In the most ancient sources of Kievan Rus, the Varangians were first mentioned precisely as desperate and unruly merchants. In VIII-TH Art. from their settlements on the Baltic coast they moved east along the Volga route
all the way to the Caspian Sea, where they came into contact with merchants of the Muslim world. AT THEIR station, when the center of trade moved south, to Constantinople, the main trade artery for Kyiv became the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Therefore, overseas trade began to form the basis of the economic system of Kievan Rus.
Therefore, it is no coincidence that the first formal agreement concluded by the Kyiv rulers was the agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium (911), according to which extremely favorable conditions were created for Russian merchants in Constantinople. When in the XII-XIII centuries. As a result of the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders and frequent attacks by nomads on trade routes along the Dnieper, exchanges with Byzantium began to decline; trade relations with Western Europe became increasingly important for Kyiv, mainly going through Krakow - Prague - Regensburg.
In contrast to the medieval West, where the landed aristocracy shied away from trading activities, in Kievan Rus not only the boyars, but also the prince himself were actively involved in trade. The first rulers spent most of the year collecting tribute in the near and distant lands of their possessions, transporting it to Kyiv and equipping a large flotilla. The Dnieper carried slaves, furs, flax, honey, wax and other goods to Constantinople, which were exchanged for luxury goods. Even when princes and boyars became more sedentary and acquired large land holdings, a significant part of the products of their farms was destined for foreign markets. There were various opportunities for engaging in trade, since a large layer of merchants was formed in Russian cities, and its most influential and wealthy representatives conducted overseas trade and enjoyed the same political and legal rights as the boyars. But the vast majority were simply small shopkeepers who traded on the domestic market and were often viscous and enslaved by richer merchants.
According to modern scientists, about 15% of the population of Rus' lived in urban centers. According to chronicles, there were about 240 cities and towns in the country. However, it is likely that about 150 of them were actually fortified settlements of the Napivzemlerobe people. Among almost 90 large towns and cities, the largest was undoubtedly Kyiv. Before the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the number of its inhabitants was about 35-40 thousand (London reached such numbers only 100 years later). For comparison, such important centers as Chernigov and Pereyaslav, Vladimir-Volynsky, Lvov and Galich had no more than 4-5 thousand inhabitants each. The population of these cities mainly consisted of small traders and artisans, since crafts became widespread. Thus, in Kyiv, from 40 to 60 different crafts were represented, the most important of them were woodworking, blacksmithing, pottery and leatherworking.
Some historians emphasize the commercial orientation of the economy of Kievan Rus. Others, in contrast, argue that its basis was agriculture. The same opinion is shared by outstanding Ukrainian researchers Mikhail Grushevsky, Dmitry Bagalei and Yaroslav Pasternak, as well as leading Soviet experts on this issue. They believe that since the Slavs were traditionally an agricultural people, it is unlikely that on the Kyiv day they suddenly changed their way of life. Additional confirmation of this hypothesis is the frequent mention of agricultural activity in Rus' in chronicles, the agrarian orientation of the calendar and the mythology of the ancient Slavs and, what is most convincing, archaeological finds.
Recent excavations have discovered that in the 10th century. in Ukraine they used an iron ploughshare, and here, as in Western Europe, a relatively progressive two-three-field crop rotation system (according to which one second or one third of the arable land was left fallow) became widespread. Mainly wheat, oats, rye and barley were cultivated. The use of livestock became widespread among peasants in Rus'. This provided them not only with meat and milk, but also with leather for clothes and shoes. The same can be said about breeding horses, pigs, sheep, geese, chickens and pigeons. The use of oxen made farming on a larger scale possible. Although peasants often had their own equipment necessary for cultivating the land, they, as a rule, united into collectives, or communities (they included blood relatives of several generations, led by an elder), helping each other. Later, the community arose on the basis of a common territory, uniting neighbors who were not related by blood.
If the Russian economy was previously agricultural, how do proponents of this approach explain the emergence of large urban and commercial centers? The famous Soviet scientist Mikhail Tikhomirov, whose views are shared by many of his Soviet colleagues, argues that the emergence of numerous crafts led to the development and increasingly tangible progress in agriculture - therefore, cities arose in areas with a large concentration of crafts. He admits that with the advent of cities, trade began to play an important role in their rise, but not overseas, but primarily between the city and the agricultural province.
Despite the convincing arguments of supporters of both the “commercial” and “agricultural” interpretations of the economic history of Kievan Rus, modern historians are inclined to compromise here too. While agreeing that the prince, his wife and wealthy merchants were interested primarily in the lively and profitable overseas trade, which especially flourished by the 12th century, they also recognize that the majority of the population of Kievan Rus was engaged in agriculture.
Topic 1: Economic development of Kievan Rus (IX – XII centuries). 1. The main features of the economic activities of the Eastern Slavs. 2. General characteristics of the socio-economic development of Kievan Rus (IX – XII centuries)
Periodization of the economic history of Russia Traditional society - until the 9th century. n. e. Eastern despotism – 9th century. n. e. - October 1917 Totalitarian society - October 1917 - December 1991 Transition to a democratic society - from January 1992
“Where did the Russian land come from? » Settlement in the 1st millennium BC e. north and center of the East European Plain by Slavic tribes. Tale of Bygone Years (12th century) East Slavic tribes: Polyans, Slovenes, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, Ulichs, Volynians, Krivichi, etc.
Eastern Slavs: Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Krivichi, Polochans, Vyatichi, Slovenians, Buzhanians, Volynians, Dulebs, Ulichs, Tivertsy, Croats. Western Slavs are Pomorians, Obodrichs, Vagrs, Polabs, Smolintsy, Glinyans, Lyutichs, Velets, Ratari, Drevans, Ruyans, Lusatians, Czechs, Slovaks, Koshubs, Slovintsy, Moravians, Poles. Southern Slavs: Slovenians, Croats, Serbs, Zakhlumians, Bulgarians.
S. Yu. Witte “Lecture notes on the national and state economy given to His Imperial Highness Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich in 1900 - 1902.” ""The first factor of production is nature, i.e., the natural conditions of the territory occupied by the people"
Economic activity depending on natural and climatic conditions 1) Agriculture - south 2) Hunting, fur extraction - northwest 3) Nomadic cattle breeding - southeast
Prerequisites for the formation of statehood among the Eastern Slavs Economic Separation of crafts from agriculture n Development of crafts in cities n Transition to arable farming n Development of trade relations n Prevalence of free labor n Political Needs of the tribal nobility for an apparatus of power to protect their privileges and seize new lands n Formation of tribal unions n Threat of attack by external enemies n Social transformation of the tribal community into a neighboring one n The emergence of social inequality n patriarchal form of slavery n
The main stages of the development of Kievan Rus 1. Initial Second half of the 9th - end of the 10th centuries. stage Rurik (862 – 879) Oleg (879 – 882) (882 – 912) Igor (912 – 945) Olga (945 – 964) Svyatoslav Igorevich (964 – 972) 2. Heyday End of the 10th – mid-11th centuries. Yaropolk (972 - 980) Vladimir I the Red Sun (980 - 1015) Svyatopolk the Accursed (1015 - 1019) Yaroslav I the Wise (1019 -1054) 3. Decline and collapse into separate principalities Mid-XI - early XII centuries. Izyaslav (1054 – 1073) (1076 – 1078) Vseslav (1068 – 1069) Svyatoslav (1073 – 1076) Vsevolod (1078 – 1093) Svyatopolk (1093 – 1113) Vladimir Monomakh (1113 – 1125) Mstislav (1125 – 1132)
GRAND DUKES OF KIEV Rurik (? - 879) (863 – 879) – Prince of Novgorod Oleg (? – 912) 879 – 882 – Prince of Novgorod 882 – 912 – Grand Duke of Russia Igor (? – 945)(912 – 945) Olga (wife Igor) (? – 969) (945 – 964) Svyatoslav Igorevich (? – 972) (964 – 972) From 972 to 980. - the struggle for the throne of the three sons of Svyatoslav Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich Red Sun (Baptist) (? – 1015) (980 – 1015) Svyatopolk Vladimirovich the Accursed (~ 980 – 1019) (1015 – 1019) Yaroslav I Vladimirovich the Wise (~ 978 -1054) ( 1019 -1054) 5 sons ruled in turn, including Vsevolod Vladimir II Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1053 - 1125) (1113 - 1125)
Results of the reign of the first Rurikovichs (Rurik, Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav) Expansion of the inter-tribal union through the annexation of Slavic tribes (Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi) Protection of Slavic tribes from external expansion and collection of tribute (polyudya) for this military and trade agreements with Byzantium and nomadic tribes Protection of the population and trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” from the raids of nomads
Forms of land ownership Votchina - large land holdings, inherited from father to sons, which were the full property of the family. Poyarization is the process of turning patrimonial owners into large landowners, and impoverished community members into feudal dependents.
“Russian Truth” (1016, 1030s) “A collection of partial codes and individual articles from different times, preserved in several editions, also from different times. What can be called the Truth of Yaroslav in it is a small number of the most ancient articles of the code, reproducing the legal order of the times of this prince. » V. O. Klyuchevsky “Russian History”
“The path from the Varangians to the Greeks” Water route from Scandinavia to Byzantium: from the Gulf of Finland along the Neva River to Lake Ladoga, then along the Volkhov River to Lake Ilmen (Novgorod), then along the Lovat River, then by small rivers and “drag” to the upper reaches of the Dnieper (Smolensk) and along the Dnieper (Kyiv) to the Black Sea, then to the city of Constantinople (Konstantinople, Istanbul)
Monetary circulation 1. 2. “Cattle”, “kuna”, “bela”, “ushki”, “skora” Since the 11th century HRYVNA (silver ingot approx. 400 g) RUBLE (ruble hryvnia) HALF A QUARTER QUARTER
Characteristics of the economic development of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus
Kievan Rus was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, on whose territory a large number of ethnic groups lived, taking into account the fact that the state was at the junction of “opposite” worlds: nomadic and sedentary, Christian and Muslim, pagan and Jewish. Thus, unlike eastern and western countries, the process of the emergence and formation of statehood in Kievan Rus cannot be considered based only on geopolitical and spatial features.
Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state.
1. Social division of labor.
2. Economic development. The development of agriculture, the emergence of new crafts, processing methods, relationships that accompany commercial farming.
3. Society's interest in the emergence of a state. The formation and emergence of the state is the result of a “desire”, a need that was experienced by most members of society. After all, the state was not only based on solving a military problem, but in itself it solved judicial problems related to inter-tribal conflicts.
In the 9th–12th centuries. The economy of the Old Russian state is characterized as the period of early feudalism. This period is associated with the beginning of the emergence of the very basis of the relationship between the state, feudal lords and agriculture. After all, the core of the “Russian land” is agriculture, which occupies the main place in the economy of Kievan Rus. It was based on arable farming.
By the 9th-10th centuries. A fallow system appeared and began to be used, in which the arable land was abandoned for some time. Two-field and three-field with spring and winter crops have become famous.
A characteristic feature was also how developed the commercial economy was, because almost everything necessary for life was produced. Crafts developed, the center of which, of course, became cities, but certain industries also developed in villages. The leading role was occupied by ferrous metallurgy for the simple reason that Ancient Rus' was rich in swamp ores from which iron was extracted. All kinds of processing of iron were carried out, making numerous things from it for the economy, military affairs and everyday life, and various technological techniques were used: forging, welding, cementing, turning, inlaying with non-ferrous metals. However, along with metallurgy, there was a big push in the development of woodworking, pottery, and leather crafts.
Thus, metallurgy and agriculture become a strong support and the main article of the economy of Kievan Rus.
Features of the economic development of Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation
Time from the beginning of the 12th century. until the end of the fifteenth century. called the period of feudal fragmentation or the appanage period. Feudal fragmentation is a process of economic strengthening and political isolation of individual lands. All major Western European countries experienced this process. The beginning of this process dates back to the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), when Kievan Rus was divided between his sons: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125) managed to maintain the unity of the Russian land only by the power of his authority, but after his death the collapse of the state became unstoppable. At the beginning of the 12th century. About 10 independent principalities were formed in the middle of the 12th century. was 15, and in the XIV century. – 250. Each of the principalities was ruled by its own Rurik dynasty.
The economic basis of feudal fragmentation is the natural nature of the feudal economy, each of which is adapted for independent existence. Everything here is produced for our own consumption.
Each of the economically isolated principalities had its own internal trade exchange. Rural products and handicrafts were produced and sold here. As a result of such economic fragmentation, political fragmentation followed, which was the reason for the formation of small principalities-states.
There was practically no stable economic connection between such local markets (districts). With the exception of trade, which was imposed by the location of the principality, i.e. depended on geographical conditions.
As a result of such fragmentation, Rus' was no longer considered as a single state with established economic traditions. Now each of the princes was the owner of the land, which provided him with everything. Therefore, the prince himself decided whether he should establish (or continue) certain economic relations with other feudal princes or not. Gradually, each principality began to pursue an independent foreign policy.
There are several reasons for feudal fragmentation.
– economic – within the framework of a single state, over three centuries, independent economic regions emerged, new cities grew, and large patrimonial estates of monasteries and churches arose. The subsistence nature of the economy provided each region with the opportunity to separate from the center and exist as an independent land or principality;
Positive features - at first, in the Russian lands there was a rise in agriculture, a flourishing of crafts, the growth of cities, and the development of trade in individual lands.
The state of the economy of the Russian centralized state at the turnXVII–XVIII centuries
In the 17th century Due to the constant flight of peasants abroad to the “wild field”, where they developed new lands and built settlements, the territory of the Russian state gradually expanded.
Feudal power also increased in cities. After the destruction of Russian cities by the Mongols, the craft almost ceased to exist. The peasantry solved the growing need for handicraft products (for example, pottery, etc.) on their own, producing everything they needed for their own needs. So instead of crafts, trades arose. Over time, the craft began to revive again. But it was easier for the city artisan to sell the goods due to the large number of people living in the city. A peasant artisan engaged in fishing is forced to look for sales of his products on the side, i.e. go to work.
An important part of the economic development of the Russian state was large-scale state production.
By the 17th century refers to the emergence of an all-Russian market by merging individual regions and establishing a stable exchange of goods between them. Specialization of agriculture began
Due to weak economic ties between individual regions, the price of the same product in different places varies greatly. Merchants skillfully take advantage of this circumstance, receiving up to one hundred percent profit. The goods were purchased mainly at fairs, of which the most famous are Makaryevskaya near Nizhny Novgorod and Irbitskaya in the Urals.
Taxes are introduced to replenish the royal treasury. Trade in many goods is subject to a government monopoly. Merchants undertake to “purchase” the right to trade from the treasury. Later, with the help of farming, the initial accumulation of capital in Russia took place. The introduction of indirect taxes does not bring much replenishment to the treasury. The issue of copper money also does not bring economic stability to the country.
End of the 17th century in Russia was marked by a fierce struggle between political factions. Ordinary nobles gradually pushed aside the noble boyar nobility. After the Time of Troubles, Rus' took a long time to recover. Only in the middle of the 17th century. positive trends appeared in the growth of the country's well-being. The development of commodity-money relations, the growing exchange of trade and agricultural products contributed to the formation of the internal market, the development process of which was completed by the end of the 17th century.
In the 17th century The Russian economy came to the point where the first elements of a capitalist society—manufacturing—were formed on its territory. Manufacturing production was developing, where labor was divided (for now manual). Manufactories were mainly engaged in metalworking, and in the 17th century. there were only no more than thirty of them. This period is characterized by the emergence of an all-Russian market and the accumulation of initial capital (merchant capital). The 18th century in Russia began under the sign of Peter’s reforms,
The general situation of the state economy in the country was not the best. Treasury funds were spent not on state needs, but on the whims of the ruler, on his wardrobe and on palace entertainment. Bribery reigned everywhere. Trade declined due to changes affecting merchants. They were allowed to trade only in their city (i.e., according to their registration), and even then only in specially designated places - shops and guest yards. Trade in other places (other cities, villages) was allowed only in wholesale. Agriculture suffered greatly, where fields were not cultivated for up to 4–6 years. As a result of regular extortions, the payment power of the population dried up, and therefore little funds were received into the country's budget (unlike the personal budget of the royal nobles, who were practically not affected by this difficult time). The country's economy was also undermined by other negative phenomena - crop failure, famine, pestilence.
In addition to everything stated above, tax arrears were collected from the people on Russian territory. With the help of specially equipped expeditions, money was extorted from people. Few fund-raisers, regional rulers were shackled in iron, elders and landowners were starved to death, and peasants were mercilessly beaten and everything taken from them, and then everything found was sold. If we consider in general the economic policy pursued by the successors of Tsar Peter I, it is quite obvious that it practically did not affect the entire economic mechanism of the country. Governments were more concerned with the struggle for power, for proximity to the throne and their own enrichment than with the continuation of Peter's reforms.
Introduction 3
1. Development of the economy of Kievan Rus 4
2. economy during the period of feudal fragmentation. 9
Conclusion 14
TEST……………………………………………………………………………...15
References 16
Introduction
At the end of the 1st millennium AD. The Old Russian state was formed on the eastern tip of the European continent. It played an outstanding role in shaping the appearance of medieval Europe as a whole, its political structure of international relations, its economic evolution, and its culture.
Kievan Rus was the center of transit trade routes connecting Western and Central Europe with the Arab East and Byzantium. She influenced in the 9th-11th centuries. on the position of Byzantium, the Khazar Kaganate, the Bulgarian states on the Volga and in the Balkans, protected Central and Western Europe from the nomadic Pechenegs and Polovtsians, and with its fight against the German invaders for a long time changed the balance of power in the Baltic states, Central and Northern Europe. Connected by trade relations with almost all European countries, the Old Russian state had diplomatic contacts with Poland, the Czech Republic, the Scandinavian countries, Byzantium and even with more distant France, England, and Italy. The path to Rus' was well known in Germany and France, in the papal curia, which repeatedly sent missions there. As for the Scandinavian countries, the Baltic peoples, Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary, for them Rus' was a well-known neighbor.
On the high prestige of the Old Russian state in the X-XIII centuries. speaks of the interest in allied relations with her of many sovereigns of the then Europe, which, according to the customs of the time, were secured by marriage ties. Yaroslav the Wise and his sons, through their sisters and daughters, became related to the princely and royal courts of Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Sweden, England, and France. The daughter of Yaroslav the Wise Anna became the French queen in 1051, and after the death of her husband Henry I (1060) she was regent of the kingdom for some time.
The unification of the East Slavic lands under the auspices of Kyiv was a natural process associated with the emergence of feudal relations and the emergence of the early feudal state. But states of this type, as is known, are not distinguished by internal strength. The further development of feudal relations, especially large feudal land ownership, inevitably leads to the collapse of such political associations. Kievan Rus, although it turned out to be more durable than most similar state associations, was still doomed to transition to feudal fragmentation.
At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. The Old Russian state, under the influence of objective reasons, fell apart into many small principalities, which were at war with each other until the loss of political, economic and social power of the Old Russian lands, turning the country from one of the most influential powers in Europe into an almost helpless prey for the Mongol conquerors.
- Development of the economy of Kievan Rus
The Old Russian state was formed in 882, when the Novgorod prince Oleg united the principalities of Novgorod, Smolensk, Kiev, and, moving the capital to Kyiv, proclaimed himself the great prince of Kyiv. At the end of the 9th - second half of the 11th centuries. the power of the Kyiv princes extends to vast territories - in the North, North-East and North-West, in the south - the expansion of the territories of Kyiv, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl and other principalities. This is how the formation of the early feudal Old Russian state proceeded. This had progressive significance for the further development of the state.
In the 9th-11th centuries, the economy of the Old Russian state can be characterized as a period of early feudalism. This was manifested in the attack of tribal leaders and elders on communal lands and their seizure, which was explained by the strengthening of arable land tenure and a two-field system of crop rotation, in which the interest in securing land in permanent possession increased significantly. Using their power, the owners appropriated vast lands for themselves, on which prisoners worked, turning into permanent workers. In personal estates, household yards were built, mansions and hunting houses were erected. In these places, the owners planted their stewards and created their own farms here. The possessions of ordinary free community members were surrounded by princely lands, into which the best plots of land, forests, and water areas passed. Gradually, many community members came under the influence of the prince and turned into workers dependent on him.
Private ownership of land was called “patrimony”; it can be bought, sold, or passed on by inheritance. It was formed by annexing the plots of other community members (impoverished) by force (non-economic method) and could be princely, boyar, monastic, or church. And thus the patrimonial owners turned into large landowners. At this time, the foundations of a strong system of relationships between the state, feudal lords and the rural population regarding production, tax collection, and military service were just being laid.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture was the main branch of the economy and during the period of Kievan Rus it made significant progress, but there were local differences that were determined by geographical factors and the level of development of the productive forces.
The importance of agriculture is evidenced by the fact that the sown lands were called “life”, and the main grain for each area was called “zhitom” (from the verb “to live”). By the 9th - 10th centuries. a large amount of land appeared, cleared from under the forest. A fallow system was used; two-field and three-field systems with spring and winter crops were known. In forest areas, shifting agriculture (slash-cutting) was maintained. In the North of the country, agriculture is backward - i.e. fire slash farming system, where the main crop is rye.
In the black soil south, lands were plowed mainly with a rawl or a plow with a pair of oxen, and in the north and in wooded areas - with a plow harnessed to one horse. They sowed rye, barley, wheat, oats, millet, flax, and hemp. Among garden crops, the most popular in Ancient Rus' was turnip. It replaced the niche of modern potatoes in the diet of medieval people. In addition, cabbage, onions, garlic, hops and industrial crops: flax and hemp were widespread.
Livestock raising was also an important branch of the economy associated with agriculture due to the need for draft power. The most popular animals were cattle and pigs (a very popular pet in medieval Europe). Small livestock - sheep and goats - were less common. During archaeological excavations, the remains of various domestic animals were found - chickens, cats, dogs. The horse was rarely used by the ancient Slavs, but as society developed and the state became established, its importance in human life increased greatly: it was used as a draft animal and for riding.
An important area of economic activity of the Eastern Slavs was hunting. It not only served as an aid to the farmer’s economy, but also had commercial significance. In the markets of Byzantium, the furs of beavers, martens, sables, and squirrels brought from Slavic lands were highly valued. Furs were one of the main exports. Fishing and beekeeping also developed.
CRAFTS
In Kievan Rus there is a flourishing of crafts, which had 64 types of craft specialties and was divided into rural (rural) and urban. Its specialization by region is growing. So, already in the 12th century. The Ustyug region in the North-West, specializing in foundry production, stood out. Village craft was of secondary importance. The first to emerge was iron production, based on local bog ore. The metal was obtained by the cheese blowing method.
In subsistence farming conditions , artisans improve home craft technologies. Masters learned to process flax, hemp and wood. The types of crafts in Rus' were rapidly increasing. Russian artisans perfectly learned the secrets of weapons, pottery, leatherwork, weaving and jewelry. Russian craftsmen in their skill, in terms of creativity and artistic performance, were in no way inferior to European masters. In total, researchers count up to 70 craft specialties in Kievan Rus
With the growth of crafts comes the growth of cities: in the 9th – 10th centuries. there are 25 of them; in the 11th century - already 64; in the 12th century - 135, and by the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion there were already 300. Kyiv is one of the largest craft and trade centers, with 100 thousand inhabitants. Another important trade and craft center was Novgorod, where in the 11th-12th centuries. There were already vertical machines, and in the XII-XIII centuries. – horizontal machines.
TRADE
The development of crafts and cities contributed to the intensification of trade. The transformation of ancient Russian cities into commercial centers of the country was favored by their geographical position relative to the trade route from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Monasteries played an important role in organizing trade. Fairs, as a rule, were held on religious holidays with a gathering of many people, among whom it was convenient to advertise and sell goods. Trade was protected by the church, as indicated by a specially raised flag. The church servants also exercised control: a transaction on the market was possible only with a witness-weigher, who collected the weight tax in favor of the prince. Official measures of length (cubit, etc.) and weight (yoke scales) were also kept in churches and monasteries. The export of items of robbery and tribute (fur, wax, slaves) and the import of luxury goods were the main directions of Kyiv’s trade with Byzantium, European and Arab countries, Persia, etc.
The main routes of communication were waterways. The most famous route is “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which connected the Baltic Sea with the Black Sea, and which passed through Kyiv. Expensive fabrics, books, icons, wines, spices, fruits, vegetables, glass and jewelry were brought to Rus' from Byzantium along the Dnieper Road. From the northern regions along the Dnieper they transported timber, honey, wax, furs, etc. The Volga route was also busy - to the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, Transcaucasia, and Arab countries.
With the development of trade, it developed monetary system. At first, in Kievan Rus there was a monetary unit in the northern regions - “kuna” - this is marten fur; in the southern regions - “cattle”. Therefore, until the 2nd half of the 10th century, Byzantine and Arab money - coins, and then Western European ones - circulated on the territory of Rus'. But at the end of the X - beginning of the XI centuries. The minting of its own coins begins: the Kyiv hryvnia and the Novgorod hryvnia.
The monetary unit was silver bars of a certain weight and shape - hryvnia weighing 200 grams. The hryvnia was divided into 20 nogat, 25 kup or 50 rez. The development of commodity-money relations led to the emergence of usury, which, under the influence of popular uprisings, the princely government tried to limit.
So, at the beginning of the 12th century, Kievan Rus reached its highest development. It was the legislative registration of the early feudal empire that became the beginning of its fragmentation. According to existing laws, local princes and boyars received greater independence in all matters, which led them to fight with the Grand Duke of Kyiv and among themselves. Beginning in the 1130s, Kievan Rus disintegrated into several independent states.
- Economy during the period of feudal fragmentation
The period of feudal fragmentation (XII-XV centuries) covers: the pre-Mongol period (until 1237-1241), when Rus' continued to develop in an ascending line, and the period of the Mongol yoke, which lasted until 1480, when there was a general decline in agricultural and handicraft production, trade and when the general decline begins to be overcome and the revival of crafts and construction begins.
By the middle of the 12th century. The process of feudal fragmentation ended, and on the basis of Kievan Rus, 15 independent principalities arose (the largest are the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, the Galician-Volyn Principality, and the Novgorod Republic).
By the 12th century, the boyar estates had become stronger and more independent, which allowed the boyars to attack communal lands. There was an enslavement of free community smerds, an increase in quitrents and duties that were performed in favor of the feudal lords by dependent smerds. Local feudal lords sought to gain more and more power in order to punish the smerds and receive fines from them - vira. The growth and strengthening of cities in the 11th-12th centuries also accelerated the process of collapse of the Old Russian state. Cities gradually began to demand economic and political independence, which allowed them to become centers of various principalities with their own strong princes, who were supported by local boyars. In many cities, the role of city people's assemblies - veche - increased, expressing the ideas of decentralization and independence of local authorities from Kyiv.
For almost two and a half centuries, the Russian economy developed in great dependence on the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, who destroyed everything that had been created by previous generations. As a result, the Russian economy was thrown back centuries. Cities, villages, cultural monuments, and craft centers were destroyed. According to archaeologists, there were 74 cities in Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century. Khan Batu destroyed 49 cities, life never returned to 14 of them, and 15 cities turned into small villages. The population has decreased noticeably. The economic dependence of Rus' was expressed in the fact that the entire population of the conquered Russian lands was enumerated and subject to a heavy annual tribute - yasak in the form of silver and various property. In addition to paying yasak, the Russian population had to perform a number of duties: military, yam, submarine, for which it was necessary to supply Russian soldiers to the Horde, horses and carts for the Baskaks, and pay high trade duties. The Mongol-Tatar invasion also had a negative impact on the development of crafts. The destruction of cities and the disruption of trade relations led to primitivization (the disappearance of some complex products while the share of simple ones increased) or the complete disappearance of some types of handicraft production. The restoration of the craft began only in the second half of the 13th century, when new large centers of the craft were formed and its specialization deepened (for example, metalsmithing was distinguished from blacksmithing, and archers, tulle makers, and squeakers were distinguished from among gunsmiths).
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Agriculture occupied the main place in the economy of Kievan Rus. It was based on arable farming. Compared to the primitive communal system during this period, farming techniques were significantly improved. In the black earth south they plowed mainly with a rawl or a plow with a pair of oxen, in the north and in wooded areas - with a plow harnessed to one horse. Agriculture played such an important role in the life of Ancient Rus' that the sown fields were called life, and the main grain for each area was called zhitom (from the verb “to live”). By the IX-X centuries. the fallow system began to be used (when the arable land was abandoned for a while). Two-field and three-field with spring and winter crops were already known. Slash-and-burn agriculture was preserved in forest areas. Peasant farms had horses, cows, sheep, pigs, goats, and poultry. Fishing, hunting, beekeeping (honey production) were helpful. Subsistence farming then dominated in Rus', in which almost everything necessary for life was produced in each household. Crafts were of great importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. Its main centers were ancient Russian cities, but certain branches also developed in villages. The most important industry was ferrous metallurgy, which, together with agriculture, was the basis of the country's economic development. Iron was mined from swamp ores, which were rich in the territory of Ancient Rus'. The processing of iron and the manufacture of numerous things from it for the household, military affairs and everyday life were carried out in blacksmith shops. Old Russian blacksmiths mastered many technological techniques for processing iron: forging, welding, cementing, turning, inlaying non-ferrous metals, polishing. The Old Russian word “smith” also meant a craftsman who worked with non-ferrous metals, who achieved exceptional skill in making jewelry.
Glassmaking, woodworking, pottery, and leather crafts have achieved great development.
The so-called home crafts, which included spinning, weaving, processing of agricultural products, food preparation, etc., were also widespread in Rus'. The products of artisans sometimes spread over tens and hundreds of kilometers around the city and abroad.
Cities also took on the functions of trade and exchange. In the largest of them (Kyiv, Novgorod) there was widespread and regular trade in rich and extensive bazaars, and both non-resident and foreign merchants lived permanently. Kievan Rus was famous for its cities. It is no coincidence that foreigners called it Gardarika - the country of cities. At first these were fortresses and political centers. Overgrown with new plantings, they became the center of craft production and trade. Even before the formation of Kievan Rus, the cities of Kyiv, Novgorod, Beloozero, Izborsk, Smolensk, Lyubech, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and others were formed on the most important water trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
In the X-XI centuries. a new generation of political, trade and craft centers is being created: Ladoga, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Murom, etc.
Foreign economic relations acquired particular importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. Russian merchants “Rusarii” were well known abroad, they were provided with significant benefits and privileges: treaties of 907, 911, 944, 971. with Byzantium, etc.
Among the five most important main trade routes, the Constantinople-Byzantine, Trans-Caspian-Baghdad, Bulgarian, Reginsburg and Novgorod-Scandinavian, the first two were initially of greatest importance.
It is interesting that internal trade in Rus', especially in the 11th-10th centuries, was predominantly of an “barter” nature. Then, along with the exchange, the monetary form appears. At first, livestock (leather money) and fur (kuny - marten fur) acted as money. "Russkaya Pravda" also mentions metal money. The main metallic monetary unit of account was the hryvnia kun (an oblong silver ingot). Hryvnia kun was divided into 20 nogat, 25 kun, 50 rezan, etc. Having existed in the ancient Russian market until the 14th century, this monetary unit was supplanted by the ruble and the minting of its own coin.
The key to understanding the socio-economic system of the ancient Russian state can largely be the polyudye, which chronologically covers the end of the 8th - first half of the 10th century, and locally until the 12th century. This was in fact the most naked form of domination and subordination, the exercise of the supreme right to land, and the establishment of the concept of citizenship. The wealth collected in colossal amounts (food, honey, wax, furs, etc.) not only satisfied the needs of the prince and his squad, but made up a fairly high share of ancient Russian exports. To the collected products were added slaves, servants from prisoners or people caught in heavy bondage, who found demand in international markets. Grandiose, well-guarded military-trade expeditions, occurring in the summer, delivered the export part of polyudye along the Black Sea to Bulgaria, Byzantium, and the Caspian Sea; Russian land caravans reached Baghdad on their way to India.
The peculiarities of the socio-economic system of Kievan Rus are reflected in the “Russian Truth” - a genuine code of ancient Russian feudal law. Amazing with the high level of lawmaking and the legal culture developed for its time, this document was in force until the 15th century. and consisted of separate norms of the “Russian Law”, “The Most Ancient Truth” or “The Truth of Yaroslav”, Additions to the “Pravda of Yaroslav” (provisions on collectors of court fines, etc.), “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs” (“The Truth of the Russian Land”, approved by the sons Yaroslav the Wise), the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, which included the “Charter on cuts” (interests), “Charter on procurement”, etc.
