What does the month on the cross mean? Differences between crosses in Christian denominations

Key concepts and terms: Seljuk Turks, Ottoman Turks, Sultan, “live tax”, Janissaries, church union, “Byzantium after Byzantium”.

Current control. It can be carried out in the form of answering questions to § 24 and checking the completion of tasks in the workbook. In addition, at the beginning or during the lesson, it is advisable to activate knowledge on the history of Byzantium (§ 5), Bulgaria (§ 7) and especially on the history of the Fourth Crusade (§ 14), asking children questions: how did the Fourth Crusade end for Byzantium? When was Byzantium restored? What territories were part of the Roman empire at this time? When did the Second Bulgarian Kingdom arise?

Plan for studying new material: 1. Political map of the Balkan Peninsula in the XIV - early XV centuries. Decline of Byzantium. 2. Bulgaria and Serbia in the 14th century. 3. The emergence of the Ottoman Empire. 4. Byzantium in search of allies. Church union. 5. Fall of Constantinople. "Byzantium after Byzantium".

Comment. The Eastern Roman Empire, which outlived the Western one by a whole millennium, was unable to respond to the next challenge of the time - the offensive of the Ottoman Empire. However, the onslaught of the Ottomans turned out to be a challenge not only and not so much for Byzantium, but for the entire Christian world, and the West also did not rise to the occasion. At first, he hesitated for a long time with help, expecting concessions from Byzantium in religious matters (i.e., church union), and when he did, he still turned out to be too weak and scattered to organize an effective rebuff to the Ottomans, which predetermined huge problems for Western Europe itself in XVI-XVII centuries In addition, at a critical moment, the religious factor reasserted itself: the union, without providing Byzantium with real help from the West, at the same time split Byzantine society and thereby weakened its ability to resist the Turks. Naturally, in this confrontation between the West and the East, burdened by never-overcome contradictions between Catholics and Orthodox Christians, the issue of “us” and “strangers” could not but be heard. Suffice it to say that in the almost besieged Constantinople, many believed that the turban of the Sultan was better than the papal tiara.

Against the backdrop of the tragic death of Byzantium, the rise of the Ottoman Empire, already in the 14th century, looks all the more impressive. became a European power. Its structure, with all its focus on war, became a new and very effective option for the development of statehood in the conditions of the late Middle Ages.

Finally, another cross-cutting theme of the lesson is the fate after 1453 of Byzantine traditions, which played a crucial role in the history of Russia. However, the Ottoman Empire itself became the heir to some part of the Byzantine traditions, which, like Byzantium, laid claim to continuity with Rome.

1. It is advisable to start studying new material by turning to a map on which students must find the Balkans and Asia Minor themselves. The teacher invites students to remember what problems the countries of Western and Central Europe faced in the same period, i.e. in the XIV-XV centuries. Children will most likely remember the Black Death, the Hundred Years' War, peasant uprisings, the Hussite Wars, feudal strife, and the increase in intolerance towards people of other faiths in a number of countries. The teacher may explain that some of these problems are specific to Western or Central Europe, while others apply to all of Europe, including the southeast. Thus, the plague epidemic destroyed a third of the population in Byzantium, the country was weakened by popular uprisings, civil strife, and the struggle for the throne. Students find Byzantium on maps dating back to the 13th and 14th-15th centuries, and note the reduction of its territory. The teacher asks the question: who is taking away the last of Byzantium’s lands? The children find on the map that a new enemy has appeared on the eastern borders - the Ottoman Turks. But Byzantium is also losing lands in the Balkans, and before the Turks penetrate into Europe. Who are these European, Christian enemies of Byzantium?

2. It is hardly advisable to dwell in class on the history of the short-term strengthening and rapid weakening of Bulgaria and Serbia; the teacher should only convey to the students the idea that the rivalry of these two states between themselves and with Byzantium weakened them and made them easy prey for the Ottomans.

3. The teacher asks: why did the Ottoman state, at first small and limited in its resources, quickly grow stronger? Children, of course, will remember the contradictions between his enemies, but here it should be emphasized that it is also a matter of a very well-thought-out organization of the army and the state. With the help of leading questions, students come to the conclusion that an aggressive, growing state must organize the replenishment of its army at the expense of conquered peoples, i.e., to the idea of ​​​​organizing a Janissary corps. It is most convenient to summarize information about the successes of the Ottomans in the form of a table, including the main events in strictly chronological order. In this case, you can distribute to the children table blanks (draw on the board), in which the left column is completely filled out, and only the first line in the right is filled in; Students fill out the rest on their own during the lesson.

The first Ottoman conquests in Europe

Serbia's defeat in the Battle of Kosovo

Defeat of the Crusaders at Nicopolis

End of the 14th century

Ottoman seizure of the Bulgarian kingdom

Siege of Constantinople by Sultan Bayezid; his defeat at Ankara

1438-1439

Ferraro-Florence Cathedral; Union of Florence

Defeat of the Crusaders at Varna

Fall of Constantinople

4. The reasons for the success of the Ottoman Turks are studied based on the source. However, even after such a heavy defeat, Byzantium received about 50 years of respite thanks to the defeat of the Ottomans at Ankara. Did she do everything to avoid conquest? Did the conclusion of the union help or hinder her? (In this regard, the teacher asks in what meaning the word “union” is already familiar to the students, and invites them to formulate for themselves what the concept of “church union” can mean.) Why did the West, despite the union, in 1453 actually not come to the rescue Byzantium? The search for an answer to this question can be organized in the form of a brainstorming session. The main question: who in Europe could come to the aid of Byzantium at that moment? - is broken down into a number of sub-questions. Children themselves must remember the most powerful sovereigns of Europe at that time, and in some cases, figure out why one or another monarch could not send an army to the rescue of Constantinople. Pope? But he had almost no troops of his own and could only act as an organizer. Kings of England and France? But both states were exhausted by the Hundred Years' War, and in 1453 no one could yet be sure that the war was truly over. The Duke of Burgundy had more opportunities in this regard, but Philip the Good remembered too well how his father John the Fearless was defeated near Nicopolis in 1396, and besides, he feared that the French king would take advantage of his absence for his own purposes. German Emperor? But, despite the great title, his resources were too limited to gather the necessary army. The Iberian sovereigns were busy with internal strife and (in the case of Castile) the struggle with the Emirate of Granada. The Venetians and Genoese, who had a strong fleet and money, did not want to quarrel with the Sultan, hoping to conduct profitable trade in his possessions. Poland fought against the Order, the Czech Republic had not yet recovered from the Hussite Wars. There remained Hungary, which perfectly understood the danger, but its strength was undermined by defeats from the Turks in 1444 and 1448. (the latter, however, is not mentioned in the textbook). Together, the students come to the conclusion that Byzantium could not receive significant help.

5. Along with the plot of the fall of Constantinople, as such, which can be studied with the help of illustrations, perhaps even more important is the question of the historical significance of this event. The last question is best analyzed using excerpts from sources reflecting different points of view on the fall of Constantinople. Students are given printouts of the passages.

Byzantine historian Ducas. "Lament for Constantinople"

O city, city, head of all cities! Oh, city, city, center of the four cardinal directions! O city, city, pride of Christians and destruction of barbarians! Where is your beauty, Paradise? Where are the remains of saints, where are the remains of martyrs? Where are the ashes of the great Constantine and other emperors?

Polish historian Jan Dlugosz

The defeat of Constantinople, both pathetic and sad, was a great victory for the Turks and an extreme defeat for the Greeks, a dishonor for the Latins. Thanks to this, the Catholic faith was hurt... the name of Christ was humiliated and insulted. One of Christianity's two eyes was torn out, one of its two arms was amputated.

From the Old Russian “Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”

Oh, woe to you, seventh-hill one, that the filthy possess you, for how many graces of God have shone in you, sometimes glorifying you and exalting you more than all other cities, sometimes punishing you in the most varied ways and repeatedly and instructing you with wondrous deeds and glorious miracles, sometimes glorifying you with victories over your enemies , and constantly teaching and calling for salvation, and with the abundance of life, delighting and decorating in every possible way! You, the madman, turned away from divine mercy and generosity towards you and were drawn to crime and lawlessness. And now God has shown his wrath against you and delivered you into the hands of your enemies. And who wouldn’t cry or weep about this!

Turkish historian of the 16th century. Saad al-Din

The robbery continued for three days, and there was not a single warrior who did not become rich thanks to the captured booty and slaves. After three days, Sultan Mehmed prohibited, under pain of heavy punishment, from continuing the robbery and massacre, which still did not subside. Everyone obeyed his order. When there was complete calm, instead of the absurd ringing of bells, the pleasant voice of the muezzin was heard, announcing the hour of prayer five times a day. Idols were thrown out of churches and minarets were added; in a word, they did not forget anything to turn them into places of piety for Muslims.

Work with these passages can be organized in different ways. You can give each student one passage and ask them to explain the position expressed in it. The second option is to hand out two passages each and have them identify and explain the differences. Finally, the third option is to distribute to each student all four passages, but without the titles, and invite the children to determine for themselves where the Byzantine text is, where the Old Russian is, where the Polish is and where the Turkish is.

The second possible option for studying the topic of the fall of Constantinople is to in advance assign two teams of students to prepare for a debate on the topic “Was the fall of Constantinople inevitable?” and teach it in class.

To consolidate this important material, you can assign homework to compose a story about the events of May 29, 1453 on behalf of one of its participants (task 6 to § 25); in this case, the circle of characters can be expanded, for example, you can include a Western European warrior who came to defend Constantinople (there were few of them, but they did exist), or a pilgrim from Muscovite Rus'.

The last important aspect of this topic is the fate of the Byzantine cultural and political heritage. You can ask students: what do you think the expression “Byzantium after Byzantium” means? Students come to the conclusion that on the eve of and immediately after the fall of Constantinople, many Greeks had to leave their homeland and move to other Christian countries, both Orthodox and Catholic, and that their activities in new places had to play an important role. You can have students make suggestions, particularly how the Byzantines might have been used in early Renaissance Italy.

Working with the source. When working with the text, students can pay attention to the numerical superiority of the Turks (although in fact not as significant as Schiltberger claims), to the presence of a strong ally of the Turks (the Despot of Serbia), to the lack of discipline among Christians. Indeed, although the Hungarian king Sigismund (the same one who later stained himself with the massacre of Jan Hus and was the main organizer of campaigns against the Hussites) was officially considered the head of the Christian army, the Duke of Burgundy John the Fearless (grandfather of Charles the Bold) did not listen to him, even when the king "begged him." Children should be drawn to the tragic situation of the Despot of Serbia, who 7 years after the Battle of Kosovo was forced to fight on the side of the Turks against Christians in order to save his country from complete enslavement and ruin.

Working with illustrations. According to the illustration on p. 237 you can invite children to describe the fortification system of Constantinople, providing them with additional information if necessary (see Appendix). Comparing the Turkish fortress with the walls of Constantinople will help children come to the conclusion that the Turks by the middle of the 15th century. They knew how to build strong fortresses very well. The most informative illustration is “The Siege of Constantinople” (p. 239). You can invite children to draw up, based on the illustration, as well as the plan of Constantinople on p. 50 story of the siege; at the same time, they can pay attention to the blockade of the city from land and sea, to the system of fortifications of the city (walls and towers of the main part of the city and Galata, and between them - a chain across the Golden Horn Bay), to how the Turks are dragging their fleet from the Bosporus to the Golden Horn (past Galata) by land (like the Kiev prince Oleg in 907).

Working with the map. Comparison of the territory of Byzantium on the maps on p. 144 (Fourth Crusade) and on p. 235 shows how this territory shrank, and not only because of the Ottoman advance. You can invite children to trace the course of Ottoman expansion on a map and draw a conclusion: was it possible to hold Constantinople in conditions when the Ottomans had already captured most of the Balkan Peninsula?

^ Lesson 27. INDIA, CHINA, JAPAN

Key concepts and terms: raja, caste, varna, cave temple, the Great Silk Road, peasant war, pagoda, ikebana, samurai.

Current control. It is best to organize control on assignments for § 25. In terms of summarizing the material in the “Autumn of the Middle Ages” section, you can discuss, along with assignments for the chapter, assignments 5 and 6 on p. 241. Next, children need to remember in what connection the course on the history of the Middle Ages already discussed India and China (in connection with the Arab conquests, and about China also in § 12 in connection with the travels of Marco Polo).

Plan for studying new material: 1. India. 2. China. 3. Japan. 4. Culture of Eastern countries.

Comment. It should be borne in mind that the history of the countries of Asia, Africa and America is deliberately given in the textbook more concisely than the history of European countries. Each paragraph in this chapter covers the centuries-old history of several countries or regions. In general, these paragraphs contain fewer names and events; only the most important features of the economy, society, statehood and culture are characterized. For an in-depth study of these regions (if time permits), it is necessary to attract additional sources of information. If possible, it is advisable to take an after-hours excursion to a museum that has relevant collections (Museum of Oriental Art in Moscow, the Hermitage in St. Petersburg).

The lesson explores the history of three very different countries of the East, which have played and continue to play a huge role in world history; To emphasize their importance for children, it is enough to mention that about 40% of the world's population is concentrated in them. In addition, two of these three countries are Russia's land or sea neighbors.

Among the many problems that arise when studying the history of Eastern countries, the textbook highlights several of the most important ones. Firstly, this is a constant struggle against external danger (less pronounced in Japan due to its island position); Particularly indicative in this sense is the struggle of China with the northern nomads, who, naturally, act as “outsiders.” Secondly, this is the constant coexistence of different religions and ideological systems (Hinduism and Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam in India, Confucianism and Buddhism in China, Buddhism and traditional beliefs in Japan), which, despite all the problems that arose, turned out to be very fruitful for development culture. Thirdly, these are the features of the development of society and the state, which consolidated the existing order, made it, despite external dangers, as stable as possible, subject to only the slowest and limited changes (community structure and caste system in India, the role of imperial power and bureaucracy in China ). It is very significant that those Chinese inventions that, being adopted or rediscovered in Europe, contributed to colossal changes there (gunpowder, printing), did not have such an impact in China itself.

1. It is advisable to devote some time to enhancing knowledge of the history of India and China from the 5th grade history course. It is advisable that children remember, with the help of leading questions, basic data about the geographical location and climate of India and China (here it is advisable to use a physical map of the world or Asia, from which schoolchildren, guided by the teacher, can themselves extract a lot of information about the nature and climate of the countries being studied, their activities inhabitants), about varnas (which in some textbooks for the 5th grade are called castes for didactic purposes), about the Great Wall of China, about the most famous discoveries and cultural achievements of India and China (Indian numerals, which we call Arabic, paper, gunpowder, compass and much more). Names such as the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Himalayas, Indus, Ganges, Yangtze, Yellow River, Indian and Pacific oceans must definitely be heard. In connection with the caste system in India, we can ask children a question: how was the naturalness of inequality justified in medieval Europe? (They may recall the theory of the three estates.)

It is best to organize further work on the material in this section in the process of studying an interesting source, which is also important from the point of view of the future course of national history - “Walking beyond the Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. The wealth of India and the power of its ruler are presented here in a colorful description of the ceremonial departure of the Sultan.

2. When studying this part of the material, it is advisable to fill out the table (see below). In this case, you can write on the board or distribute to the children a blank table in which material will be filled out only on the first of the medieval dynasties; the remaining parts are completed independently using the textbook or as explained by the teacher.

The teacher should pay attention to the fact that when characterizing each period, the problems of the northern nomads are clearly heard: this will prepare the children for studying the Mongol conquests in the next lesson. For example, when characterizing the Song era, one can not only note, as is done in the textbook, that in the 12th century. The nomads captured the entire north of the country, but also added that in these territories they created their own state - the Jin Empire, in which the Chinese system of government was reproduced. At the same time, the conquerors (Jurchens) demonstratively opposed themselves to the local population, as a result of which the state turned out to be fragile and was easily conquered by the Mongols in 1209-1220. (with the capture of Beijing in 1215). Particularly significant from the point of view of the Chinese perception of the “northern barbarians” is the attitude of the Chinese towards the Yuan dynasty, Mongolian in origin, which again united all of China in the 70s. XIII century On the one hand, the Chinese never ceased to remember the foreign origin of the dynasty, despite the adoption by the Mongols of Chinese traditions of organizing power. But on the other hand, Chinese historians, neither in the Middle Ages nor in our time, did and do not consider the era of the Mongol dynasty as a period of yoke or enslavement. The Yuan is the same era of Chinese history itself as the reign of any other dynasty. It is advisable to explain to students that the slight overlap in dates (the Song Dynasty ends in 1279, and the Yuan Dynasty begins in 1271) is due to the fact that Kublai Khan took the title of emperor several years earlier than the Mongols finally broke the resistance of the Song Dynasty.

Dynasty

Brief description of the period, its main events

The unification and prosperity of the country after a period of fragmentation and civil strife. Annexation of regions in the west of the country. Trade along the Silk Road with countries further to the west. Wide spread of Buddhism. Religious tolerance. At the end of the period - revolts of the nobility and a peasant war led by Huang Chao

A new unification of almost the entire country and a new flourishing of China, but against the backdrop of revolts of the nobility, uprisings of peasants and a constant threat from northern nomads. Formation of the state among the Mongols and their conquest of China

Devastation of the country, death of the population, but then the restoration by the Mongols of the previous system of governing the empire. Establishing connections with Europe

1368-ser. XVII century

Overthrow of the Mongols. China's New Rise

3. Since the map in the textbook does not include Japan, an appropriate physical map should be used to characterize its geographic location. This will allow us to focus on the example of Japan on the issues of interaction between man and nature. At the same time, the history of Japan makes it possible to trace, at least dotted line, another regional variant of the emergence of the state. Children are usually interested in the history of samurai; If time permits, you can instruct one of the students to prepare a short message on this topic in advance, relying on additional literature or Internet resources.

4. When considering material on the cultural history of India and China, it is important to once again emphasize the fruitfulness of the coexistence of different ethnic groups, religions and cultures. It is advisable to make maximum use of the illustrative range of the textbook, if necessary, including comments on the illustrations. If possible, it is advisable to use slides, videos or illustrative Internet resources.

Working with the source. “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (an excerpt from it is given in the translation by L. S. Semenov) is both a remarkable monument of ancient Russian literature and an important source on the history of medieval India. Nikitin got there more or less by accident: having been robbed on the way to Transcaucasia, he could not return home because he did not have the means to pay off his creditors. In India, Nikitin hoped to improve his affairs, but ultimately was disappointed by the possibilities of trade with it. Afanasy Nikitin's stay in India dates back to 1471-1474. He spent this time in the Bahmanid state, one of the largest in India; in the 14th century it separated from the Delhi Sultanate. The passage describes the ceremonial departure of the young Sultan Muhammad III, which Nikitin observed in the city of Bidar in central India. The colorful description of the fighting elephants shows how impressed the stranger from distant Russia was with this spectacle. The mention of “thousands of riding horses in golden harness” corresponds to the accepted custom of including many riding horses without riders, but in magnificent harness, at the ceremonial departure of the Sultan, to emphasize his wealth.

Working with the map. In addition to working with a physical map already mentioned, you should use the map in the textbook. In particular, it clearly shows that the danger from nomads threatened both India and China from the north and northwest. In addition, it is necessary to trace the emergence, flourishing and decline of the Delhi Sultanate using the map.

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Slide captions:

History of the Middle Ages. Lesson for 6th grade.

Topic: Crusades.

1095 Pope Urban II calls for a crusade against the “infidels” in the city of Clermont.

“Jerusalem is the navel of the earth, a land more fertile than others, this land is like a second paradise. The Redeemer of the human race glorified her with his coming, adorned her with his deeds, sanctified her with suffering, redeemed her with death, and immortalized her with burial. And this royal city, located in the middle of the earth, is now captured by its enemies and destroyed by nations that do not know the Lord. He... longs for liberation, he never stops begging for you to come to his rescue... Take this path to atone for your sins..."

“God wants it that way!”

“Participants of the 4th Crusade in 1204, the Liberators of the Holy Sepulcher, stormed the Byzantine capital. The inhabitants of the city, handing themselves over to the hands of the judge, came out to meet the Latins with crosses and holy images of Christ, as is done on solemn and festive occasions. But this did not soften the souls of the Latins. Having burst into Christian Constantinople, they did not spare not only private property, but, drawing their swords, robbed the shrines of the Lord and with the sound of trumpets encouraged the horses to attack. I don’t know where to start and how to end the description of everything that these wicked people have done? Oh, horror! The holy images are shamelessly trampled upon! Oh woe! The relics of the holy martyrs were thrown into places of all abomination! Everyone had to fear for their lives; there is crying, screaming and wailing in the streets, sobs at crossroads, and pitiful groans in churches. Those of noble birth walked disgraced, respectable elders walked around crying, the rich walked around beggars. In this way... the Western troops committed lawlessness against the population of Christ, not showing the slightest leniency to anyone, but depriving everyone of money and property, homes and clothing and leaving absolutely nothing to those who had anything!.. The enemies spent their time in lewdness, fun, and mostly dishonest fun and ridicule of Roman customs... every day they drank and overeat.

Problem. Goal: liberation of holy places from infidels. “God wants it this way” Result: destruction of holy places, thousands of dead and robbed. The noble goal has not been achieved. Why?

Cluster. Participants in the campaigns Goals of the participants Results of the crusades. Causes of the Crusades Routes of the Crusades

Crusades. Goal: liberation of holy places from infidels. Pope, clergy, merchants, Knights, kings, commoners. To consolidate the dominant position of the Christian Church. Getting rid of restless knights in Europe. Result: the creation of monastic and knightly orders. Get rich from expensive oriental goods. Result: increased trade with the East. They dreamed of new land holdings, wealth and fame. Conquest of new cities and countries. Result: in 1099 they captured Jerusalem and founded fortresses. In 1291, Muslims ousted Christians from Palestine. Result: many died and fell into slavery, barely reaching Asia Minor. The desire to get rid of poverty and extortion from lords. Start a new life.

Problem. Goal: liberation of holy places from infidels. “God wants it this way” Result: destruction of holy places, thousands of dead and robbed. The noble goal has not been achieved. Why? A noble goal cannot be achieved by dishonest methods.

Text with errors. In 1096, Pope Clement II called on all Christians to go to Palestine to liberate the shrines. The knights were the first to go on a campaign. Thousands of people died, thousands were sold into slavery. Then the poor went on a crusade, who took Jerusalem in 1099. In 1187, the Egyptian Sultan Mehmet al-Din recaptured the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Danilov D.D. and others. General history. 6th grade. History of the Middle Ages. § 10

Slide 2

DEFINE THE PROBLEM

From the speech of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095

“Jerusalem is the navel (center) of the Earth!.. The rivers there flow with milk and honey, this is the most fertile land - the second paradise... Snatch this land from the wicked people, conquer it for yourself<...>save the brothers living in the east!.. Those who are sad and poor here will be joyful and rich there!.. Those who lay down their lives in battle will have all their sins forgiven!”

Are there phrases in the text that speak about the liberation goals of the crusaders?

About aggressive goals?

Slide 3

• THE CRUSADES ARE LIBERATION OR CONQUEST?
• YOUR FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM MAY NOT COICH THE AUTHOR'S. PLEASE CHOOSE THE FORMULATION IN CLASS THAT IS MOST INTERESTING TO YOU!