Molecular physics, thermodynamics, combustion theory. Technical thermodynamics and heat transfer: Textbook for universities

1 DK 536.7(07) + 536.24 Reviewers: Department of Heat Engineering and Thermal Power Plants of the St. Petersburg State University of Transport (Doctor of Technical Sciences, Prof. I.G. Kiselev), Professor B.S. Fokin (JSC NPO "TsKTI im. I.I. Polzunov") Sapozhnikov S.Z., Kitanin E.L. Technical thermodynamics and heat transfer: Textbook for universities. St. Petersburg: Publishing house of St. Petersburg State Technical University, 1999. 319 p. ISBN 5-7422-0098-6 The fundamentals of technical thermodynamics and heat transfer are presented. The principles of thermodynamics, methods for calculating thermodynamic processes with ideal gas and with real working fluids, cycles of power plants, refrigeration machines and heat pumps are presented. The processes of stationary and non-stationary thermal conductivity, convective heat transfer, and radiative heat transfer are described. The basics of thermal calculation of heat exchangers are given. Designed for bachelors in the direction 551400 “Land Transport Systems”. I8ВN 5-7422-0098-6 St. Petersburg State Technical University, 1999 Sapozhnikov S.Z., Kitanin E.L., 1999 2 CONTENTS Preface................... ........................................................ .... 1. TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS.................................... 1.1. Subject and method of technical thermodynamics....... 1.2. Basic concepts of thermodynamics........................ 1.2.1. Thermodynamic system and thermodynamic parameters.................................................... ............... 1.2.2. Thermodynamic equilibrium and equilibrium thermodynamic process.................................................. 1.2.3. Thermal equation of state. Thermodynamic surface and state diagrams………………………………………………………………. 1.2.4. Mixtures of ideal gases......................................... 1.2.5. Energy, work, heat.................................... 1.2.6. Heat capacity................................................. ........ 1.3. The first law of thermodynamics................................... 1.3.1. Equation of the first principle................................... 1.3.2. Internal energy as a function of state................................................... ........................ 1.3.3. Enthalpy and its properties.................................................... 1.3.4. Equation of the first law for an ideal gas.................................................... ............................................... 1.4. Analysis of processes with ideal gas.................................... 1.4.1. Isobaric process......................................................... 1.4. 2. Isochoric process.................................................... 1.4.3. Isothermal process................................................... 1.4.4. Adiabatic process................................................... 1.4.5 . Polytropic processes........................................ 1.4.6. Gas compression in a piston compressor.................... 1.5. Second law of thermodynamics................................... 1.5.1. Reversible and irreversible processes................................. 1.5.2. Cycles and their efficiency.................................................... ...... 1.5.3. Formulations of the second principle................................ 1.5.4. Carnot cycle. Carnot's theorem................................ 3 1.5.5. Entropy, its change in reversible and irreversible processes.................................................... ........................... 1.5.6. T–s state diagram. Entropy change in ideal gas processes.................................................... ........................................ 1.5.7. Thermodynamic temperature scale............... 1.6. Cycles of piston internal combustion engines.................................................................... .................................... 1.6.1. Cycle with isochoric heat supply (Otto cycle) 1.6.2. Cycle with isobaric heat supply (Diesel cycle) .................................................. ........................................................ ................ 1.6.3. Comparison of the efficiency of internal combustion engine cycles............... 1.7. Cycles of gas turbine units.................................... 1.7.1. Scheme and cycle with isobaric heat supply.. 1.7.2. Thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle.................... 1.7.3. Regenerative cycle of a gas turbine unit................................... 1.7.4. Efficiency of real cycles................... 1.8. Thermodynamics of real working fluids................... 1.8.1. Equations of state of real gases................... 1.8.2. Change in the state of aggregation of a substance.... 1.8.3. Diagrams and tables of states................... 1.9. Cycles of steam power plants................................... 1.9.1. Carnot steam cycle......................................... 1.9.2. Rankine cycle................................................... ..... 1.10. Cycles of refrigeration machines and heat pumps 1.10.1. Reverse Carnot cycle.................................................... 1.10 .2. Cycle of a vapor compression refrigeration machine with steam superheating and throttling................................. 1.10.3. Heat pump cycle................................... 1.11. Humid air. ........................................................ ....... 1.11.1 Basic concepts and definitions...... 1.11.2. h–d diagram of humid air.................. 2. HEAT TRANSFER.................................... ................................... 4 2.1. General ideas about heat transfer................... 2.2. Thermal conductivity................................................. ....... 2.2.1. Basic concepts and definitions............ 2.2.2. Bio-Fourier hypothesis.................................... 2.2.3. Differential equation of thermal conductivity. ……………………………………………………… 2.2.4. Conditions for uniqueness......................................... 2.2.5. Models of bodies in heat conduction problems...... 2.3. Stationary thermal conductivity................................... 2.3.1. Thermal conductivity of plates and shells......... 2.3.2. Thermal conductivity of finned surfaces. 2.4. Unsteady thermal conductivity........................ 2.4.1. Thermal conductivity of thermally thin bodies....... 2.4.2. Thermal conductivity of a semi-bounded body and rod.................................................... .......... 2.4.3. Heating and cooling of plate, cylinder and ball. 2.4.4. Heating and cooling of bodies of finite sizes…….. 2.4.5. Regular thermal regime........................... 2.5. Approximate methods of the theory of thermal conductivity.. 2.5.1. Electrothermal analogy................................... 2.5.2. Graphical method......................................... 2.5.3. Finite difference method........................... 2.6. Physical foundations of convective heat transfer.. 2.6.1. Basic concepts and definitions......................... 2.6.2. Differential equations of convective heat transfer.................................... ......................................... 2.7. Fundamentals of similarity theory......................................................... 2.7.1. Similarity of physical phenomena......................... 2.7.2. Similarity theorems................................................... 2.7.3 . Similarity equations........................................ 2.7.4. Modeling rules................................... 2.8. Convective heat transfer in a single-phase medium..... 2.8.1. Flow modes of liquids and gases.................................... 5 2.8.2. Boundary layer................................................... 2.8.3. Heat transfer in a laminar boundary layer on a flat surface.................................................................... ....... 2.8.4. Heat transfer in a turbulent boundary layer on a flat surface.................................................... .......... 2.8.5. Heat transfer during forced convection in pipes and channels.................................... 2.8.6. Heat transfer in a stabilized flow section. Integral Liona........................................ 2.8.7. Heat transfer during laminar flow in pipes……………………………………………………….. 2.8.8. Heat transfer during turbulent flow in pipes... 2.8.9. Heat transfer during flow around pipes and tube bundles.................................................... ........................... 2.8.10. Heat transfer during free convection........ 2.8.11. Heat transfer in fluidized media....... 2.9. Convective heat transfer during boiling and condensation.................................................... ........................... 2.9.1. Heat transfer during boiling................................ 2.9.2. Heat exchange during condensation........................... 2.9.3. Heat pipes........................................................ 2.10. Heat transfer by radiation................................................... 2.10.1. Physical basis of radiation................... 2.10.2. Calculation of heat transfer by radiation................... 2.10.3. Solar radiation................................... 2.10.4. Complex heat transfer................................... 2.11. Heat exchangers........................................................ ......... 2.11.1 Classification and purpose................................. 2.11.2. Fundamentals of thermal calculations................................ 2.11.3. Efficiency of heat exchangers. Real heat transfer coefficients................................ 2.11.4. Hydraulic calculation of heat exchangers... References.................................................... .................... 6 PREFACE “Engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer” is one of the main courses taught to bachelors in the field of “Land Transport Systems”. It is rich in information and is compressed in terms of study time to 1-2 semesters, so most fundamental textbooks are of little help to students: they are overly detailed, not focused on the range of tasks related to transport systems, and, finally, they are simply designed for courses of a much larger volume. For transportation engineers, the main thing is to understand the subject and basic ideas of thermodynamics and heat transfer, and to master the established terminology of these sciences. It is absolutely necessary to remember 10-15 basic formulas (such as the ideal gas equation of state, the formula for calculating heat transfer through a multilayer plate, the Stefan-Boltzmann law, etc.). The rest of the information, despite its importance, just needs to be understood, physically presented, and connected with examples from various areas of life and technology. Therefore, the authors tried to pay the main attention to the physical side of the phenomena under consideration, and left a worthy, but modest place for the mathematical apparatus. The authors express their deep gratitude to the reviewers - the Department of Heat Engineering and Thermal Power Plants of the St. Petersburg State University of Transport in the person of Dr. Tech. science prof. I. G. Kiseleva and Ph.D. tech. Assoc. Sc. V.I. Krylov, as well as Dr. Tech. science prof. B. S. Fokin - for valuable comments that made it possible to improve the original text. Special thanks to Ph.D. tech. Sciences G. G. Le Havre for great assistance in preparing the manuscript; She came up with the idea to compare the N, ε - method of calculating heat exchangers with the traditional calculation scheme. And, of course, the help in the design of the book from employees of the department “Theoretical Foundations of Thermal Engineering” of St. Petersburg State Technical University E. O. Vvedenskaya, R. M. Groznaya, graduate students Yu. V. Burtseva and E. M. Rotinyan turned out to be very valuable. S. Sapozhnikov E. Kitanin 8 1. TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS 1.1. SUBJECT AND METHOD OF TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics - the science of energy transformations - is fundamental for the power engineering engineer. The origin of thermodynamics coincides with the appearance of the first steam engines. In 1824, the French engineer S. Carnot examined the energetic interaction of water and steam with various parts of the engine and with the environment; he was the first to estimate the efficiency of a steam engine. Since then, the subject of studying thermodynamics has been processes in power machines, aggregate transformations of substances, physicochemical, plasma and other processes. These studies are based on the thermodynamic method: the object of study can be any body included in the so-called thermodynamic system. This system must be: sufficiently extensive and complex so that statistical laws are observed in it (the movement of molecules of a substance in a certain volume, heating and cooling of particles of solid material in the backfill, etc.); closed, that is, have limits in all spatial directions and consist of a finite number of particles. There are no other restrictions for the thermodynamic system. Objects of the material world that are not included in the thermodynamic system are called the environment. Returning to the works of S. Carnot, we note that water and the steam obtained from it are a thermodynamic system. By tracing the energy interaction of water and steam with surrounding bodies, one can evaluate the efficiency of converting the heat supplied to the machine into work. But modern power machines do not always use water to convert energy. Let us agree to call any medium that is used to convert energy a working fluid. 9 Thus, the subject of technical thermodynamics is the laws of energy conversion in the processes of interaction of working bodies with elements of power machines and with the environment, analysis of the perfection of power machines, as well as the study of the properties of working bodies and their changes in interaction processes. Unlike statistical physics, which studies the physical model of a system with clear patterns of interaction between microparticles, thermodynamics in its conclusions is not associated with any structure of the body and with certain forms of communication between the elements of this structure. Thermodynamics uses laws of a universal nature, i.e., valid for all bodies, regardless of their structure. These laws form the basis of all thermodynamic reasoning and are called the principles of thermodynamics. The first principle expresses the law of conservation of energy - a universal law of nature. It determines the energy balance during interactions within a thermodynamic system, as well as between the thermodynamic system and the environment. The second principle determines the direction of energy transformations and significantly expands the capabilities of the thermodynamic method. Both principles are of an experimental nature and are applicable to all thermodynamic systems. Based on these two principles, presented in mathematical form, it is possible to express the parameters of energy exchange during various interactions, establish connections between the properties of substances, etc. However, in order to bring the results to specific numbers, the “internal resources” of thermodynamics alone are not enough. It is necessary to use experimental or theoretical results that take into account the nature of the working fluid in a real thermodynamic system. If, for example, we use experimental data on the density of a substance, then using thermodynamic analysis we can calculate its heat capacity, etc. 10 Thus, thermodynamic research is based on the fundamental laws of nature. At the same time, engineering calculations in thermodynamics are impossible without using experimental data or the results of theoretical studies of the physical properties of working fluids. 1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS 1. 2.1. Thermodynamic system and thermodynamic parameters We called a thermodynamic system any body or system of bodies that interact with each other and (or) with the environment (such a system may, in particular, include the working bodies of energy machines). The definition does not specify what exactly is considered a thermodynamic system and what is considered an environment. One can, for example, consider the working fluid itself to be a thermodynamic system, and “everything else” to be considered the environment; You can select only a part of the body, and consider the remaining part and all other bodies to be the environment. It is possible, on the contrary, to expand the thermodynamic system - to include in it, in addition to the first body, several others, and consider all other bodies to be the environment. Such an expansion or narrowing of the range of objects that make up a thermodynamic system makes it possible to clarify important features of working bodies and energy interactions between them. It is known that the same substance can be in a liquid, gaseous or solid state. In this case, naturally, the properties of this substance, this thermodynamic system, will be different, for example, density, coefficient of volumetric expansion, magnetic permeability, speed of sound, etc. All these, as well as other quantities characterizing the state of the thermodynamic system, are called thermodynamic parameters condition. There are a lot of them; traditionally distinguished

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NEW. Gib b s J. W. Thermodynamics. Statistical mechanics. 1982 594 pp. djvu. 9.9 MB.
This edition of the scientific works of the American physicist J. W. Gibbs, the creator of modern thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, includes his seminal work “On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances” along with two other articles on thermodynamics, as well as the monograph “Fundamental Principles of Statistical Mechanics”.
The book is intended for physicists, chemists, physical chemists and historians of science.

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A.I. Andryushchenko. Fundamentals of technical thermodynamics of real processes 1967. 253 pp. djvu. 10.9 MB.
In recent years, technical thermodynamics has been increasingly developed as an applied science, making it possible to calculate the most complex processes in various thermal power plants. Particularly developed is the method of calculating real (irreversible) processes, based on taking into account the technical performance of heat and working fluids through the joint application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamic functions are widely used, including entropy as a parameter of the state of the system under consideration, from changes in which it is possible to calculate not only the maximum possible, but also the actual work and its losses. Unfortunately, these issues have not yet received adequate coverage in textbooks on technical thermodynamics.

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I.P. Bazarov. EM. Misconceptions and errors in thermodynamics. 2nd ed. corr. 2003 117 pp. djvu. 1.2 MB.
The book discusses the misconceptions of the founders of thermodynamics (Clausius, Thomson, Planck, Nernst, Wien, Helmholtz), analyzes characteristic errors in understanding the basic concepts and starting points of thermodynamics, its principles and methods, found in educational and scientific literature. Incorrect conclusions in applications of thermodynamics to various macroscopic systems are considered.
For specialists in the field of thermodynamics, graduate students and students.

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Bakhareva I.F. Nonlinear nonequilibrium thermodynamics. 1976. 141 pp. PDF. 1.6 MB.
The book provides a presentation of the version of nonlinear nonequilibrium thermodynamics developed by the author. The basis of the presentation is the mechanical analogues of nonequilibrium thermodynamics proposed by the author, the general variational principle for non-stationary nonequilibrium processes of various tensor properties and a new stochastic model of a nonlinear process with discrete changes in parameters at discrete times.
The basic principles of the theory are illustrated using problems of chemical kinetics, as well as examples of thermal conductivity, diffusion, and viscous liquids.

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Bazarov I.P. Thermodynamics. Textbook. 2nd ed. 1991 376 pp. djvu, 4.2 MB.
The textbook systematically presents the fundamentals of thermodynamics, its methods and the most important physical applications, taking into account the development trends of modern physics. For the first time in educational literature, relativistic thermodynamics and the thermodynamics of systems at negative thermodynamic temperatures are considered, errors and misconceptions in thermodynamics are analyzed. As the material is presented, methodological issues of the course are discussed. The textbook concludes with an introduction to nonequilibrium thermodynamics. A large number of problems have been analyzed. Complexity of theory physics.

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Bogoslovsky S.V. Physical properties of gases and liquids. 2001 74 pp. djvu, 270 Kb.
Contains a description of the basic physical properties of gases and liquids used in mathematical modeling of the movement of aerohydrodynamic objects.

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Vukalovich M. P., Novikov I. I. Thermodynamics. 1972 671 pp. djvu. 7.1 MB.
The book is a systematic course in the thermodynamics of equilibrium and nonequilibrium processes, which examines both equilibrium states and equilibrium processes of changes in the state of bodies, as well as irreversible processes, primarily the processes of the flow of viscous liquids and heat transfer under various conditions.
Part 1. FOUNDATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS. Chapter 1. Basic concepts. Chapter 2. The principles of thermodynamics. Chapter 3. Thermodynamic equilibrium. Chapter 4~. Equilibrium phases. Chapter 5. Basic thermodynamic processes and cycles. Chapter 6. Properties of gases and liquids. Chapter 8. Properties of vapors and liquids.
Part 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMODYNAMICS OF IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES.
Part 3. ELEMENTS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS.
Part 4. TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS OF THERMODYNAMICS.

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K.P. Gurov. Phenomenological thermodynamics of irreversible processes (physical foundations). 126 pp. djvu. 655 KB.
The book sets out in a concise form the basic principles of the phenomenological theory of thermodynamics of irreversible processes and explains their physical content. Unlike previously published books on this topic, the book is not overloaded with details and, whenever possible, it uses the simplest mathematical apparatus. Along with coverage of traditional sections of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, the book briefly describes a new direction in which nonlinear effects are taken into account.
The book is intended for a wide range of readers: physicists and technical engineers, and can also be useful to senior students of technical higher educational institutions.

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P. Glensdorf, I. Prigogine. Thermodynamic theory of structure, stability and fluctuations. 1973 280 pp. djvu. 3.2 MB.
This book, written in collaboration with P. Glensdorf, is the first monograph in world literature devoted to the issues of nonlinear thermodynamics of irreversible processes. It includes a presentation of the foundations of “classical” nonequilibrium thermodynamics, the variational method for nonlinear problems and their application to issues of hydrodynamic stability, chemical reactions and biology.

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Groot. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes. 1956 281 pp. djvu. 2.2 MB.
This monograph provides a complete and systematic presentation of the basic principles of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes and its applications to physics and chemistry.

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F. Dyson et al. Stability and phase transitions. 1973 380 pp. dgvu. 3.6 MB.
The book contains four cycles of lectures devoted to the study of the properties of many-particle systems near the stability limit. The issues of stability of systems of charged particles (Dyson), as well as the thermodynamic behavior of matter during phase transitions such as ordering (Katz, Montroll, Fischer) are considered.
The authors of the lectures - major foreign scientists - are well known to the Soviet reader for their original works, reviews and monographs, some of which have been translated into Russian (Katz M., Probability and related issues in physics, Mir publishing house, 1965; Fischer M., The nature of a critical condition, Mir Publishing House, 1968).
This book is intended for readers - mathematicians, computer scientists, physicists, chemists, engineers interested in problems of stability and phase transitions, as well as for graduate and undergraduate students of relevant specialties.

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Doktorov A.B., Burshtein A.I. Thermodynamics. Course of lectures. 2003 82 pages pdf. 618 KB.
The course of lectures outlines the fundamentals of classical equilibrium thermodynamics, mainly using the example of gas systems. A special feature of the course is the combination of clear physical concepts with a fairly consistent mathematical description. This makes it possible to extend the general thermodynamic methods considered using the example of gases to a wide class of equilibrium many-particle systems (dielectrics and magnets, equilibrium radiation, two- and multiphase systems).
Published by decision of the Department of General Physics.
The textbook can be used by university teachers and students.

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Gyarmati I. Nonequilibrium thermodynamics. 1974 300 pp. djvu. 5.4 MB.
The book by the Hungarian scientist contains a broad and consistent presentation of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, based on a unified approach - field theory. The author proposes a general method for solving problems of thermodynamics, based on the variational principle he formulated. This approach is not only of purely theoretical, but also practical interest and can be used as the basis for solving a wide variety of thermodynamic problems.
The book is of interest to a wide range of readers involved in thermodynamics, continuum physics, physical chemistry, as well as teachers, graduate students and senior students of physics and chemistry departments of universities.

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Zhuravlev V.A. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes in examples and problems, 1998. 150 pp. djvu. 375 KB.
The book represents the first attempt to present the basic principles of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes in the form of thematically selected problems with solutions and instructions. It includes more than a hundred problems on general and special issues of linear and nonlinear thermodynamics of irreversible processes, on issues covering a wide range of phenomena of energy, mass and momentum transfer in thermodynamic systems complicated by phase transformations, viscous and plastic motion of the medium, energy dissipation in gases and plasma, relaxation phenomena and chemical reactions in a magnetic field.
The book is intended for scientists and engineers who independently study the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, as well as teachers, graduate students and senior students of physics departments of universities, engineering physics and physical and technical universities.

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N.V. Inozemtsev. Fundamentals of thermodynamics and kinetics. chemical reactions. 1940 258 pp. djvu. 5.4 MB.
This work is a presentation of lectures given by the author at the engine-building department of the Moscow Aviation Institute. Cepro Ordzhonikidze and the Military Academy of Mechanization and Motorization of the Red Army named after. Stalin, on the fundamentals of thermodynamics and kinetics of chemical reactions (course of special thermodynamics).
The course of thermodynamics and kinetics of chemical reactions, which arose several years ago, has fully justified itself and is currently considered as one of the main applied subjects necessary for an engine-building engineer in his practical activities.
The book is not in the SI system; it didn’t exist then. This causes unnecessary difficulty in reading. But I have not seen its content in contemporary literature.
It seemed interesting to me to see how cadets were taught before the war at the Vienna Academy of Mechanization and Motorization of the Red Army named after STALIN. And you have never heard of such a thing.

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Izyumov, Syromyatnikov. Phase transitions and symmetry of crystals. The book provides a systematic and complete presentation of the current state of Landau's phenomenological theory of phase transitions as applied to various transitions in crystals. The theory of representations of space groups is presented in detail. 245 pp. djvu, 2.9 MB.

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Kaiser J. Statistical thermodynamics of nonequilibrium processes. 1990 508 pp. djvu. 10.4 MB.
The book by the American author provides a systematic presentation of classical statistical thermodynamics. Both general results and applications of the theory to specific problems of hydrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics and electrochemistry are presented; in particular, non-stationary processes in systems with complex behavior are discussed. The results of many of the experiments discussed were published only in journals. For scientists - physicists, biophysicists, chemists, as well as for senior students and graduate students of relevant specialties.
The book is good, but it is not general physics.

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Karminsky V.D. Technical thermodynamics and heat transfer: Course of lectures. 2005 228 pp. djvu. 3.8 MB.
The basic laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic processes, cycles of heat engines and refrigeration units, and the fundamentals of the study of heat transfer are outlined. The processes of thermal conductivity, convective heat transfer, radiation heat transfer, as well as heat transfer during phase transformations are considered. Quite detailed mathematical transformations are given, and the necessary illustrative material is available.
The course of lectures is intended for students of railway universities full-time, evening and distance learning. May be useful for engineers and technical workers.

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V.I. Krutov, S.I. Isaev, I.A. Kozhinov et al. Technical thermodynamics. Textbook. 3rd ed. reworked additional 1991 385 pp. djvu. 6.8 MB.
The textbook outlines the basic laws of thermodynamics and their application to ideal and real working fluids. Attention is paid to the basic principles of direct and reverse cycles, exergy, direct conversion of heat into electrical energy, and the basics of chemical thermodynamics of solutions. The third edition (2nd - 1981) additionally outlines the fundamentals of plasma and solid state thermodynamics, cycles with real working fluids, elements of statistical thermodynamics, outflow from vessels and other issues.

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V.I. Krutov. Technical thermodynamics. 2nd ed. reworked additional 1981 441 pp. djvu. 5.7 MB.
Basic laws of thermodynamics. Application of the basic laws of thermodynamics to ideal gases. Application of the basic laws of thermodynamics to real working fluids. Fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics. Expiration and throttling. Cycles of thermal machines and installations. Some applications of thermodynamics (plasma, machineless energy conversion, statistical thermodynamics)

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V.A. Kudinov, E.M. Kartashov. Technical thermodynamics. 200 year. 265 pp. djvu. 6.8 MB.
The book examines the basic laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic processes, the flow of gases and vapors. The cycles of compressors, internal combustion engines, gas turbine and steam turbine units, and the cycles of refrigeration machines are described in sufficient detail. The exergy method for analyzing thermal power plants is considered. The fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics are outlined.
For students of higher technical educational institutions. A heating engineer may be useful.

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Kirillin, Sychev, Sheindlin. Technical thermodynamics. Textbook. 4th ed. reworked 1983 417 pp. djvu. 10.1 MB.
Along with the usual sections for such textbooks on the basic laws of thermodynamics and the general theoretical principles arising from them, which form the basis for the analysis of the operating cycles of heat engines and refrigeration machines, a number of issues are presented that are of interest in connection with new achievements in the field of thermodynamics, thermophysics and energy . The first edition of the book was published in 1968, the second in 1974, the third in 1979. The textbook was awarded the USSR State Prize in 1976.
For undergraduate and graduate students of energy, thermophysical and engineering physics faculties of universities.

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Kubo. Thermodynamics. Part 1 of the author's original course. A distinctive feature is that, in addition to covering the fundamentals of the theory, the book devotes at least half of its volume to problems with solutions and explanations. The course is useful both in studying General Physics and this section of Theoretic Physics. Size 3.4 MB. djvu.

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Lashutina, Makashova, Medvedev. Technical thermodynamics with the fundamentals of heat transfer and hydraulics. Uch. ex. 1988 336 pp. djvu. 4.8 MB.
The theoretical foundations of technical thermodynamics, heat transfer and hydraulics, necessary for training students specializing in the operation of refrigeration compressor machines and installations, as well as air conditioning systems, are presented in detail.
Textbook a manual for students of technical schools specializing in “Refrigeration and compressor machines and installations.”

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G.A. Lorenz. Lectures on thermodynamics. 2nd ed. 2001 170 pp. djvu. 510 KB.
The book includes questions of thermodynamics, which together form what is commonly called “classical thermodynamics”. The first and second laws of thermodynamics and their application to binary systems, adiabatic processes, mixed crystals, etc. are presented in sufficient detail. The book was written by a major theoretical physicist of the end of the last century and will undoubtedly arouse the interest of a wide range of readers: from undergraduate and graduate students to specialist mathematicians , physicists and historians of science.

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Lykov, Mikhailov. Theory of energy and matter transfer. 1959 330 pp. djvu, 7.2 MB.
This monograph is devoted to the analytical theory of heat and matter transfer phenomena. Based on the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, a system of differential equations for heat and mass transfer is derived. Using the methods of finite integral transformations, solutions were obtained for the simplest bodies (plate, cylinder and ball) under boundary conditions of the second and third kind. The solutions obtained can be used to calculate the processes of thermal diffusion in gas mixtures and molecular solutions, drying, gasification, combustion, etc.
The book is of interest to a wide range of engineering and technical workers and can serve as a teaching aid for students of thermal power engineering specialties at universities.

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Sh. Ma. Modern theory of critical phenomena. 1980 297 pp. djvu. 3.1 MB.
The monograph by Professor Ma Shanken of the University of California is a course on the modern theory of critical phenomena and phase transitions. The book describes in detail the basics of similarity theory, renormalization group, e- and 1/n-expansion. The dynamics of critical phenomena is considered. No special mathematical training is required to read the book.
King is of interest to a wide range of scientists, in particular those involved in solid state physics, low temperatures, magnetic phenomena, physical chemistry, as well as for graduate and senior students of all these specialties.

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V.E. Mikryukov. Thermodynamics course. 3rd ed. 1960 236 pp. djvu. 3.7 MB.
In the third edition, in the ninth chapter, five new paragraphs were added: standard tables of thermodynamic functions, calculation of standard values ​​when changing temperature and pressure, application of standard tables, calculation of standard values ​​- and a number of new problems were added.
The content of the book consists mainly of questions of physical thermodynamics: axiomatics of thermodynamics; method of thermodynamic functions; their application to the study of thermodynamic equilibrium; phase transformations; thermodynamics of radiation, etc. It examines all the issues covered by the thermodynamics program for physics and mathematics departments of pedagogical institutes. It can also serve as a guide for university students, since the completeness of presentation of almost all sections corresponds to the university curriculum.
The book is filled with a number of examples that reinforce the material covered.
A clearly written book.

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Mikheev M. A., Mikheeva I. M. Fundamentals of heat transfer. Ed. 2nd. 1977 344 pp. djvu, 7.6 MB.
The book outlines the basic principles of the doctrine of heat transfer and their applications to the analysis of the operation of thermal devices. Elementary types of heat transfer (thermal conduction, convection and thermal radiation), the complex process of heat transfer and the basics of calculating heat exchangers are sequentially considered. The first edition of the book was published in 1973. The second edition of the book contains minor changes and clarifications.
The book is intended for engineering and technical workers involved in the design, manufacture and operation of heat exchange equipment. It can be used by university students as a teaching aid.

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A.G. Murachevsky, editor. Thermodynamics of liquid-vapor equilibrium. 1989 345 pp. djvu. 4.2 MB.
Issues of the thermodynamic theory of heterogeneous equilibria as applied to liquid-vapor systems, the structure of phase equilibrium diagrams, and methods for the experimental study of liquid-vapor equilibria are considered. Particular attention is paid to the possibilities of checking the thermodynamic consistency of experimental data and methods for a priori calculation of liquid-vapor equilibria in multicomponent systems.
For scientific, engineering and technical workers in the chemical, petrochemical and other industries involved in the development and optimization of processes for the separation and purification of substances. May be useful for teachers, graduate students and students of chemical engineering universities and chemical departments of universities.

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Nashchokin V.V. Engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer. Uch. ex. 1976 497 pp. djvu. 5.0 MB.
The book outlines the fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics and heat transfer. The first part outlines the laws of thermodynamics and their application to the analysis of cycles of heat engines, gas turbines, steam turbines and refrigeration units. The second part outlines the physical basis of heat transfer. Elementary methods of heat transfer are considered. The application of the general theory of heat and mass transfer to the study of processes in wet colloidal capillary-porous bodies is briefly outlined. The book contains test questions and a number of solved problems. The book is written using the International System of Units.

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Novikov I.I. Fundamentals of technical thermodynamics of real processes. 1984 593 pp. djvu. 11.1 MB.
The basic principles of thermodynamics, its mathematical apparatus, methods of thermodynamic analysis are outlined, and the thermodynamic properties of substances are described. Considerable attention is paid to the equilibrium of thermodynamic systems and phase transitions, and technical applications of thermodynamics. The traditional presentation of the fundamentals of thermodynamics of equilibrium states and processes is organically combined with the presentation of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.
Textbook a manual for students of power engineering and thermal engineering specialties of higher educational institutions.

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Nozdrev V.F. Thermodynamics course. Educational allowance. 2nd ed. 1967 194 pp. djvu, 3.6 MB.
Complexity is general physics. Only thermodynamics (no statistical physics), but all the main issues are presented in more detail than in modern textbooks. Many cycles of real heat engines have been covered (I haven’t seen so many in other textbooks). It begins with physical concepts and ends with the third beginning.

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Prigozhin I., Kondepudi D. Modern thermodynamics. From heat engines to dissipative structures. 2002 460 pp. djvu, 5.1 MB.
An educational publication that consistently presents equilibrium, linear and nonlinear nonequilibrium thermodynamics, the latter as a general theory of nonequilibrium processes. The book is richly illustrated and contains historical information, exercises with solutions, and computer programs. Of particular interest is the fact that many of the fundamental concepts of nonequilibrium thermodynamics were created with the direct participation of one of the authors, Nobel Prize winner I.R. Prigogine. The subject of the book relates to the fundamental sections of natural science.
For undergraduates, graduate students and university teachers, as well as physicists, chemists, biologists and engineers. It starts with the very basics, so you can start learning thermodynamics from there. I recommend!

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I. Prigogine, R. Defey. Chemical thermodynamics. 1966 502 double pages djvu. 7.9 MB.
Chapters: 1. Thermodynamic variables. 2. The principle of conservation of energy. 3. The principle of increasing entropy. 4. Chemical affinity. 5. Average values ​​of chemical affinity. 6. Chemical potentials. 7. Ideal systems and comparison systems. 8. Standard chemical affinity. 9. Nernst's thermal theorem. 10. Ideal gases. 11. Real gases. 12. Condensed phases. 13. Gibbs phase rule and Duheme’s theorem. 14. Phase transformations. 15. Thermodynamic stability. 16. Stability and critical phenomena. 17. Moderation theorems. 18. Displacements along the equilibrium line. 19. Equilibrium processes, relaxation phenomena and second-order transitions. 20. Solutions. 21. Equilibrium liquid - vapor. 22. Equilibrium solution - crystal. Systems with ethics. 23. Equilibrium solution - crystal. Mixed crystals and addition compounds. 24. Excess thermodynamic functions. 25. Regular and athermal solutions. 26. Associated solutions. 27. Electrolit solutions. 28. Azeotropy. 29. Indifferent states.

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Prigozhin I. Introduction to the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. 2001 160 pages djvu, 1.2 MB.
A small monograph by the famous Belgian scientist I. Prigogine, Nobel Prize winner, is devoted to a very relevant and promising direction in modern science - the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. The presented theory of irreversible processes represents a further development of thermodynamics and is increasingly being applied in various fields of physics, chemistry, biology and technology. At the end of the book is I. Prigogine’s Nobel lecture. Distinguished by scientific rigor and generality of conclusions with clarity and accessibility of presentation, the book is very useful for scientists and engineers, graduate students and undergraduates.

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Skripov, Faizullin. Phase transitions crystal - liquid - vapor. djvu, 160 pp. 1.4 MB.

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Sorokin V.S. Macroscopic irreversibility and entropy. Introduction to thermodynamics. 2004 176 pp. 174 pp. djvu. 1.2 MB.
General issues of classical thermodynamics are considered; the principle of macroscopic irreversibility and the second law of thermodynamics; entropy and absolute temperature; criteria of balance and stability; equilibrium of systems consisting of several phases.
For teachers, graduate students and students of physics departments, as well as anyone interested in fundamental problems of physics.

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It is the only systematic presentation in the world of the results of nonlinear nonequilibrium and fluctuation-dissipation thermodynamics. Linear nonequilibrium thermodynamics is presented as a small part of a unified nonlinear theory. The results of the theory, obtained on the basis of a few general principles, are universal in nature and can be used in many areas of physics, as well as in physical chemistry. Their application is illustrated by numerous examples, and solutions to a number of specific problems have been found. For senior and postgraduate students, as well as scientists involved in the field of radiophysics and orokin.rar" target=_blank>Download

O.M. Rabinovich. Collection of problems on technical thermodynamics. 5th ed. reworked 1973 344 pp. djvu. 8.0 MB.
The book contains problems and exercises on technical thermodynamics. Each section of the book includes a theoretical part that gives definitions of basic concepts, basic formulas, explanations of them and tasks. Some of the problems are given with detailed solutions, for all other problems the answers are given. This edition differs from the fourth only in that all physical quantities are given in the SI system of units and in units allowed for use along with SI units.
The book is intended as a teaching aid for students of power engineering technical schools. It can also be used by university students when studying courses in technical thermodynamics and general thermal engineering.

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Sinai. Theory of phase transitions. Rigorous results. The complexity is theoretical physics. 205 pp. djvu, 1.7 MB.

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R.L. Stratonovich. Nonlinear nonequilibrium thermodynamics. 1985 480 pp. djvu. 6.3 MB.
Represents the only one, or seriously). But it’s interestingly written and worth reading during the holidays.

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Haar, Vergkland. Modern theory of critical phenomena. 1968 217 pp. djvu. 3.8 MB.
The book contains a simple presentation of the course of thermodynamics and some of its applications. The difference between this book and other thermodynamics courses is that the authors have to some extent departed from the usual deductive structure of the course and begin with general information about heat necessary for further presentation. The reader is required only to be familiar with general physics and minimal information from mathematical analysis. Therefore, the book is accessible and will be useful to readers starting to study thermodynamics for the first time.
The structure of the course is quite ordinary. After presenting the first and second laws of thermodynamics (Chapters 1, 2), the authors consider equilibrium conditions, thermodynamic potentials and transformations of thermodynamic variables (Chapters 3-5). Further in ch. 6, 7 give applications of thermodynamics to systems with variable mass and chemical equilibrium. In ch. Chapter 8 states the third law of thermodynamics (Nernst's theorem). In ch. Chapter 9 discusses the application of thermodynamics to systems in an external field.
The book is equipped with a fairly large number of problems with solutions, which are an organic part of the main text.

The basic principles of thermodynamics, its mathematical apparatus, methods of thermodynamic analysis are outlined, and the thermodynamic properties of substances are described. Considerable attention is paid to the equilibrium of thermodynamic systems and phase transitions, and technical applications of thermodynamics. The traditional application of the fundamentals of thermodynamics of equilibrium states and processes is organically combined with the presentation of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.

CHAPTER I THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
§ 1.1. THERMODYNAMICS - THE SCIENCE ABOUT THE CONVERSION OF THE ENERGY OF BODIES
Thermodynamics studies the patterns of energy transformation as a result of the interaction of bodies and force fields. A distinctive feature of thermodynamics is the ability to consider all, without exception, various types of energy that can manifest themselves during the interaction of bodies and fields, as well as all transformations of various types of energy. In this case, each of the bodies and force fields or their combination in thermodynamics is considered a macroscopic system that has an inherent energy specific to its form.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface.
Chapter I. Perese the beginning of thermodynamics.
§ 1.1. Thermodynamics is the science of converting the energy of bodies.
§ 1.2. Basic concepts.
§ 1.3. Zero law of thermodynamics.
§ 1.4. Work and heat of the process.
§ 1.5. Reversible and irreversible processes.
§ 1.6. Formulation of the first law of thermodynamics.
§ 1.7. Internal energy and enthalpy.
§ 1.8. Analytical expression of the first law of thermodynamics.
§ 1.9. Heat capacity.
Chapter II. Second and third principles of thermodynamics.
§ 2.1. Second law of thermodynamics.
§ 2.2. Conversion of heat into work in a heat engine.
§ 2.3. Thermodynamic temperature.
§ 2.4. Entropy.
§ 2.5. Analytical expression of the second law of thermodynamics.
§ 2.6. Third law of thermodynamics.
§ 2.7. Statistical interpretation of the second and third principles of thermodynamics.
§ 2.8. Thermodynamic potentials.
§ 2.9. Partial differential equations of thermodynamics.
§ 2.10. General expression for the thermal efficiency of reversible heat engines and direct energy converters.
§ 2.11. Maximum useful external work.
§ 2.12. Thermodynamic description of irreversible processes. Basic relations of thermodynamics of irreversible processes.
§ 2.13. Applications of thermodynamics of irreversible processes (thermoelectric phenomena, movement and transfer of heat in liquids, thermomechanical phenomena).
Chapter III. Thermodynamic equilibrium.
§ 3.1. General condition for thermodynamic equilibrium of thermodynamic systems.
§ 3.2. Conditions for stability of thermodynamic equilibrium.
§ 3.3. Le Chatelier-Brown principle.
§ 3.4. Conditions for phase equilibrium.
§ 3.5. Phase diagram.
§ 3.6. Partial differential equations for a two-phase system. Thermodynamic diagrams.
§ 3.7. Phase transitions of the first and second order.
§ 3.8. Critical point.
Chapter IV. Basic thermodynamic processes.
§ 4.1. Methods of thermodynamic analysis.
§ 4.2. Adiabatic process.
§ 4.3. Isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and polytropic processes.
§ 4.4. Flow of gases and liquids.
Chapter V. Thermodynamic properties of solid, liquid and gaseous bodies.
§ 5.1. Features of the structure of real bodies.
§ 5.2. Evaporation of liquid and condensation of vapor.
§ 5.3. Crystal melting and liquid crystallization
§ 5.4. Thermodynamic similarity.
Chapter VI. Thermodynamics of gases and gas-like systems.
§ 6.1. Ideal and real gases.
§ 6.2. Saturated and wet liquid vapor.
§ 6.3. Gas of valence electrons in a metal.
§ 6.4. Phonon gas in a crystal.
§ 6.5. Photon gas.
Chapter VII. Thermodynamics of complex systems.
§ 7.1. Gibbs energy of systems with variable mass.
§ 7.2. Phase rule.
§ 7.3. Chemical reactions.
§ 7.4. Solutions.
Chapter VIII. Thermodynamic analysis of energy conversion work processes (technical thermodynamics).
§ 8.1. Technical thermodynamics is the scientific basis of modern energy.
§ 8.2. Thermal and effective efficiency of heat engines. Work cycle optimization.
§ 8.3. Cycles of piston heat engines and machines
§ 8.4. Cycles of gas turbine units and jet engines.
§ 8.5, Cycles of steam power plants.
§ 8.6. Binary cycles.
§ 8.7. Cycles of combined cycle gas plants.
§ 8.8. Nuclear power plant cycle.
§ 8.9. Refrigeration machine cycles.
§ 8.10. Heat transformers (thermotransformers)
§ 8.11. Electric power energy converters (electrochemical generators, photoelectric converters).
§ 8.12. Electric power converters of cyclic action.
Subject index.

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L.I.Lavrov, O.N.Krukovsky, A.V.Markov, E.A.Tomiltsev

TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS

SAINT PETERSBURG SYNTHESIS

UDC 66.02 F 912

Reviewer:

Head Department of Theoretical Fundamentals of Chemical Engineering, St. Petersburg State Technological Institute, Doctor of Engineering. Sciences, Prof. N.A. Martsulevich

correspondence education. – Methodological manual. – St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg State Technical University (TU), 2009.- ill. 42, bibliogr. 5 titles - 116 s.

ISBN 5–93808–039–8

The methodological manual is intended for distance learning students of non-energy specialties, which outlines the basic laws of energy in processes of ideal and real gases; the operation of machines that are widely used in the chemical industry - compressors, refrigeration units - is considered; basics of operation of a thermal power plant power unit.

The manual corresponds to the work program “Technical Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering” for students of chemical, technological and mechanical specialties.

F 2802000000–007 Without announcement.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

1. Thermodynamic system…………………………………………………………… 6

1.1. Law of conservation of energy……………………………………………………….. 8

1.2. Idealizations in thermodynamics…………………………………….. 12

2. Polytropic ideal gas processes ………………………………….. 16

2.1. Equation of state and the first law of thermodynamics…………….. 16

2.2. Equations of polytropic processes ………………………………….. 25

2.3. Calculation of entropy and its changes in ideal gas processes…….. 31

2.4. Analysis of processes using diagramsр-v and Т-s………………………….. 33

3. Cycles………………………………………………………………………………… 37

3.1. Carnot cycle…………………………………………………………….. 40

3.2. Conclusions arising from the Carnot cycle………………………………. 42

4. Second law of thermodynamics…………………………………………… 46

4.1. Formulations, meaning and mathematical expression………………. 46

4.2. Change in entropy in special cases of irreversible processes ... 53

5. Method of thermodynamic functions…………………………………… 58

6. Exergy method of analysis…………………………………………… 60

6.1. Calculation of exergy and its changes in processes……………………….. 60

6.2. Exergy efficiency ………………………………………………… 64

7. Real gas………………………………………………………………………………… 66

7.1. Parameters and thermodynamic functions of real gases………. 66

7.2. Diagrams of real gases…………………………………………… 71

7.3. Calculations of processes of real gases…………………………………… 74

7.4. Phase transformations ………………………………………………… 78

7.4.1. Clapeyron – Clausius equations ………………………….. 80

7.4.2. Integral forms of the Clapeyron – Clausius equation ... 82

7.5. Complete state diagrams……………………………………………………………...83

8. Compression of gas in a compressor …………………………………………………. 86

8.1. Single stage compressor ………………………………………… 86

8.2. Features of a real compressor..………………………………… 93

8.3. Multistage compressor………………………………………. 97

9. Refrigeration vapor compression units …………………………… 102

9.1. Main types of refrigeration cycles and calculation formulas……….. 103

10. Theoretical cycle of a thermal power plant power unit

(Rankine cycle)…………………………………………………………… 111 Literature…………………………………………………… ………………… 116

Introduction

Thermodynamics is the science of energy and energy transformations. In the basics, as the name suggests, it considers the transformation of heat into mechanical energy, into the energy of motion, which represents the main direction of all energy: the operation of engines, power units with the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, as well as other heat machines - refrigeration, heat pumps, compressors and various machines and devices with work costs and heat use - furnaces, reactors. The theoretical foundations of the processes in these machines are considered

technical thermodynamics.

However, any other forms of energy and their interconversions always have thermal and mechanical components, therefore various types of energy transformations are often called thermodynamic, that is, the terms thermodynamics and energy are essentially equivalent. Hence, the application of the laws of thermodynamics in various processes gave rise to the formation of a number of sciences, both broad in scope: physical thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, thermodynamics of biosystems, and more narrow in nature: thermodynamics of polymers, thermodynamics of surface phenomena, thermodynamics of radiation, thermodynamics of combustion, etc.

The initial basic ideas about energy transformations and the operation of heat engines provide the foundations of technical thermodynamics, discussed in the presented short lecture course.

1. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

A body or a set of bodies that is the object of thermodynamic research is called thermodynamic system. Thus, any object with certain boundaries that can be represented even mentally can be called a thermodynamic system. In technical thermodynamics, the initial system is considered to be a working fluid (for example, a gas located in a cylinder with a piston). In a broader sense, it can be a machine, apparatus, reactor, etc. The state of the system is reflected by a set of numerical indicators called parameters.

Material systems always have some amount of matter - mass and energy, which is distributed in a certain way, forming an energy field. Uneven distribution of energy causes flows of energy and matter. Therefore, a thermodynamic system is always under the influence of various energy fields, causing the exchange of energy across the boundaries of the system. When a system exchanges matter and energy with the environment or another system, a change occurs in all or some of its parameters, called thermodynamic process. At the same time, two forms of energy exchange are always present - this heat and work mechanical deformation forces, since any system is under a certain pressure and at a certain ambient temperature. In this regard, the simplest thermodynamic system is believed to be thermomechanical system, whose interaction with the environment consists of the exchange of heat and work.

Thermodynamics, as the science of the interconversion of energy from one form to another, pays primary attention to the transformation of heat into mechanical work, as the main form of energy used for the movement of transport, for the generation of electricity, for the production of products,

Such properties are possessed by gases and vapors, which are the primary objects of study in thermodynamics. Their properties and patterns of processes underlie the development of machines and devices, in engineering and various technologies.

In the chemical industry, such machines are, for example, refrigeration units, compressors, and devices of various technologies. In all processes occurring in them, interconversions of energy are observed. Energy analysis and calculations for this equipment are the basis for their development and improvement.

In reality, systems can be much more complex, located in and interacting with different energy fields.

Systems are divided into closed systems, which exchange only energy in various forms with the environment, and open systems, which also exchange matter with the environment.

Systems that do not exchange heat are called thermally insulated or adiabatic. In the absence of any types of interaction, systems are called isolated.

Environment often endowed with the properties of a thermostat, that is, it

the parameters remain constant even if the system parameters change. This is physically possible if the amount of substance in the environment is much greater than in the system and the interaction that is significant for the system is not significant for the environment. If a system and its environment do not interact with other systems and, therefore, form an isolated system, then it is called a hypersystem.

1.1. Law of Conservation of Energy

The universal law of energy, representing the results of vast experience, is the law that states that energy does not disappear or appear, but can only pass from one type to another in equivalent quantities, which is called law of conservation of energy. This universal law of nature, which essentially establishes energy balances, is applicable and fair for any systems and makes it possible to carry out calculations.

IN Depending on the systems and conditions, this law can be expressed by various equations. It can be represented both by balances of one type of energy - thermal balance, balance of mechanical energy, etc., and by equations with interconversions of different types of energy.

IN When applied to thermodynamic systems, this law is usually called the first law (or first law) of thermodynamics:

that is, the kinetic energy of movement of the entire system as a whole is supplemented. The first law of thermodynamics, as well as the law of conservation of energy, was formulated in the mid-nineteenth century as a result of the work of Yu.R. Mayer,

J. Joule and G. Helmholtz.

In a broader interpretation, work A may mean the work of various forms of energy, the action of various energy fields,

parameters – potential P i and coordinate X i (or intensive and extensive quantities).

The product of the potential and the change in coordinate expresses this type of energy impact, therefore the equation of the first law can be represented

Internal energy, as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the entire set of particles that make up the system, is a function of state, its changes do not depend on the transition path, and its value represents a complete differential.

Heat and work of various types depend on the path of transition of the working fluid from one state to another and therefore are functions of the process, without having a complete differential.

These features of the thermodynamic quantities of processes are reflected in differential equations to distinguish them from complete differentials by another letter designation of quantities of infinitesimal change - “δ”:

δQ = dU + ∑ δAi (1.6)

In a simple thermomechanical system, work means the work of deformation forces performed under the action of uniformly distributed pressure (expansion or compression work), the potential for which is pressure p, and the coordinate is volume V. In technical thermodynamics this work is usually denoted as L.

For a thermomechanical system, the first law of thermodynamics will be expressed:

Extensive parameters and quantities proportional to quantity

Library > Physics books > Molecular physics, thermodynamics, combustion theory

Molecular physics, thermodynamics, combustion theory

• Aizenshits R. Statistical theory of irreversible processes. M.: Publishing house. Foreign lit., 1963 (djvu)
• Andreev V.D. Selected problems of theoretical physics. Kyiv: Outpost-Prim, 2012 (pdf)
• Andryushchenko A.I. Fundamentals of technical thermodynamics of real processes. M.: Higher. school, 1967 (djvu)
• Anselm A.I. Fundamentals of statistical physics and thermodynamics. M.: Nauka, 1973 (djvu)
• Astakhov K.V. (ed.) Thermodynamic and thermochemical constants. M.: Nauka, 1970 (djvu)
• Bazarov I.P. Methodological problems of statistical physics and thermodynamics. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1979 (djvu)
• Balescu R. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. Volume 1. M.: Mir, 1978 (djvu)
• Balescu R. Equilibrium and nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. Volume 2. M.: Mir, 1978 (djvu)
• Bakhareva I.F. Nonlinear nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Saratov: Saratov University Publishing House, 1976 (djvu)
• Becker R. Theory of Heat. M.: Energy, 1974 (djvu)
• Bikkin Kh.M., Lyapilin I.I. Nonequilibrium thermodynamics and physical kinetics. Ekaterinburg: Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2009 (pdf)
• Bolgarsky A.V., Mukhachev G.A., Shchukin V.K. Thermodynamics and heat transfer (2nd ed.). M.: Higher. school, 1975 (djvu)
• Boltzmann L. Lectures on the theory of gases. M.: GITTL, 1953 (djvu)
• Brillouin L. Science and information theory. M.: GIFML, 1960 (djvu)
• Vasiliev A.E. General physics course. Molecular physics and thermodynamics. SPb.: SPbSTU (pdf)
• Vukalovich M.P. Thermophysical properties of water and water vapor. M.: Mechanical Engineering, 1967 (djvu)
• Vukalovich M.P., Novikov I.I. Thermodynamics. M.: Mechanical Engineering, 1972 (djvu)
• Vukalovich M.P., Novikov I.I. Engineering thermodynamics (4th ed.). M.: Energy, 1968 (djvu)
• Gerasimov Ya.I., Heiderich V.A. Thermodynamics of solutions. M.: MSU, 1980 (djvu)
• Ginzburg V.L., Levin L.M., Sivukhin D.V., Yakovlev I.A. Collection of problems in molecular physics (4th edition). M.: Nauka, 1976 (djvu)
• Hirschfelder J., Curtiss Ch., Bird R. Molecular theory of gases and liquids. M.: IL, 1961 (djvu)
• Glensdorf P., Prigozhin I. Thermodynamic theory of structure, stability and fluctuations. M.: Mir, 1973 (djvu)
• Glushko V.P. (ed.) Thermodynamic properties of individual substances. Reference edition (3rd ed.). T. 1. Book. 1. M.: Nauka, 1978 (djvu)
• Glushko V.P. (ed.) Thermodynamic properties of individual substances. Reference edition (3rd ed.). T. 2. Book. 1. M.: Nauka, 1979 (djvu)
• Glushko V.P. (ed.) Thermodynamic properties of individual substances. Reference edition (3rd ed.). T. 2. Book. 2. M.: Nauka, 1979 (djvu)
• Gorbunova O.I., Zaitseva A.M., Krasnikov S.N. Problem book-workshop in general physics. Thermodynamics and molecular physics. M.: Education, 1978 (djvu)
• Gurevich L.E. Fundamentals of physical kinetics. L.-M.: GITTL, 1940 (djvu)
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