention the use of prisoners during the Mongol conquests in China and Central Asia, do not mention the use of prisoners for military purposes in Rus' and Central Europe.

After the capture of Torzhok on March 5, 1238, the main forces of the Mongols, having united with the remnants of Burundai’s army, did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod and turned back to the steppes (according to different versions, due to the spring thaw or due to high losses). On the way back, the Mongol army moved in two groups. The main group traveled 30 km east of Smolensk, stopping in the Dolgomostye area. The literary source - “The Tale of Mercury of Smolensk” - talks about the defeat and flight of the Mongol troops. Next, the main group went south, invaded the Chernigov principality and burned Vshchizh, located in close proximity to the central regions of the Chernigov-Seversky principality, but then sharply turned to the northeast and, bypassing the large cities of Bryansk and Karachev, besieged Kozelsk. The eastern group, led by Kadan and Buri, passed by Ryazan in the spring of 1238. The siege of Kozelsk dragged on for 7 weeks. In May 1238, the Mongols united near Kozelsk and took it during a three-day assault, suffering heavy losses both in equipment and in human resources during the attacks of the besieged.

Yaroslav Vsevolodovich was succeeded by Vladimir after his brother Yuri, and Kyiv was occupied by Mikhail of Chernigov, thus concentrating in his hands the Principality of Galicia, the Principality of Kiev and the Principality of Chernigov.

Invasions 1238-1239

At the end of 1238 - beginning of 1239, the Mongols led by Subedei, having suppressed the uprising in Volga Bulgaria and Mordovian land, again invaded Rus', ravaged the outskirts of Nizhny Novgorod, Gorokhovets, Gorodets, Murom, and Ryazan again. On March 3, 1239, a detachment under the command of Berke ravaged Pereyaslavl South.

The Lithuanian invasion of the Grand Duchy of Smolensk and the campaign of Galician troops against Lithuania with the participation of 12-year-old Rostislav Mikhailovich also date back to this period (taking advantage of the absence of the main Galician forces, Daniil Romanovich Volynsky captured Galich, establishing himself in it completely). Considering the death of the Vladimir army in the City at the beginning of 1238, this campaign played a certain role in the success of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich near Smolensk. In addition, when in the summer of 1240 the Swedish feudal lords, together with the Teutonic knights, launched an attack on Novgorod land, in the battle on the river. Neva, the son of Yaroslav Alexander of Novgorod, stops the Swedes with the forces of his squad, and the beginning of successful independent actions of the troops of North-Eastern Rus' after the invasion dates back only to the period 1242-1245 (Battle of the Ice and victories over the Lithuanians).

Second stage (1239-1240)

Principality of Chernigov

After the siege that began on October 18, 1239, using powerful siege technology, the Mongols captured Chernigov (an army led by Prince Mstislav Glebovich unsuccessfully tried to help the city). After the fall of Chernigov, the Mongols did not go north, but took up robbery and destruction in the east, along the Desna and Seim - archaeological studies showed that Lyubech (in the north) was untouched, but the towns of the principality bordering the Polovtsian steppe, such as Putivl, Glukhov, Vyr and Rylsk were destroyed and devastated. At the beginning of 1240, an army led by Munke reached the left bank of the Dnieper opposite Kyiv. An embassy was sent to the city with a proposal to surrender, but it was destroyed. The Kiev prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich left for Hungary in order to marry the daughter of King Bela IV Anna to his eldest son Rostislav (the wedding would take place only in 1244 to commemorate the alliance against Daniil of Galicia).

Daniil Galitsky captured in Kyiv the Smolensk prince Rostislav Mstislavich, who was trying to take over the great reign, and put his thousandth Dmitry in the city, returned Mikhail’s wife (his sister), captured by Yaroslav on the way to Hungary, gave Mikhail Lutsk to feed (with the prospect of returning to Kyiv), his ally Izyaslav Vladimirovich Novgorod-Seversky - Kamenets.

Already in the spring of 1240, after the devastation of the Dnieper left bank by the Mongols, Ogedei decided to recall Munke and Guyuk from the western campaign.

The Laurentian Chronicle notes in 1241 the murder of the Rylsky prince Mstislav by the Mongols (according to L. Voitovich, the son of Svyatoslav Olgovich Rylsky).

Southwestern Rus'

On September 5, 1240, the Mongol army led by Batu and other Chingizids besieged Kyiv and only took it on November 19 (according to other sources, December 6; perhaps it was on December 6 that the last stronghold of the defenders, the Tithe Church, fell). Daniil Galitsky, who owned Kiev at that time, was in Hungary, trying - like Mikhail Vsevolodovich a year earlier - to conclude a dynastic marriage with the King of Hungary, Bela IV, and also unsuccessfully (the marriage of Lev Danilovich and Constance to commemorate the Galician-Hungarian union would take place only in 1247) . The defense of the “mother of Russian cities” was led by Dmitry Tysyatsky. The “Biography of Daniil Galitsky” says about Daniil:

Dmitry was captured. Ladyzhin and Kamenets were taken. The Mongols failed to take Kremenets. The capture of Vladimir-Volynsky was marked by an important event in internal Mongolian politics - Guyuk and Munke left Batu for Mongolia. The departure of the tumens of the most influential (after Batu) Chingizids undoubtedly reduced the strength of the Mongol army. In this regard, researchers believe that further movement to the west was undertaken by Batu on his own initiative.
Dmitry advised Batu to leave Galicia and go to the Ugrians without cooking:

The main forces of the Mongols, led by Baydar, invaded Poland, the rest led by Batu, Kadan and Subedei, taking Galich to Hungary in three days.

The Ipatiev Chronicle under 1241 mentions the princes of Ponizhye ( Bolokhovsky), who agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols in grain and thereby avoided the destruction of their lands, their campaign together with Prince Rostislav Mikhailovich against the city of Bakota and the successful punitive campaign of the Romanovichs; under 1243 - the campaign of two military leaders Batu against Volyn up to the city of Volodava in the middle reaches of the Western Bug.

Historical significance

As a result of the invasion, about half of the population died. Kyiv, Vladimir, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Chernigov, and many other cities were destroyed. The exceptions were Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, as well as the cities of Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities. The developed urban culture of Ancient Rus' was destroyed.

For several decades, stone construction practically ceased in Russian cities. Complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, grain, and polychrome glazed ceramics, disappeared. “Rus was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries, when the guild industry of the West was moving to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to go back through part of the historical path that had been made before Batu.”

The southern Russian lands lost almost their entire settled population. The surviving population fled to the forested northeast, concentrating in the area between the Northern Volga and Oka rivers. There were poorer soils and a colder climate than in the completely devastated southern regions of Rus', and trade routes were under the control of the Mongols. In its socio-economic development, Rus' was significantly thrown back.

“Military historians also note the fact that the process of differentiation of functions between formations of riflemen and detachments of heavy cavalry, specializing in direct strikes with cold weapons, in Rus' stopped immediately after the invasion: the unification of these functions took place in the person of the same warrior - a feudal lord forced to shoot with a bow and fight with a spear and sword. Thus, the Russian army, even in its selected, purely feudal in composition part (princely squads), was thrown back a couple of centuries: progress in military affairs was always accompanied by the division of functions and their assignment to successively emerging branches of the military, their unification (or rather, reunification) is a clear sign of regression. Be that as it may, the Russian chronicles of the 14th century do not contain even a hint of separate detachments of riflemen, similar to the Genoese crossbowmen, the English archers of the Hundred Years' War. This is understandable: such detachments of “dacha people” cannot be formed; professional shooters were required, that is, people separated from production who sold their art and blood for hard cash; Rus', thrown back economically, simply could not afford mercenarism.”

It is rich in various events, which are reflected in a bright kaleidoscope in numerous chronicles of eyewitnesses and their descendants. The turning point and one of the most important moments was the year 1237. The event in Rus', for which this particular period of time is famous, was epoch-making not only for the life of its population, but also for the general course of history.

Creation of the Golden Horde

The year 1237 marked the beginning of the conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars. The first decade of the 13th century was marked by the creation of the Golden Horde - a single state, which included the once scattered nomadic tribes of the Mongolian steppes living their own lives. Some of them bore the ethnic name “Tatars”. For residents of Rus', it designated any ethnic groups that made up the population of the Golden Horde.

The Mongol commander Temujin (in 1206), who received the title of Genghis Khan, was proclaimed the Great Khan and ruler of the state.

Zealously getting down to business, he was able to create a huge army, with which he began to wage wars of conquest, encroaching on the freedom of neighboring territories and states. Rus' was no exception. The 13th century became “black” for her.

The conquests of Genghis Khan's troops were the result of the search for new pastures by nomadic tribes of pastoralists. Before the Mongol-Tatars reached Rus', they captured territories in Central Asia. In addition to numbers, the army of the newly created state used in its tactics the method of psychological intimidation of the enemy: the inhabitants of the conquered states were mercilessly destroyed by the soldiers of Genghis Khan and his assistants.

What happened in 1237?

The first major clash between the Russians and the army of Genghis Khan took place in 1223.

The fall of Ryazan is told in “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, one of the heroes of which was famous for his courage and struggle until his last breath against the invaders. After the destruction of the city, Evpatiy gathered the surviving inhabitants and chased the Mongol-Tatars. In battle, he killed many soldiers, but in the end he himself died, glorifying his name and the courage of the Ryazan people.

Continuation of the Mongol-Tatar campaign

After Ryazan, Moscow and Vladimir were captured. Having conquered part of the lands of northeastern Rus', the Mongols returned home to rest and gain strength. But already in 1239 they returned with the goal of capturing southern Rus'. In the same year, Pereyaslavl and the Principality of Chernigov fell, and in 1240, Kyiv.

These conquests established the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' for 240 years, under the yoke of which the entire population suffered.

1237 Event in Rus': results

The invasion of the Mongol-Tatars caused the Russian lands to lag significantly behind European states in economic and cultural development. Many of the crafts that the population used to earn a living before the arrival of the conquerors disappeared. The bloody year of 1237, an event in Rus' in which led to a noticeable narrowing of the scope of its foreign policy, led to a reduction in contacts of the principalities of Rus' with other states. Now all external relations were focused only on the Golden Horde. In addition, the population of Rus' was forced to pay tribute to the conquerors in order to pay off their destructive raids and merciless killings of residents.

The period 1237-1240 became terrible and devastating for the principalities of Rus' and their populations. The event in Rus' (conquest by the Mongol-Tatars) led to a decline in the morale of the population, to unbearable taxes and tributes with which they tried to appease the Mongol-Tatars, to the establishment of many years of power of the once nomadic, and later became the most warlike and powerful people.

What happened in Italy and Southeast Asia, on the Iberian Peninsula and in Norway, while the Russian principalities submitted to Batu

Prepared by Natalia Olshanskaya

Saint Louis and the mendicant brothers in front of the holy relics. Miniature of Guillaume de Saint-Patu. XIV century Bibliothèque nationale de France

In France King Louis IX buys from Baldwin II of Constantinople one of the most important Christian relics - the crown of thorns of Christ. Louis was a devout Catholic and sought to strengthen the influence of the French kingdom in the Christian world. One of the fruits of his religious zeal was the construction in 1238 of the Holy Chapel on the Ile de la Cité in the center of Paris, intended to store Christian relics, the main of which the French king acquired from the last emperor of the Latin Empire, Baldwin II. Baldwin's impoverished empire at that time barely extended beyond the borders of Constantinople, and the emperor was forced to literally beg for money from European courts. At the time of negotiations on the acquisition of the relics, it turned out that they had already been pawned by Baldwin, and Louis IX had to buy them back from the Venetians. Along with the crown of thorns, the French monarch acquired fragments of the Life-Giving Cross and the Spear of Longinus, as well as three dozen smaller relics, which before the Great French Revolution were kept in the Holy Chapel, and then were transferred to the treasury of Notre-Dame Cathedral.

In Southeast Asia In 1238, the kingdom of Sukhothai was founded - the first Thai state in history. Thai tribes that came to the region from the southern regions of China gradually ousted the dominant people of the weakening Khmer Empire and formed their own kingdom on its territory. At that time, on the site of the once great Khmer empire, along with the Thai, many small states of the Malay, Khmer and Burmese peoples flourished. Sukhothai was followed by the formation of several more Thai kingdoms, which for centuries were at odds with each other, replacing each other in the position of the central state and, in addition, were subject to a constant threat from the Khmers, Burma and Vietnam. Thailand is the only state in Southeast Asia that has managed to remain independent throughout its history.

On the territory of modern Spain During the Reconquista, King Jaime I of Aragon recaptured Valencia from the Muslims. Immediately after the conquest of Jaime I, Valencia was declared an independent state within the Aragonese crown and existed in this form until 1707, after which it became part of the new united Spain. Previously, the Muslim Taifa of the same name was located on the territory of Valencia  Taifa- an independent Muslim principality, emirate or small kingdom., the main population of which was Muslim Arabs. At the same time, there were numerous Christian and Jewish communities in Taifa. After the kingdom became Christian, more than 50 thousand Moors were forced to leave their native lands. At the same time, the first Jewish ghetto in European history appeared in Valencia. Representatives of the local Jewish community, whose position in the Muslim taifa had become less tolerable by the end of the 12th century, contributed in every possible way to the cause of the Reconquista and greeted the Aragonese king with honor. After the kingdom became Christian, local Jews began to take an active part in public life, and in order to protect them from possible conflicts with the Christian population, Jaime I designated a separate city quarter for Jews to live in. But by the end of the 13th century, with the introduction of Pope Innocent IV's policy of segregation of Jews from Christians, the Jewish quarter in Valencia became a place of forced isolation of the community and a prototype of the future European ghetto.

In Norway The era of civil wars, which lasted more than a century, ended. The period of internecine hostility began in 1130, when, after the death of King Sigurd I the Crusader, numerous contenders for the throne launched a series of military conflicts. At the heart of these conflicts were the ambiguity of the Norwegian laws of succession, the social status of the peasants, and the struggle between the church and the king. At the end of the 12th century, two warring parties formed in the struggle for power - the Birkebeiners (mainly peasants) and the Baglers (representatives of the aristocracy and clergy), each of which alternately nominated its candidates for the Norwegian throne. In 1217, by mutual agreement of the parties, the minor Haakon IV was elected king, whose appointment was intended as a temporary solution. The jarl became regent under the new monarch  Jarl- the highest title in the hierarchy in medieval Scandinavia. Skule Bordson, who in 1239, due to disagreements with the already adult Haakon IV, rebelled, proclaimed himself the sole ruler and was crowned in the city of Trondheim. After the uprising was suppressed and Skule was killed, in 1240 Haakon IV established himself as an independent ruler and a new, golden era of development began in Norway.

In the Chinese city of Hangzhou A particularly destructive fire reduced 30,000 residential buildings to ashes. In the 12th century, Hangzhou became the capital of the Chinese Song Empire, which is notable for the fact that in its era the first documented mention of a recipe for making gunpowder appeared, paper money began to be used for the first time in the world, and the north was indicated using a compass. The population of the capital at that time was, according to various sources, from one to two million people; It is also believed that in the period from 1180 to 1315, Hangzhou was generally the largest city in the world. Due to overpopulation and dense wooden buildings, often several stories high, the city was especially vulnerable to fires. Large fires occurred every few years, while small fires occurred annually. To solve the problem, the local government assigned more than three thousand soldiers to the fire department and created a signal system of watchtowers, lanterns and flags to indicate the location of the fire. 

After the undoubted military success of the campaign in China, the Mongol invasion of Ancient Rus' was only a matter of time. And yet, few could have imagined that the influence of the Mongol yoke on the country would be so long-lasting and significant. The first serious attack occurred in 1236, and it was from this that the global invasion of the Tatar-Mongol yoke on the country began.

Mongol troops appeared near Ryazan in 1237. The prevailing forces of the opponent quite frightened the then Prince Yuri of Ryazan, who immediately sent his messengers for help to Vladimir and Chernigov. However, even with reinforcements arriving in time, Ryazan was unable to withstand the enemy’s onslaught.

Initially, the Mongol army did not intend to attack the territories of the Russian princes, and a demand was put forward to collect immediate tribute. And yet, the resistance provided greatly angered the Mongol military leaders, which led to incredible consequences. After a six-day defense of the city, Ryazan was taken, and the entire principality was almost completely destroyed. Like a fire, the Mongol army swept through the territory of the principality, destroying everything that came in its way.

The major victory over the Ryazan principality greatly inspired the Tatar-Mongol yoke, so it was decided to continue the invasion. At that time, Drain Rus' did not have centralized power, and each principality was ruled by its own ruler. That is why it was very difficult to gather allied troops, and because of the regular hostility between different principalities, neighbors even refused to help each other, demonstrating colossal shortsightedness. During this period, several major Russian cities were captured at once. Which of them gave up their positions with a fight?

• Vladimir (the city was surrendered after eight days of siege).
• Moscow (surrendered after five days of siege)
• Suzdal.
• Kostroma.
• Yaroslavl.
• Rostov.
• Uglich and many others.

The amazed princes began to pull their troops to the Sit River, where on March 4, 1238, a humiliating final battle took place. Without having time to properly prepare for the battle, the Russian princes were completely defeated, and the three thousandth army was destroyed. It was from this day that a full-scale invasion began, which turned into many years of expansion.

Invasion of 1239 and the war against Daniil of Galicia

We should not forget that the Tatar-Mongol yoke remained a nomadic people, and for a long time they did not know how to wage war. After a successful raid in 1237-1238, the Mongols suffered several defeats and returned to the steppes for a while.

In 1239, a new wave of invasions began, which this time affected the Mordovian lands and the Principality of Murom. During this period, several more important cities were captured, and among them were:

• Moore.
• Nizhny Novgorod.
• Gorodets.
• Pereyaslavl South.
• Chernigov.

Already in 1240, the Mongols decided to attack the Russian lands located on the right bank of the Dnieper. The fact is that here, under the rule of Daniil Galitsky and his brother Vasilko, large territories were united. In particular, two brothers ruled the Kyiv lands, the territories of the Volyn and Galician principalities. Such a military force could become a threat to the successful invasion of the Mongols, so they urgently needed to destroy the authority of the two brothers.

In the fall of 1240, Batu begins the siege of Kyiv, which lasts until December. The city is surrendered, which becomes the biggest strategic defeat for Ancient Rus'. Afterwards, the most important territories around Kyiv were captured, including Kamenets and Ladyzhin, which marked the complete defeat of the Russian princes.

Conclusions and results of the historical period

The sudden invasion of the Tatar-Mongol yoke came as a shock to the Russian princes, demonstrating their military insolvency. The lack of centralized power made itself felt, and the country seemed weak and fragmented. Not finding support from the Russian princes, many rulers, including Daniil Galitsky, tried to get outside help, but the Hungarians and Poles did not really want to enter into a military conflict with the Mongols.

Despite the nomadic lifestyle, the Ig managed to capture important strategic territories of the country. Now vast Russian territories were under the rule of the Mongols, and the future of the country seemed vague and ominous.