Petition of the Russian nobility to Catherine II. Russia in the second half of the 18th century

In memory of Catherine II In the old days they used to say that Moscow did not love Catherine the Great. And this despite the fact that the empress contributed in every possible way to the decoration of the city, its well-being, and made contributions to charity. And if she had to for her good deeds

220 years ago, on November 17, 1796, Russian Empress Catherine II Alekseevna passed away. Russian foreign policy in the era of Catherine corresponded to national interests. Russia returned the Western Russian lands that had been under Poland for a long time (including modern White Rus' and part of Little Russia - Ukraine). Also, ancient lands in the Black Sea region were returned to the Russian state (the annexation of New Russia, Crimea, and partly the Caucasus). The Black Sea again became, as in ancient times, Russian. The Black Sea Fleet was created, which inflicted a number of heavy defeats on the Turkish fleet. The Russian army successfully crushed all opponents. Therefore, this era is called the “golden age” of Catherine the Great.

However, Catherine's era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility. Which finally split the Russian people into two parts: the privileged “Europeans” - nobles, whose cultural and economic interests were connected with Western Europe, and the rest of the people, most of whom were enslaved. As a result, this became the main prerequisite for the geopolitical catastrophe of 1917, when the Romanov Empire perished.

Catherine II Alekseevna, née Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the small town of Stettin in East Prussia into an impoverished princely family. Since childhood, she was distinguished by her curiosity, ability to learn, and perseverance. In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Russian Emperor Peter III), chose Frederica. In 1744, she came to Russia to marry Peter Fedorovich, who was her second cousin (the mother of the future Russian empress, Johanna Elisabeth of the Gottorp royal house, was a cousin of Peter III). On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederick Augustus converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor. The mother of the future empress turned out to be a “Prussian spy” and she was expelled, but this did not affect the position of Sophia herself.

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich. The relationship between the royal couple did not work out. Peter was cold towards his wife, called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses. This was one of the reasons for Catherine’s favorite lovers. Ekaterina devoted a lot of time to self-education, studied Russia, its history, language, and traditions. The young queen also did not forget about dancing, balls, hunting and horse riding. On September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Paul. The baby was immediately taken away from his mother by the will of the reigning Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to raise him, allowing her to see Paul only occasionally. There is an opinion that Pavel’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov. In general, normal relations between Catherine and Paul did not develop in the future. Pavel believed that his mother was guilty of the death of his official father, Peter. In addition, he was irritated by the too free atmosphere of Catherine’s palace; he himself lived almost like an ascetic, taking into account his position.

Catherine was not satisfied with her position, and she began to create her own “circle”. Thus, British Ambassador Williams was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant sums in the form of loans or subsidies: in 1750 alone she was given 50 thousand rubles, and in November 1756 she was given 44 thousand rubles. In return, he received various confidential information from her. In particular, about the Russian army in Prussia. This information was transmitted to London, as well as to Berlin to the Prussian King Frederick II (he was an ally of the British). After Williams left, she also received money from his successor Keith. In one of her letters to Williams, Catherine promised, as a sign of gratitude, “to lead Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to give her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all Europe and especially Russia, before their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, I will base my glory on them and I will prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine.” True, already as Empress Catherine was no longer an “English agent.” Essentially, this smart woman used the British to her advantage.

The British were aware of Catherine’s plans to overthrow the future emperor (her husband) through a conspiracy, which she repeatedly wrote to Williams about. Already starting in 1756, and especially during the period of Elizaveta Petrovna’s illness, Catherine hatched a plan to remove the future emperor from the throne. Thus, the British actually financed one of the palace coups. British money went to support Catherine, who was creating her own strike force, which included guard officers.

Among the conspirators were Hetman of the Zaporozhye Army K. Razumovsky, who was the commander of the Izmailovsky Regiment, Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, protégé of the English ambassador Stanislav Poniatovsky (he was Catherine’s favorite). At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Stepan Apraksin, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, of treason. Apraksin, fearing a radical change in St. Petersburg's policy towards Prussia in the event of Elizabeth's death (Peter was a “fan” of Frederick the “Invincible”), acted slowly and hesitantly, depriving the Russian army of the fruits of victory over the Prussians. Chancellor Bestuzhev was also under suspicion. Both were arrested and subjected to inquiry, but Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution. Bestuzhev himself was sent into exile, and Apraksin died during the inquiry. At the same time, Ambassador Williams was recalled to England. Thus, Catherine’s former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Ekaterina Dashkova.

The death of Elizaveta Petrovna in December 1761 and the accession to the throne of Pyotr Fedorovich alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova. And Captain G. Orlov became Catherine’s lover. Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, and this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Shkurin set fire to his house. Peter and the court left the palace to look at the spectacle, at which time Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III turned the capital's officers against himself. He decided to fight with Denmark for Schleswig-Holstein and made peace with Prussia, giving up the already captured Königsberg and Berlin (almost all of Prussia could become part of the Russian Empire!). As a result, the mood of the guard, skillfully fueled by Catherine's agents, was on the side of the queen. Apparently, there was some foreign participation here too. The British continued to sponsor Catherine. On June 28 (July 9), 1762, Catherine, with the support of the Orlov brothers, rebelled. Peter III abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under dark circumstances (he was killed). Thus, Catherine became the ruler of the Russian Empire.

The time of her reign is called the “golden age” of Russia. Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activity, collected masterpieces of painting and corresponded with French educators. In general, Catherine’s policy and her reforms fit into the mainstream of enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II carried out a number of reforms: she reorganized the Senate, declared the secularization of church lands, and abolished the hetmanate in Ukraine. She established and headed the Legislative Commission of 1767-1769 to systematize laws. The Empress issued an Institution for governing the province in 1775, a Charter to the nobility and a Charter to cities in 1785.

In foreign policy, Catherine’s actions almost completely met the interests of the Russian people. Firstly, in the south, the Russian Empire returned lands that had belonged to the Old Russian state of the first Rurikovichs and annexed new territories, which met the military-strategic and economic interests of the country and the restoration of historical justice. After the first war with Turkey, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). The Crimean Khanate formally gained independence under Russian protectorate. In 1783, Crimea, Taman and the Kuban region were annexed. The second war with Turkey ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Southern Bug and the Dniester (1791), including the strategic fortress of Ochakov. During these wars, Russia creates a combat-ready Black Sea Fleet, which destroys Turkish naval forces. New Russia, one of the most developed parts of the empire, is being actively created.

Thus, the strategic tasks that had faced the Russian state for centuries were solved. Russia again reached the Black Sea, annexed the Northern Black Sea region, strengthened itself in the Caucasus, solved the problem of the Crimean Khanate, built a navy, etc.

It is also worth noting that Catherine's government was one step away from capturing Constantinople-Constantinople and the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. The Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov and the Russian landing force were already ready to carry out the strategic task, but it didn’t work out (they had to solve Polish affairs). And such a step made the Black Sea an internal Russian one, reliably protected the southern borders, and gave Russia a powerful foothold in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.

Secondly, in the western strategic direction, Catherine’s government also solved a centuries-old problem that faced the Russian people. Catherine united most of Russian civilization and the Russian superethnos, returning the lands of Western Rus'. This happened during the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Initially, Catherine II did not intend to dismember the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Poland, weakened by internal problems, has been in the sphere of influence of St. Petersburg since the time of Peter the Great. Russia needed a buffer between our lands and Prussia and Austria. However, the decomposition of the Polish “elite” reached a stage where the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became irreversible. The arrogant and decayed Polish gentry themselves killed their statehood. In 1772, the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place: Russia received the eastern part of White Rus' up to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Baltic states (Latvia). In 1793, the Second Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place: Russia received Central Belarus with Minsk and part of Little Rus'-Russia. In 1795, the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place: Russia received Lithuania, Courland, western Volhynia and Western Belarus.

Thus, historical justice was restored: most of the lands of Rus' and the Russian superethnos were united. By significantly pushing back its borders in the west, Russia strengthened its military-strategic positions in this direction and increased its demographic potential and economic capabilities. Historical revenge also took place - Poland, which for centuries was the main enemy of the Russian state, was destroyed by a “ram” in the hands of the masters of the West. At the same time, ethnic Polish lands ended up in the hands of Prussia and Austria, becoming their problem.

During the same period, Russia gained a foothold in the Caucasus. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. In 1795, Persian troops invaded Georgia and ravaged Tbilisi. Russia, fulfilling the terms of the treaty, began military operations against Persia and in April 1796, Russian troops stormed Derbent and suppressed Persian resistance on the territory of modern Azerbaijan, including large cities (Baku, Shemakha, Ganja). The Russian corps under the command of Lieutenant General V. Zubov reached the confluence of the Kura and Araks rivers, preparing for further advance into Persia. In fact, Persia was already at the feet of Russia. The Russian Empire was able to gain a foothold in these lands and obtain a strategic springboard for a campaign against Constantinople from the west through Asia Minor. However, the fruits of these victories were stolen by the death of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Paul I decided to oppose revolutionary France, and in December 1796, Russian troops were withdrawn from Transcaucasia. However, Russia's consolidation in the region has already become inevitable. Persia and Türkiye step by step ceded the Caucasus to the Russians.

In the north-west, Russia withstood the attack of Sweden, which tried to take revenge and return part of the previously lost territory, taking advantage of the fact that the main forces of the empire were tied up in the war with the Ottomans.

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further. In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country). Thus, Catherine's government, in essence, supported the States against the British.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to take action and get to work." However, in reality, she was in no hurry to send the Russian army against revolutionary France. Russia benefited from the quarrel between the leading Western European powers (France, Austria, Prussia and England), at which time Russia could solve national problems. In particular, Catherine was interested in the so-called. The Greek or Dacian project - for the division of the Ottoman Empire, the revival of the Byzantine Empire and the proclamation of Catherine's grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. At the same time, Russia received Constantinople and the straits.

If in foreign policy Catherine’s government solved the most important tasks that had faced the Russian state for many centuries, then in domestic policy there was no “golden” shine. In fact, the era of Catherine II was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

The nobility was given the opportunity to refuse government service, for which they had previously received estates and peasants. Thus, the division of the Russian people into the class of “European” masters and the common people was consolidated. This division began under Peter I, but he carried out an merciless mobilization of the nobles. They served under him as soldiers and sailors, fought in the front ranks, stormed fortresses, mastered seamanship, and went on long voyages and expeditions.

Now the situation has changed radically. For the first time in a very long historical period, Russia had no enemies on its borders who could really threaten its existence. The last remnant of the Horde - the Crimean Khanate - was liquidated. Sweden was defeated, the Baltic states were annexed. The Swedes are no longer capable of seriously threatening St. Petersburg. Moreover, Russia itself can recapture Finland, which is what ultimately happened. Poland was in decline and turmoil, which ended with its partitions. The relatively small Kingdom of Prussia dreams of some conquests in Germany, and not a campaign to the East. The Prussians cannot even dream of a raid on Russia, or an attack on Moscow or St. Petersburg. During the Seven Years' War, East Prussia and Königsberg were part of Russia for four years and did not become part of the empire only because of the controversial policies of St. Petersburg. Ideally, Berlin needs an alliance with the Russians.

Austria also needs Russian support against the Ottoman Empire, Prussia and France. France is far away, it cannot attack us. England can only threaten at sea. At the same time, in the isolated Baltic and Black Seas, we are able to create a local advantage, relying on coastal infrastructure. The Ottoman Empire entered a period of long-term degradation and itself trembled under the blows of Russian bayonets. There was a threat of division of Turkey in favor of Russia. In the East, Russia had no opponents at all. We actively explored Russian America and had the opportunity to take leading positions in Japan and China.

Catherine the Great ruled the Russian Empire for 34 years. During her reign, the territory and population of the country increased significantly. Serious successes have been achieved in foreign policy. Russia has gained more weight and influence in international affairs, including in relation to European states. But the most striking feature of this era was the expansion of the rights of the noble class to unimaginable limits. It is difficult to find in history a similar example of an elite that had such unlimited privileges. The reign of Catherine 2 is called the golden age of the nobility.

Accession to the throne

The path to the Russian crown turned out to be very thorny for the future empress. Catherine came to power as a result of a palace coup under difficult and confusing circumstances. Her husband Peter the Third was little capable of governing the state and served as an obstacle on the way to the throne. After his mysterious death, Catherine concentrated power in her hands. But, from the point of view of her subjects, she was a foreign princess involved in the murder of her husband. The empress's position seemed precarious and precarious. The main support and protection for her was the court guard who organized the coup. The need to obtain support from the army elite determined Catherine's policy towards the entire nobility.

Enlightened monarchy

The Empress read the works of Voltaire and was familiar with European liberal ideas. She believed that reasonable laws, effective law enforcement and concern for the education of citizens could lead the state to prosperity and well-being. The idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy presupposed the preservation of the class system, the main force of which was the nobles. Moreover, the autocrat was not questioned.

Fascinated by the principles of the French Enlightenment, Catherine realized how far the reality of the Russian Empire was from them. With all her desire to smooth out social contradictions in society, she was forced to act in favor of the class on which her power depended. That is why the golden age of the nobility came during the reign of Catherine. The palace guard was a huge political force, sometimes deciding who should sit on the throne.

Changing position of the nobles

The fundamental principle of the relationship between the monarch and the nobles was military service in exchange for ownership of estates. The duties of a representative of the noble class to the sovereign were similar in nature to the dependence of a serf on a feudal lord. Until the time of Peter the Great, inclusive, service began at the age of 15 and was practically lifelong. The nobleman did not have the right to choose between a military and civilian career.

Gradually, these ancient principles were destroyed. The process of their abolition reached its climax with the reign of Catherine II. The Golden Age of the nobility marked the beginning of the existence of the first completely free and independent stratum of society in Russia.

Changes after the death of Peter the Great

Gradually, amendments were made to the legislation, making the position of the feudal class more and more convenient and profitable. The nobles were allowed to temporarily leave their duties to the state and return to their estates to personally manage economic affairs. One of the sons in each noble family received the right not to enter the service and devote himself entirely to solving issues related to the estate. The age at which representatives of the feudal class began to fulfill their duty to the monarch was increased from 15 to 20 years. The nobles were given a choice between army and civilian service. The exclusive right of the noble class to own lands and serfs was confirmed. There was an opportunity to retire after 25 years of service.

Manifesto of Peter the Third

Far-sighted Catherine sought to enlist the support of the nobility even before her accession to the throne. She was able to significantly manipulate the reigning husband, and under her influence he signed a manifesto abolishing compulsory public service for representatives of the feudal class. Catherine confirmed the main points of this document a few months after her coronation. The Golden Age of the Nobility was the era that began with the proclamation of liberties that had no analogues in the past. But the class remained strong due to the generosity and mercy of the autocrat.

Economic situation

The Empress officially declared that there was no need to force the nobles to fulfill their duties to the state. In her opinion, the patriotism and devotion to the monarch inherent in representatives of this class guaranteed their voluntary entry into service. This statement was not entirely true. The real reason was that the estates often provided little income and did not provide their owners with a decent standard of living. For many nobles, public office was the only alternative.

Delamination

It is worth noting that the empress contributed to the enrichment of a narrow circle of her confidants and favorites. For example, the organizers of the palace coup, which opened the way for her to the Russian throne, received ranks, large sums of money and land. Thanks to the royal generosity, some close associates became owners of fantastic fortunes. The reign of Catherine the Great is called the Golden Age of the nobility, but not all representatives of this class received economic benefits in this era. Some of them did not have serfs at all. The Liberties Manifesto did not affect their financial situation.

Serfs

The Golden Age had its downside. The welfare of the feudal class was based on the free labor of serfs. The expansion of the privileges of the nobles was accompanied by the restriction of the rights of forced cultivators. The only judicial authority for serfs was their landowner. He had the power to sentence people to exile in Siberia or even lifelong hard labor. It was forbidden to file complaints against the landowner under penalty of whipping. The position of serfs differed little from classical slavery, although the legislation did not openly recognize this.

Humanistic ideals and reality

Catherine the Great considered such a system of organizing society inhumane. She repeatedly thought about possible ways to limit serfdom. However, these plans directly contradicted the interests of the elite. The economic source of the golden age of the nobility was serfdom. The empress's good intentions collided with harsh reality, and she was forced to abandon her humanistic plans. Supporting the aristocracy was Catherine's top priority, and the years of her reign saw the heyday of serfdom.

Letter of Complaint on the liberties of the nobility

In 1785, a document was published confirming all previously received privileges and expanding them. First of all, the exemption of the noble class from compulsory public service and its exclusive right to own lands and peasants was secured. In addition, from that time on, the title of nobility was inherited, and it could only be lost by decision of the Senate for committing a serious crime. Exemption from the poll tax was added to the list of privileges. Only those equal in origin could judge a nobleman. It was forbidden to apply corporal punishment to representatives of the noble class and to confiscate their estates. They had the right to make requests and complaints directly to the sovereign. Nobles were allowed to travel abroad and even enter the service of foreign monarchs.

Representatives in the administration

It is worth emphasizing the introduction of local self-government. During the golden age of the Russian nobility, almost all government officials in counties and cities were elected or appointed from this class. The aristocracy in Russia has finally turned into a closed corporation, isolated from the rest of the population.

Food export

The golden age of the nobility coincided with a widespread rise in prices for grain and bread. Russia's participation in the European market system primarily consisted of food supplies. Exporting bread has become an extremely profitable business. This circumstance stimulated landowners to increase acreage and intensify the exploitation of the labor of serfs in order to obtain additional income. The economic situation contributed to the continuation of the golden age of the nobility.

End of an era

After the death of Catherine the Great, Paul ascended the throne, with whom she had a difficult relationship due to the murder of his father Peter the Third. He made attempts to limit the liberties and privileges granted to the noble class. The golden age of the nobility had not yet ended, but its peak was already behind us. In an effort to make this class the main support of the autocracy, Catherine endowed it with enormous rights and turned it into a serious political force.

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Abstract

On topic: "The Golden Age of Catherine II"

Yakutsk 2016

Introduction

1. The Golden Age of Catherine II

1.1 Domestic policy and reforms of Catherine II

1.2 Politics of enlightened absolutism

2. Foreign policy under Catherine II

2.1 Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774

2.2 Treaty of Georgievsk

3. Russia in the second half of the 18th century

3.1 Agriculture

3.2 Industry

3.3 Domestic and foreign trade

3.4 Finance

3.5 Education

3.6 Production

3.7 Russian social thought

3.8 Architecture

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

The reign of Catherine II became a new era in the history of Russia. The young empress took over the state, which was completely upset by the palace coups and the system of government. In the first five years of her reign, Catherine II developed practical methods for her activities and selected the desired circle of associates. She undertook a number of trips around Russia, visiting the provinces. This was done with the aim of developing a specific policy that meets the needs of the time. The topic revealed through this test is interesting to me because historians are often contradictory in their judgments, but I think it is true that the contribution that Catherine II made to the development of the Russian State is inexorable. One can evaluate her decisions and actions in different ways, but her merit in the development of Russia is enormous, apparently for this reason historians call the time of her reign “The Golden Age of Catherine II.”

1. Golden Age of Catherine II the Great (1762 -- 1796)

Of all the women who reigned in Russia in the 18th century, only Catherine II ruled independently, delving into all matters of domestic and foreign policy. She saw her main tasks in strengthening the autocracy, reorganizing the state apparatus in order to strengthen it, and strengthening Russia’s international position. To a large extent, she succeeded, and her reign is one of the brilliant pages of Russian history. Catherine II immediately began to fight against the pro-German orientation of Peter III. All Germans were removed from the ruling circles. Russian nationalism becomes the ideology of the state.

1.1 Domestic policy and reforms of Catherine II

Catherine II declared herself the successor of Peter I. Already at the beginning of her reign, she concentrated all legislative and administrative power in her hands. The legislative body was the Senate. In 1763, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, each with certain powers and competence. Thus, she weakened it as a legislative body. 1764, in order to suppress the desire for secession in Ukraine, Catherine II abolished the hetmanate (autonomy). In 1654, Ukraine became part of Russia with the rights of the broadest autonomy. But independent tendencies flared up from time to time in Ukraine, and the situation here was constantly unstable. Catherine II believed that for internal strength, a multinational empire should be governed according to uniform principles. In the fall of 1764, she accepted the resignation of Hetman K.G. Razumovsky and appointed Prosecutor General P.A. to Ukraine. Rumyantseva. At the very beginning of her reign, Catherine II decided to regulate relations between the Church and secular authorities. Since the time of Peter I, the Church has been subordinate to the state. The financial situation in the country was difficult, and the Church was a major owner in the state. Catherine II was Orthodox, performed all Orthodox rituals, but she was a pragmatic ruler. To replenish the state treasury, in 1764 she carried out secularization (the state converted church property into secular property) of church lands. 500 monasteries were abolished, 1 million peasant souls were transferred to the treasury. Due to this, the state treasury was significantly replenished. This made it possible to ease the financial crisis in the country and pay off the army, which had not received a salary for a long time. The influence of the Church on the life of society has decreased significantly.

1.2 Politics of enlightened absolutism

In her politics, Catherine II began to rely on the nobility. The nobility was the support of the throne and carried out the most important functions: the nobles were organizers of production, commanders, major administrators, and courtiers. Catherine II began to pursue the so-called policy of enlightened absolutism. The policy of enlightened absolutism was characteristic of countries with a monarchical form of government and with a relatively slow development of capitalist relations. Enlightened absolutism, on the one hand, pursued a policy in the interests of the nobility (it retained its political rights and economic privileges), on the other hand, in every possible way contributed to the further development of capitalist relations. In particular, such a policy was pursued by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, the Prussian King Frederick II, the Swedish King Gustav III, and others. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine II began to strive to achieve the internal structure of the state. She believed that injustices in the state could be eradicated with the help of good laws. And she decided to adopt new legislation instead of the Council Code of Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649, which would take into account the interests of all classes. For this purpose, the Legislative Commission was convened in 1767. 572 deputies represented the nobility, merchants, and Cossacks. The leading role in the Commission was played by noble deputies - 45%. Catherine II tried to implement the ideas of Western European thinkers about a fair society into the new legislation. Catherine revised the works of outstanding thinkers Sh.L. Montesquieu, C. Beccaria, J.F. Bielfeld, D. Diderot and others and compiled the famous “Order of Empress Catherine” for the Commission.

The “Mandate” consisted of 20 chapters, divided into 526 articles. In general, it was an integral work, which spoke about the need for a strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society, about the rule of law, about the relationship between law and morality, about the harm of torture and corporal punishment. At the fifth meeting, the Commission presented the Empress with the title of “Great, Wise Mother of the Fatherland.” The commission worked for more than two years, but its work was not crowned with success, since the nobility, as well as deputies from other classes, stood guard only for their rights and privileges. The work of the Statutory Commission showed that the nobility could not become a spokesman for the interests of all classes. In Russia there was no force other than the monarchy capable of rising above its narrow selfish interests and acting in the interests of all classes. Catherine II's attempt to transfer Western European liberal ideas to Russian soil ended in failure. The commission was dissolved. Nevertheless, the work of the Statutory Commission was important, since the Empress was able to get acquainted with the opinions and wishes of Russian society, which she took into account in her future policy. Attitude of Catherine II to serfdom. Catherine II was a European-educated woman and shared the views of Western European thinkers on serfdom as an inhumane phenomenon. But by the time she ascended the throne, she had thoroughly studied the country and society that she now ruled. She understood that there was a huge difference between the abstract reasoning of Western European enlighteners about freedom and Russian reality. About half of the landowner peasants were in the position of slaves. The entire landowner's economy was based on serfdom. Serfdom became a familiar, everyday phenomenon, a natural state for peasants. In addition, Catherine II was convinced that the Russian people were not yet ready to take care of themselves. For such radical changes in fate as the abolition of serfdom, it must be prepared gradually over a long time. Russia was not ready for a new social system, and it could not raise the question of the abolition of serfdom in Russia. Peasant war led by E.I. Pugacheva (1773 -- 1775). In the 60s - 70s. A powerful wave of protests by peasants, Cossacks, and working people swept across the country. The empress was especially concerned about the performances of the Cossacks. Since the time of Ivan the Terrible, settlements of free people—Cossacks—began to form on the outskirts of the empire. Over time, the Cossacks began to consolidate into a special layer of Russian society, living according to their own laws. The Cossacks caused a lot of trouble to the authorities, since robbery played a significant role in their lives. Trying to achieve stability on the borders of the state, Catherine II launched an offensive against the Cossacks. Cossack self-government was limited, the government began to introduce army regulations in Cossack units. In particular, the Yaik (Ural) Cossacks were deprived of the right to duty-free fishing and salt production. Then the Yaik Cossacks refused to obey the authorities. In 1775, Catherine II liquidated the Zaporozhye Sich. The Zaporozhye Cossacks asked the empress to leave them as Cossacks. Catherine II resettled the Cossacks to develop the newly annexed Kuban, giving them certain privileges. This is how the history of the Kuban Cossacks began.

2. Foreign policy under Catherine II

Foreign policy of Catherine II. Foreign policy issues were paramount for Catherine II. Peter I won access to the Baltic sea for Russia. But for the development of trade, to protect the borders in the south of Russia, the shores of the Black and Azov Seas were needed. This would inevitably lead to a clash with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the ruler of the Black Sea. The strengthening of Russia worried large European countries - England, Austria, France, and they began to make efforts to push Russia and the Ottoman Empire into conflict and thereby weaken both.

2.1 Russian-Turkish War 1768 -- 1774

In 1768, Türkiye, supported by France, began military operations against Russia in Ukraine and the Caucasus. The first Russian-Turkish war began during the reign of Catherine II. In 1770, on the tributaries of the Prut River - Larga and Kagul - commander P.A. Rumyantsev defeated the Turkish army. Brilliant victories were won at sea. Russia did not have its own fleet on the Black Sea. A small Russian squadron under the leadership of Admiral G.A. Spiridova left the Baltic, circled Europe and entered the Mediterranean Sea. Here A.G. took over the leadership of the fighting. Orlov. The Russian command resorted to military cunning. In 1770, the entire Turkish fleet was lured into the cramped Chesme Bay, locked up and set on fire at night. The Turkish fleet burned in Chesme Bay overnight. In 1771, Russian troops occupied all the main centers of Crimea. (Crimea had been under the protection of Turkey since 1475. For Russia, Crimea was a “nest of robbers” and posed a great danger.) In 1772, the Crimean Khan Shagin-Girey proclaimed the independence of Crimea from Turkey. This was the first stage of the annexation of Crimea to Russia. Türkiye recognized the independence of Crimea; -- Russia received the right of unhindered navigation in the Black Sea and the right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits; - Russia received the right to have its own fleet in the Black Sea; - Georgia was freed from the heaviest tribute by young men and women sent to Turkey; - the rights of Orthodox peoples in the Ottoman Empire (Moldavians, Greeks, Romanians, Georgians, etc.) expanded. In 1783, Russian troops entered Crimea without any warning. The Turkish Sultan could not do anything. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated, Crimea became part of Russia. Vast territories of the northern Black Sea region went to Russia. They received the name Novorossiya. The most talented favorite of Catherine II, G.A., was appointed governor of New Russia. Potemkin. He took up the development of this region and the construction of the Black Sea Fleet.

2.2 Treaty of Georgievsk

In the 90s XVIII century Russia's position in Transcaucasia and the Caucasus began to strengthen. Türkiye and Persia also intensified their expansion into Georgia. Georgia at that time was experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation and was not a unified state. Kakheti and Kartalinia under the rule of Erekle II united into Eastern Georgia. The Georgian principalities in the west - Imereti, Mengrelia, Guria - each had their own kings or sovereign princes. Türkiye and Persia carried out devastating raids on Georgian lands. Kakheti and Kartaliniya paid a shameful tribute with beautiful girls to the Persians, and Imereti, Mengrelia, Guria paid the same tribute to the Turks. The principalities were in constant hostility among themselves. The small Georgian people, in order to preserve their identity, needed a strong patron. On July 24, 1783, in the fortress of Georgievsk (North Caucasus), an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king of Eastern Georgia (Kakheti and Kartalinia) Irakli II and Russia on patronage. The Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Eastern Georgia, exhausted under the blows of the Turks, came under the protection of Russia while maintaining autonomy. Russia guaranteed territorial integrity and inviolability of borders to Eastern Georgia. Fearing military clashes with Turkey, Russia refused to conclude the same agreement with the western Georgian principalities. In 1787, Catherine II decided to visit Novorossiya, accompanied by a brilliant retinue. For 4 years, the tireless G.A. Potemkin turned Novorossiya into a flourishing land. He founded the cities of Kherson, Nikolaev, Ekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk), Nikopol, and Odessa. G.A. Potemkin introduced agriculture, crafts, and created industry. He invited immigrants from other countries and attracted them with low taxes. The first ships of the Black Sea Fleet were built in Kherson. Construction of Sevastopol, the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, began in the convenient Akhtiar Bay. Later, for his work for the benefit of the Russian state, he received the title of His Serene Highness Prince and an honorary addition to the surname - Potemkin - Tavrichesky. (Tavrida is the ancient name of Crimea). In Turkey, Catherine II's travel was regarded as Russia's desire to further expand Russia's borders in the south at the expense of Turkish territories. In 1787, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. The second Russian-Turkish war began during the reign of Catherine II.

Military talent A.V. Suvorov had blossomed by this time. In July 1789 he defeated the Turks at Focsani, and in August 1789 on the Rymnik River. Victory was close, but it was impossible without the capture of Ishmael. Izmail is a Turkish fortress, recently built by the French, with walls 25 meters high, was considered impregnable and was the pride of the Turkish Sultan. In 1790 A.V. Suvorov received an order to take Izmail. Near Izmail, his military fate was at stake: A.V. Suvorov was already 60 years old. Commandant of Izmail A.V. Suvorov wrote: “24 hours to think is freedom, my first shot is already bondage; assault means death." In the early morning of December 11, 1790, Russian troops launched an assault on the fortress. In 6 hours. Ishmael was taken. The way to Istanbul was opened for Russian troops. Brilliant victories were also won at sea. Commander of the young Black Sea Fleet F.F. Ushakov in 1791 defeated the Turkish fleet at Cape Kaliakria. The Turks rushed to the negotiating table. In 1791, a peace treaty was concluded in Iasi. According to the Yassy Peace Treaty: - The Ottoman Empire recognized Crimea as possession of Russia; -- Russia included the territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers, as well as Taman and Kuban; -- Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

3. Russia in the second half of the 18th century

Territory and population. By the end of the 18th century. The territory of Russia has increased. The increase occurred due to the annexed lands in the southern and western directions from the borders of the state. The following were annexed to Russia: Crimea, the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Right Bank Ukraine, lands between the Bug and Dniester rivers, Belarus, Courland, Lithuania The population of Russia at the end of the 18th century. was 36 million people, which was twice as many as in the middle of the century. By the end of the 18th century. There were 634 cities in Russia, although some of them were called that only formally, due to the fact that they were endowed with administrative powers. Only 4% of the state's population lived in cities. The bulk of the population lived in rural areas.

3.1 Agriculture

During the second half of the 18th century. The main branch of the Russian economy was agriculture. The territories annexed during this period of time were actively included in the economy of the state. Vast lands from the Black Sea region to the North Caucasus, thanks to their natural and climatic conditions, are gradually becoming the most important agricultural regions of Russia. The development of agriculture in the Urals and Siberia continues. In the second half of the 18th century. In agricultural areas, two essentially different rents were common: quitrent and corvee. Quirk was common in non-chernozem regions and was cash or food rent. In the black earth regions, where agriculture was a priority area of ​​the economy, corvee was levied. Peasants had to work on the land of the landowner. They often had one day a week to cultivate their plots of land. By the end of the 18th century. Most of the serfs in the agrarian regions of the state were transferred to monthly labor, while their land was taken away, and for a small fee, they had to work all the time for their master. This was largely due to the desire of the landowner to obtain as much surplus product as possible and subsequently sell it. In some landowners' farms, modern technical devices were used, new crops were bred (tobacco, sunflower and others). But for the most part, heavy manual labor of the peasant was used on agricultural land without the use of advanced technologies for growing agricultural products. It is important to note the tightening of serfdom. According to a number of decrees of Catherine II, the rights of serfs were significantly reduced. According to the decree of 1765, a serf could be sent to Siberia for hard labor without trial or investigation. In 1767, a decree was issued that prohibited peasants from complaining about their landowners. The result of such a policy in the field of agriculture was, on the one hand, an increase in the economic potential of the state, on the other hand, this increase occurred due to the unlimited exploitation of peasants and the extensive development of territories.

3.2 Industry

In 1775, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was published. One of its parts, “Craft Regulations,” regulated craft production in cities. A so-called guild system was created, which helped improve the organization of the artisan’s work. As in the first half of the 18th century. Crafts developed rapidly in fishing centers. This contributed to the creation of manufacturing production: in Ivanovo - textile, in Kimry - leather, in Khokhloma - woodworking. There was a tendency for enterprising peasants to organize manufacturing production themselves. At the same time, they remained serfs, and they had to pay a large quitrent to their landowner.

Only a small part of them were able to redeem their personal freedom over time and become at the base of the emerging bourgeois class. By the end of the 18th century. there was a significant increase in production. This was due to the increase in the number of manufactories from 600 in the middle of the century to 1200 at the end of the 18th century.

The overwhelming majority of workers were serfs. In the second half of the 18th century. civilian workers appear in factories. These are the peasants who were forced to pay their landlord a monetary rent. All this led to the growth of the free labor market and the emergence of capitalism.

3.3 Domestic and foreign trade

The process of developing the all-Russian market continues. The orientation of individual regions towards specific production has become even clearer. Thus, the black earth provinces of central Russia and Ukraine belonged to the grain-growing regions; industrial crops were grown in Novgorod and Smolensk; Siberia and the North specialized in the manufacture of fur goods. Sales of manufactured goods took place at fairs: in Nizhny Novgorod, Irbit, Kursk, Arkhangelsk and other cities. An important milestone in the development of domestic trade was the abolition of internal trade customs duties in 1754.

This made it possible to establish unhindered transportation and trade of goods from the most remote regions of the state. Foreign trade was an important item in Russia's budget. The functioning of new ports on the Baltic and Black Seas made it possible to expand Russia's foreign trade relations. Many goods were exported from the state: metal, grain, hemp, timber, leather. Imported: sugar, cloth, metal products, wine, tea. Russia's main trading partner at this time is England. The development of domestic and foreign trade led to an increase in production and contributed to the emergence of capitalist relations.

3.4 Finance

The strengthening of the state led to an increase in expenses for the administrative apparatus, maintenance of the court, and provision of the army. The Russian budget was experiencing an acute shortage of funds - a deficit. One of the measures to bring the state out of the financial crisis was the appearance of paper money in 1769. Now they went along with silver coins. Another measure was the receipt of external loans - foreign loans. In 1769 such a loan was made in Holland. If you look at the Russian budget of this time, it becomes clear that the main source of its income was taxes. Direct taxes - poll tax and indirect taxes - customs duties, sale of wine, salt, and so on. The main items of expenditure were, as noted above, the maintenance of the army and navy, the courtyard, and the state administrative apparatus. Minor funds were spent on education, science and culture. Class system. Second half of the 18th century. became the time when classes acquired their clear boundaries. The strengthening of the class system was a deterrent. Each class was closed and had its own rights and privileges. Two charters issued by Catherine II on April 21, 1785, to the nobility and cities, became the starting point in the legal formalization of the class system in Russia.

3.5 Education

The strengthening of the economic and military power of Russia during the period of Peter I, the military victories of Russia during the reign of Catherine II, led to the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people and, as a consequence, to the rise of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. The dominant trend in Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. - early 19th century becomes classicism. Its ideological basis was the struggle for powerful national statehood and national culture. In the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II carried out reforms in the sphere of management, economics, class organization, and education. But Catherine II attached special importance to educational reform, since she understood that the success of social transformations depended on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability and desire to perceive new things.

3.6 Production

The development of manufacturing production contributed to the development of technical thought. In 1760, R. Glinkov invented a mechanical engine for spinning machines, which replaced the labor of 9 people. I.I. Polzunov (1728-1766) - a genius, master of the Kolyvanovo - Voznesensky plant in Altai - first put forward the idea of ​​​​using steam power as an engine. In 1765, he designed the world's first universal steam engine. A few days before its launch, I.I. Polzunov died. The machine worked for several months, and only as a result of a minor breakdown it failed. Another self-taught mechanic - I.P. Kulibin (1735-1818) was an unrivaled watchmaker. He created a clock that showed the seasons, months, hours, minutes, seconds, phases of the moon, the time of sunrise and sunset in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He also invented many original devices and instruments, improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments, and created a semaphore telegraph. But these inventions, like the inventions of I.I. Kulibin, also did not have wide practical application.

3.7 Russian social thought

Another direction of Russian social thought of the second half of the 18th century. became Freemasonry - a religious and ethical movement that arose in England at the beginning of the 18th century. In Russia, the first Masonic lodges appeared in the 1730s. Freemasonry became most widespread in Russia in the middle of the 18th century, when the most prominent statesmen became members of Freemasonry - the Chernyshev brothers, the Panin brothers, R.I. Vorontsov and others. The poets A.P. were also Freemasons. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov, architect V.I. Bazhenov and many others. The Masons proclaimed the construction of a society of free people through self-purification and self-improvement, liberation from all class and national boundaries. In Russia, the practical activities of the Freemasons were aimed at educating the people, which attracted famous people of that time to the ranks of the Freemasons. At first, Catherine II treated Freemasonry as a fashionable eccentricity that was quickly passing away and decided to ban Masonic organizations in Russia. Another direction of Russian social thought of this time is associated with the name of A. N. Radishchev (1749-1802). It is generally accepted that the formation of revolutionary ideology in Russia began with his socio-political views. Having received an education abroad and becoming a fan of the ideas of the Enlightenment, Radishchev gave them a radical character. Such views formed a strong rejection of the existing order in the country and, above all, serfdom

Radishchev did not see any differences in the historical development and position of Russia and Europe. It seemed to him that a revolutionary coup could solve all the problems of society and bring true freedom to the people. These ideas were expressed by Radishchev in his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” published in 1790 (Radishchev printed the book in 600 copies, only 25 copies went on sale). The book aroused “great public curiosity.” Catherine II, having familiarized herself with this work, wrote in its margins: “...A rebel, worse than Pugachev.” Thus, A.N. Radishchev was the first in Russia to connect the problem of the abolition of serfdom with the need to eliminate the autocracy.

3.8 Architecture

The leading direction in architecture of the second half of the 18th century. There was classicism, which was characterized by an appeal to the images and forms of ancient architecture (the order system with columns) as an ideal aesthetic standard. A significant architectural event of the 60-80s. was the design of the Neva embankments. One of the attractions of St. Petersburg was the Summer Garden. In 1771 - 1786 The summer garden from the side of the Neva embankment was fenced with a lattice, the author of which was Yu.M. Felten (1730-1801) and his assistant P. Egorov. The lattice of the Summer Garden is made in the style of classicism: the vertical dominates here: vertically standing peaks intersect rectangular frames, evenly distributed massive pylons support these frames, emphasizing with their rhythm the general feeling of majesty and peace. In 1780 - 1789 designed by architect A.A. Kvasov, granite embankments and descents and approaches to the river were built. The greatest master of Russian classicism was V. I. Bazhenov (1737/38-1799). He grew up in the Moscow Kremlin, where his father was a sexton of one of the churches, and studied at the gymnasium at Moscow University. Having graduated from the Academy of Arts in 1760, V.I. Bazhenov went as a pensioner to France and Italy. Living abroad, he enjoyed such fame that he was elected professor at Rome and a member of the Florence and Bologna academies. In 1762, upon returning to Russia, he received the title of academician. But in Russia the creative fate of the architect was tragic. V.I. Bazhenov was entrusted with the creation of a palace and park complex of buildings in the village of Chernaya Gryaz (Tsaritsyno) near Moscow, where Catherine II decided to build her country residence. Ten years later, all major work was completed. In June 1785, Catherine comes to Moscow and inspects Tsaritsyn’s buildings, then in January 1786 she issues a decree: the palace and all buildings should be demolished, and V.I. Bazhenov should be fired without pay or pension. “This is a prison, not a palace,” is the empress’s conclusion. The legend connects the demolition of the palace with its depressing appearance. Catherine entrusted the construction of the new palace to M.F. Kazakov. But this palace was not completed either.

Another talented Russian architect who worked in the style of classicism was M. F. Kazakov (1738-1812). Kazakov was not a pensioner and studied ancient and Renaissance monuments from drawings and models. A great school for him was working together with Bazhenov, who invited him, on the project of the Kremlin Palace. In 1776, Catherine entrusted M.F. Kazakov drawing up a project for a government building in the Kremlin - the Senate. The site allocated for the Senate building was an awkward oblong triangular shape, surrounded on all sides by old buildings. So the Senate building received a general triangular plan. The building has three floors and is made of brick. The center of the composition was the courtyard, into which an arched entrance topped with a dome led. Having passed the arched entrance, the one who entered found himself in front of a majestic rotunda topped with a mighty dome. The Senate was supposed to sit in this bright round building. The corners of the triangular building are cut off. Thanks to this, the building is perceived not as a flat triangle, but as a solid massive volume. The third largest architect of the second half of the 18th century is I. E. Starov (1744-1808). He studied first at the gymnasium at Moscow University, then at the Academy of Arts. Starov's most significant building is the Tauride Palace (1782-1789) - a huge city estate of G.A. Potemkin, who received the title Tauride for the development of Crimea. The basis of the composition of the palace is a hall-gallery, dividing the entire complex of interiors into two parts. From the front entrance there is a series of rooms adjacent to the octagonal domed hall. On the opposite side there is a large winter garden. The exterior of the building is very modest, but it hides the dazzling luxury of the interiors. Since 1780, the Italian Giacomo Quarenghi (1744-1817) has been working in St. Petersburg. His career in Russia was very successful. Architectural creations in Russia represent a brilliant combination of Russian and Italian architectural traditions. His contribution to Russian architecture was that he, together with the Scotsman Charles Cameron, set the standards for the architecture of St. Petersburg at that time. Quarenghi's masterpiece was the building of the Academy of Sciences, built in 1783-1789.

At the end of the 70s, the architect Charles Cameron (1743-1812), a Scot by birth, came to Russia. Brought up on European classicism, he was able to feel all the originality of Russian architecture and fall in love with it. Cameron's talent manifested itself mainly in exquisite palace and park country ensembles. The last architect of the 18th century. Vincenzo Brenna (1747-1818) is rightfully considered the favorite architect of Paul and Maria Feodorovna. After ascending the throne in 1796, Paul I removed Charles Cameron from the post of chief architect of Pavlovsk and appointed V. Brenna in his place. From now on, Brenna manages all buildings in Pavlovsk and participates in all significant buildings of Pavlovsk’s time.

Conclusion

Catherine reform politics art

Thus, in the second half of the 18th century. - in the age of “Reason and Enlightenment” a unique, economic, political and in many ways unique artistic culture was created in Russia. This culture was alien to national limitations and isolation. With amazing ease she absorbed and creatively processed everything valuable that was created by the work of artists from other countries. New types and genres of art, new artistic directions, and bright creative names were born.

List of used literature

1. Zaichkin I.A., Pochkaev I.N. Russian history from Catherine the Great to Alexander II. - M., 1994.

2. History of Russia. From ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. -- M., 2003.

3. History of Russia. From ancient times to the end of the twentieth century: In 3 books. / Ed. A.N. Sakharova, A.P. Novoseltseva. - M., 1996

4. Fedorov V.A. History of Russia. 1861-1917: Textbook for universities. Ed. 2nd. -- M., 2004.

5. Berezovaya L.G., Berlyakova N.P. History of Russian culture: Textbook. for students higher textbook establishments. -- M., 2002

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