Lecture, abstract. Learning as a process of cognitive activity - concept and types. Classification, essence and features. 2018-2019.

The structure of the learning process has always attracted the attention of didactics and psychologists. Different schools, in accordance with their views, presented the content and essence of the teaching in different ways. The main theories that considered the problem of teaching include: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, activity theory and humanistic psychology.

A brief review of the presented psychological theories of teaching indicates that their authors proceed from either a mechanistic or organic model of the world, man and his psyche, and the conclusions they draw in many respects remain only theoretical premises of training, and, consequently, teaching as a cognitive student activities in the holistic learning process.

The most important components of learning as an activity are its content and form. The content of teaching activity and, first of all, its objectivity, both sensory-objective and material practice, has an objective-subjective nature. Object, reality, sensibility in teaching are not just objects or forms of contemplation, but a sensory-human, subjective cognitive practice. The student’s activity reflects the objective material world and the active transformative role of the student as a subject of this activity. The final effect of any activity is a transformed reality associated with the satisfaction of the cognitive and practical needs of schoolchildren and anticipated in their minds by the purpose, image and motive of the activity. The subject of the student’s activity in the learning process is the actions he performs to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted by one or another motive.

The most important qualities of this activity are independence, which is expressed in self-criticism and criticism, cognitive activity, manifested in interests, aspirations and needs; readiness to overcome difficulties associated with perseverance and will; efficiency, which presupposes a correct understanding of the tasks facing students, the choice of the desired action and the pace of their solution.

In the products of educational activities - knowledge, experience— not only their objectivity is reflected, but also spirituality, social and personal relationships, assessments, and methods of application. These properties, which make up the content of cognitive activity, the content of teaching, have different sources and they seem to go towards each other. Their meeting gives rise to cognitive activity. But if they do not correlate, then the activity will not take place; it will be replaced by a reaction.

Concretizing this situation in the conditions of education in a modern school, it should first of all be noted that educational activity is a form of existence of the student as a subject of learning. It expresses, manifests and forms all the qualities of a person, his characteristics.

The structure of educational activities in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. In the procedural structure of educational activity, as an activity to solve educational problems, the following interconnected components can be identified that determine the sequence of implementation of the activity: task analysis; acceptance of the learning task; updating existing knowledge necessary to solve it; drawing up a plan for solving the problem; its practical implementation; control and evaluation of problem solving, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving an educational problem.

The essence of the teaching is that the student not only acquires subject knowledge and skills, but also masters methods of action in relation to the acquired subject content. Therefore, when developing a teaching project, it is necessary to distinguish between the process of educational activity in which assimilation occurs and self-assimilation.

A specific feature of the teaching is its orientation and organization in the direction of students mastering methods of activity, starting with the process of its construction. The specific content of the activity, which is planned to be learned in the learning process, is always associated in the subject’s consciousness with the execution of an action or system of actions. Thus, cognitive actions are primary in the process of assimilation. The process of assimilation, as well as the acquired knowledge itself, is secondary in nature and outside of activity, outside the system of actions, they lose their power as incentives for learning or specific goals, as tools or tools of cognition.

6.6. Learning as a student’s cognitive activity in the holistic learning process

The structure of the learning process has always attracted the attention of psychologists and didactics. Different psychological schools, in accordance with their views, presented the content and essence of the teaching in different ways. The main psychological theories that considered the problem of learning include: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, activity theory and humanistic psychology.

Psychological theories

Behaviorists (D. Watson, E. Thorndike) believe that learning (learning) is the acquisition by the body of new forms of behavior. “The formula “situation - response” expresses any learning process” - this is how E. Thorndike formulated the initial position of behaviorism (E. Thorndike. The process of learning in humans. M., 1935. P. 16). Subsequently, this theory began to be intensively developed by B.F. Skinner, who put forward the concept of operant conditioning (from surgery). The essence of this concept comes down to the fact that the body acquires new reactions due to the fact that it itself reinforces them, and only after that an external stimulus causes a reaction.

The most important provisions of behaviorism in substantiating the theory of learning are the structure of stimulus - response - reinforcement. The individual is a passive element. He only reacts to external influences, to external stimuli. The student’s activity is reduced in this case to the mechanical performance of specific operations.

A different position in the interpretation of the essence of the doctrine is taken byGestalt psychologists . According to their concept (see the works of M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Kaffka, L. Levin), the student’s activity in learning is reduced to the role of a stimulator of internal changes in integral structures and motivations based on discretion, comprehension, insight (insight).

Representatives of cognitivism, in particular J. S. Bruner, view learning as the process of a student creating his own “cultural experience,” which is social in nature and conditioned by the cultural and historical context. According to another representative of the same direction, the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, during the learning process, a student masters structured information and performs formal logical operations. Its activity is completely determined by the age stages of mental and cognitive development:from the sensory and pre-operational stage (preschool age) through the stage of concrete operations (primary school age) to the stage of formal logical operations (fifteen years of age).

A special role in substantiating the theory of teaching has played and is currently played byactivity theory (A.N. Leontiev, SP. Rubinstein), which made it possible to present learning as an activity of the teacher and the student and to justify the strengthening of the role of the latter in the learning process. According to this theory of learning, the student, in the learning process, performs candy, formal-logical and creative operations provided for by programmed and completely socially determined activities. At the same time, the student has a high degree of comprehension of the teaching.

Against the background of the presented concepts of teaching, the ideas of representatives of humanistic psychology (C.R. Rogers, A.H. Maslow) are of particular importance in revealing the essence of teaching as an activity today. Teaching in their understanding is a self-controlled structuring of personal experience for the purpose of self-development and self-organization of the individual. They perceive and interpret learning as an independent activity of the student, recognize his leading role in the learning process, justify the need for the student to use personal experience in solving educational and creative problems and preserve his freedom to choose forms of activity.

A brief review of the presented psychological theories of learning indicates that their authors proceed from either a mechanistic or organic model of the world, man and his psyche, and the conclusions drawn by them largely remain only theoretical premises of learning, and therefore learning as a cognitive activity student in the holistic learning process.

Structure of the learning process

The most important components of teaching as an activity are its content and form. The content of teaching activity, and first of all its objectivity, both sensory-objective and material practice, has an objective-subjective nature. Object, reality, sensibility in teaching are not just objects or forms of contemplation, but a sensory-human, subjective cognitive practice. The student’s activities reflect the objective material world and the active transformative role of the student as a subject of this activity. The final effect of any activity is transformed reality associated with satisfying the cognitive and practical needs of schoolchildren and anticipated in their minds by the purpose, image and motive of activity.

The subject of the student’s activity in the learning process is the actions he performs to achieve the intended result of the activity, prompted by one or another motive. The most important qualities of this activity are independence, which is expressed in self-criticism and criticism, cognitive activity, manifested in interests, aspirations and needs; readiness to overcome difficulties associated with perseverance and will; efficiency, which presupposes a correct understanding of the tasks facing students, the choice of the desired action and the pace of their solution.

Also K.D. Ushinsky, trying to reveal the driving forces of the learning process, believed that “activity in its essence of this concept... is certainly a struggle and overcoming obstacles... No activity is conceivable: a) without obstacles b) without the desire to overcome these obstacles, and c) without actually overcoming them” (Ushinsky K.D. Collected Works. M., 1950. T. 10. P. 511). Passive activity, as he puts it, “is not activity, but undergoing the activity of another” (ibid., p. 560).

The products of educational activity - knowledge, experience - reflect not only their subjectivity, but also spirituality, social and personal relationships, assessments, and methods of application. These properties, which make up the content of cognitive activity, the content of teaching, have different sources and they seem to go towards each other. Their meeting gives rise to cognitive activity. But if they do not correlate, then the activity will not take place; it will be replaced by a reaction.

Concretizing this situation in the conditions of education in a modern school, it should first of all be noted that educational activity is a form of existence of the student as a subject of learning. It expresses, manifests and forms all the qualities of a person, his characteristics.

The structure of educational activities in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. IN In the procedural structure of educational activities, as activities aimed at solving educational problems, the following interconnected components can be identified that determine the sequence of activities: task analysis; acceptance of the learning task; updating existing knowledge necessary to solve it; drawing up a plan for solving the problem; its practical implementation; control and evaluation of problem solving, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving an educational problem.

The essence of learning is that the student not only acquires subject knowledge and skills, but also masters methods of action in relation to the acquired subject content. Therefore, when developing a teaching project, it is necessary to distinguish between the process of educational activity in which assimilation occurs, and assimilation itself.

A specific feature of the teaching is its focus and organization in the direction of students mastering methods of activity, starting with the process of its construction. The specific content of the activity, which is planned to be learned in the learning process, is always associated in the subject’s consciousness with the execution of an action or system of actions. Thus, cognitive actions are primary in the process of assimilation. The process of assimilation, as well as the acquired knowledge itself, is secondary in nature and outside of activity, outside the system of actions, they lose their power as incentives for learning or specific goals, as tools or tools of cognition.

The structure of cognitive activity identifies general actions that are performed by students when studying any discipline. This is planning specific ways to obtain the required result, mentally highlighting its parameters, monitoring methods for obtaining the required result, monitoring the compliance of the obtained result with the required one, diagnosing the causes of non-conformity (if any), justifying the principle of action, choosing a method, predicting options for action, making decisions, including by choosing a rational option of action, determining the necessary correction of the original plan. While performing these actions, the student must imagine the object of activity, the final and intermediate goals, mentally, on this basis, construct and predict the process of achieving the goal by identifying the set of actions in it, compare the selected actions with their full composition, analyze the differences and associated features of the process being studied, their impact on the object of activity.

The use of general actions in teaching is a characteristic feature of the fundamentalization of content, due to the fact that in teaching, along with the process of assimilation, a purposeful process of constructing new knowledge must constantly function. The constructive activity of the student begins where he enters into specific interaction with her elements-knowledge about objects and phenomena of the external world as means of cognition. These interactions are part of the content of search cognitive activity with extensive use of intuition and are associated with the development of cognitive interest and knowledge needs. Search activity is carried out most effectively when the role of means of educational cognition is played by invariants of knowledge - fundamental (theoretical) scientific principles that underlie all variants of activity.

Form of cognitive activity of students

The form of cognitive activity of students is no less important in learning. Since ancient times, three forms have been known: material, speech and mental. However, the attitude towards them in learning theory was different. Historically, there was an opinion that mental activity is leading in learning, and speech is simply a means of expressing thoughts. Material activity, if used at all, is limited, during the practical training of students during practical training. However, this provision is valid only in certain conditions, when known knowledge and production skills need to be consolidated in educational work.

In the general case, the problem is not so simple, and without pretending to analyze it comprehensively, we will consider some approaches to its solution existing in theory. It is known that these three forms of activity exist objectively as forms of social, scientific, labor activity (production, science, culture, etc.), which perform certain specific functions both in society as a whole and in education, exerting their influence on all aspects of the educational process. This influence can be realized directly, in the form of requirements for the quality of practical training of students in literate writing, numeracy, mathematical calculations, etc., as well as indirectly, through the content of academic disciplines and forms of education. Social forms of activity influence the educational process collectively, in conjunction with each other. Thus, in lecture lessons, scientific concepts are usually illustrated with modern examples from life and technology, and production processes are described using the theoretical apparatus of the subjects being studied.

In order to identify the cumulative influence of social forms of activity on students’ academic work, it is necessary to establish their significant connections. In archeology and cultural history, the following natural continuity of forms of social activity in the development of human society has been identified. The first form of human activity was labor: the production of objects that ensure life and reproduction. As the experience of material activity accumulated, the need arose for its transfer to the younger generation and for the division of labor, which led to the emergence of various forms of communication, including speech. Speech, initially “woven” into the process of material production, gradually develops under the influence of needs and production relations, at the same time abstracting and acquiring its own sound and graphic methods of implementation, adequate to the depicted objects. Thus, in phylogenesis, speech activity was material, but then in its own self-development it acquired specific verbal means of displaying objective reality: grammar, vocabulary, linguistics, etc.

Simultaneously with the process of systematic use of speech as a means of communication between people, other processes related to the development of production took place: the accumulation of experience in creative transformative activity, the expansion of the sphere of material production and social needs, the identification of the characteristics of the labor process, the properties of various material objects and their connections in time and in space, establishing cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena. Generalizing this experience and passing it on to the younger generation required new, adequate goals and means. Therefore, in the process of development and systematic use of speech structures, analytical-synthetic methods of theoretical activity gradually mature and mental actions are formed. Thus, mental activity is initially generated by verbal activity, and only later, at a certain stage of its development, does it “split off” from speech, becoming a relatively independent activity, preserving, like speech, its main property - a reflection of reality, but in a qualitatively new, scientific level.

Having become independent highly developed forms of activity, speech and mental activity have an active influence “in the opposite” sense: mental activity becomes leading in a person’s orientation in life conditions, it is reflected in speech and anticipates the process and result of practical, material activity.

The briefly considered phylogenetic development of forms of activity is important when analyzing the ontogenetic process of the comprehensive development of students in the learning process. Without repeating the connections between the content of these forms discussed above, let us analyze their continuity in the educational work of schoolchildren. It is obvious that learning can also be carried out in all three forms of activity, and the methods and means of each form historically developed in society appear before students as objects of assimilation, i.e. Forms of cognitive activity of schoolchildren are derived in learning from historically developed forms of activity. Their connections are also “present” in learning in an implicit, compressed form: external, materialized activity is connected in educational work with speech and mental activities. Accordingly, there are “direct” and “inverse” relationships between them, classified according to the criterion of the generating form: when acquiring significantly new knowledge and methods of activity, the materialized form generates a speech form, which, collapsing, is transformed into a mental one; after assimilation, mental actions precede speech ones and determine the effectiveness practical work.

Connections between forms of cognitive activity and their mutual influence presuppose the organization of the assimilation of specific methods inherent in each form. Thus, the materialized activity of students is associated with work, with physical models: devices, teaching handouts, with the design and development of technical objects and processes. Speech activity is carried out when preparing and delivering a report, abstract, etc. All these forms are widely used in teaching students, but the question of their optimal balance and the use of their connections has not yet been studied in secondary school didactics. Its practical solution is carried out empirically, based on the accumulated teaching experience, the methodological capabilities of teaching staff and the desire of individual teachers, which indicates the existing potential reserves for increasing the efficiency of the educational process.

This is the essence, the general characteristic of the structure of teaching - the basic concept of the educational system as an integral pedagogical process. Having opened it, we can begin to consider the very activities of the teacher in ensuring and organizing the activities of students in various types of education.

Learning is one of the types of knowledge of the surrounding world. Learning as a type of cognitive activity is the initial, most essential feature on which the characteristics of all educational activities depend. Learning is based on general laws of cognition.

Human cognition goes through a number of stages. First, sensory cognition, which leads to a variety of ideas about the natural and social phenomena, events, and objects surrounding the child.

The second stage is abstract cognition, mastery of a system of concepts. The student’s cognitive activity becomes one-sided. He studies certain aspects of the world around him through the content of educational subjects. If, with concrete, sensory cognition, a figurative picture appears in the child’s mind, for example, of a forest and its inhabitants, babbling brooks, fluttering butterflies, then abstract cognition leads to concepts, rules, theorems, and evidence. Numbers, definitions, formulas appear in the mind. The junior schoolchild is at the stage of transition of cognition from the concrete to the abstract. He begins to master conceptual forms of thinking.

The concrete and abstract in the cognitive activity of students act as contradictory forces and create different trends in mental development. The teacher needs to know the mechanisms of the emergence and resolution of contradictions in order to skillfully manage the learning process.

There is a higher stage of cognition, when, on the basis of abstract, highly developed thinking, a generalized idea of ​​the surrounding world is formed, leading to the formation of views, beliefs, and worldviews. Training significantly accelerates the pace of the student’s individual psychological development. A student learns in a short period of time what takes centuries to learn in the history of mankind.

Structure of the learning process

When considering the structure of the learning process, it is necessary to identify its structure, main components and connections between them. Learning is a type of human activity that is two-way in nature. It necessarily involves interaction between the teacher and students, taking place under certain conditions. At the first, broadest consideration, the learning process consists of two interrelated processes - teaching and learning.

Learning is impossible without the simultaneous activity of the teacher and students, without didactic interaction. No matter how actively the teacher strives to transfer knowledge, if there is no active activity of the students themselves in acquiring knowledge, if the teacher has not created motivation and provided the organization of such activity, the learning process does not actually take place, and the didactic influence does not really function. Therefore, in the learning process, it is not just the teacher’s influence on the student, but their interaction.

Interaction between teachers and students can occur in both direct and indirect forms. In direct interaction, the teacher and students jointly implement learning objectives. In indirect interaction, students complete tasks and instructions given by the teacher earlier. The teaching process necessarily presupposes an active learning process.

The learning process, however, is not a mechanical sum of the processes of teaching and learning. This is a qualitatively new, holistic phenomenon, the essence of which reflects didactic interaction in its various forms. The integrity of this process lies in the commonality of the goals of teaching and learning, in the impossibility of teaching without learning as such. Communication has an exceptionally strong influence on the student’s motivation in the learning process and on the creation of favorable moral and psychological conditions for active learning.

Skillful communication significantly enhances the educational learning process. If teachers focus on managing only educational activities, but do not provide the correct communication style, then the result of influences may be insufficient. Efforts will also be ineffective if favorable communication is provided, but educational activities are not organized. That is why, when revealing the essence of learning, one must see the unity of cognition and communication.

Education, upbringing and personal development are carried out not only in the process of training and upbringing, but also under the influence of the environment, the media, socially useful work, sports, games and other extracurricular activities. Specially organized training must take into account and use these social factors and conditions as much as possible, since their influence is becoming increasingly broader, more diverse, more effective and often spontaneous.

Stages of the learning process

All learning begins with the teacher setting a goal for the student and the latter accepting this goal. Setting a goal can be done in different ways. Initially, it mainly consists of attracting attention and inviting people to listen, look, touch, i.e. perceive.

Perception must necessarily develop into understanding studied, which is carried out through the primary and largely generalized establishment of connections between phenomena and processes, clarification of their structure, composition, purpose, revealing the causes of the phenomena or events being studied, the motives of individual actions of historical figures or literary heroes, interpretation of the content of texts, etc.

Understanding educational material consists in highlighting and analyzing the theoretical aspect of knowledge. Comprehension of the information being studied is characterized by a deeper process of comparison, analysis of connections between the phenomena being studied, and discovery of diverse cause-and-effect dependencies.

Understanding directly develops into a process generalization of knowledge , during which common essential features of objects and phenomena of reality are identified and combined. It is in highlighting the main, essential in educational information that generalization manifests itself especially clearly.

The next stage in the actual learning process consists of a number of options, but its main function is secure e information perceived and initially assimilated at the previous stage. The difficulty of the second stage is that consolidation is not its only purpose. As a result of this stage, students should know theoretical material and be able to use it to perform exercises, solve problems, prove theorems, etc. They develop educational skills.

Then comes the stage applications , when in the course of assimilation it is necessary to ensure not only the strength, but also the effectiveness of knowledge, i.e. the ability to apply them in practice in school and in life. That is why the act of assimilation must necessarily contain an element of application. The application of knowledge contributes to a more fluent mastery of it, strengthens the motivation of learning, revealing the practical significance of the issues being studied, and makes knowledge more durable, vital and truly meaningful.

The structure of the learning process has always attracted the attention of psychologists and didactics. Different psychological schools, in accordance with their views, presented the content and essence of the teaching differently. The main psychological theories that considered the problem of learning include: behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, activity theory and humanistic psychology.

Behaviorists (D. Watson, E. Thorndike) believe that learning is the acquisition by the body of new forms of behavior. “The formula “response situation” expresses any learning process,” this is how E. Thorndike formulated the initial position of behaviorism. (E. Thorndike. The process of learning in humans. M., 1935. P. 16.). Subsequently, this theory began to be intensively developed by B.F. Skinner, who put forward the concept of operational learning (from surgery). The essence of this concept comes down to the fact that the body acquires new reactions due to the fact that it itself reinforces them, and only after that an external stimulus causes a reaction.

The most important provisions of behaviorism in substantiating the theory of learning is the structure of stimulus-response reinforcement. The individual is a passive element. He only reacts to external influences, to external stimuli. The student’s activity is reduced in this case to the mechanical performance of specific operations.

A different position in the interpretation of the essence of the doctrine is called those staltpsychologists. According to their concept (see the works of M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler, K. Kaffka, L. Levin), the student’s activity in learning is reduced to the role of a stimulator of internal changes in integral structures and motivations based on discretion, comprehension, insight (insight).

Representatives of cognitivism, in particular J.S. Bruner, consider learning as a process of creating a student’s own “cultural experience”, which is social in nature and conditioned by the cultural-historical context. According to another representative of the same direction, the Swiss psychologist J. Piaget, during the learning process, a student masters structured information and performs formal logical operations. Its activity is completely determined by the age stages of mental and cognitive development: from sensory And doope

rational stages (preschool age) through stage specific operations (younger school age) to stages formallogical operations (fifteen year old age).

A special role in substantiating the theory of learning was played and is currently played by the activity theory (A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein), which made it possible to present learning as the activity of the teacher and the student and to justify the strengthening of the role of the latter in the learning process. According to this theory, learning in the learning process performs specific, formal logical and creative operations provided for by programmed and completely socially determined activities. At the same time, the student has a high degree of comprehension of the teaching.

Against the background of the presented concepts of teaching, the ideas of representatives of humanistic psychology (C.R. Rogers, A.H. Maslow) are of particular importance in revealing the essence of teaching as an activity today. Teaching in their understanding is a self-controlled structuring of personal experience for the purpose of self-development and self-organization of the individual. They perceive and interpret learning as an independent activity of the student, recognize its leading role in the learning process, justify the need for the student to use personal experience in solving educational and creative problems and retain his freedom to choose forms of activity.

A brief review of the presented psychological theories of teaching indicates that their authors proceed from either a mechanistic or organic model of the world, man and his psyche, and the conclusions they draw in many respects remain only theoretical premises of training, and, consequently, teaching as a cognitive student activities in the holistic learning process.

The most important components of teaching as an activity are its content and form. The content of the activity of teaching and, first of all, its objectivity, both sensory-objective and material practice, has an objective-subjective nature. An object, reality, sensibility in teaching are not just objects or forms of contemplation, but a sensual, human, subjective cognitive practice. The student’s activity reflects the objective material world and the active transformative role of the student as a subject of this activity. The final effect of any activity is a transformed reality associated with the satisfaction of the cognitive and practical needs of schoolchildren and anticipated in their minds by the purpose, image and motive of the activity. The subject of the student’s activity in the learning process is actions,

performed by him to achieve the intended result of an activity prompted by one or another motive.

The most important qualities of this activity are independence, which is expressed in self-criticism and criticism, cognitive activity, manifested in interests, aspirations and needs; readiness to overcome difficulties associated with perseverance and will; efficiency, which presupposes a correct understanding of the tasks facing students, the choice of the desired action and the pace of their solution.

Also K.D. Ushinsky, trying to reveal the driving forces of the learning process, believed that “activity in its essence of this concept... is certainly a struggle and overcoming obstacles... No activity is conceivable: a) without obstacles, b) without the desire to overcome these obstacles, and c ) without actually overcoming them." (KD Ushinsky. Collected Works. M., 1950. T. 10. P. 511). Passive activity, as he puts it, “is not activity, but undergoing the activity of another” (Ibid. p. 560).

The products of educational activity - knowledge, experience - reflect not only their subjectivity, but also spirituality, social and personal relationships, assessments, and methods of application. These properties, which make up the content of cognitive activity, the content of teaching, have different sources and they seem to go towards each other. Their meeting gives rise to cognitive activity. But if they do not correlate, then the activity will not take place; it will be replaced by a reaction.

Concretizing this situation in the conditions of education in a modern school, it should first of all be noted that educational activity is a form of existence of the student as a subject of learning. It expresses, manifests and forms all the qualities of a person, his characteristics.

The structure of educational activity in terms of its composition should include content, operational and motivational components. In the procedural structure of educational activities, as activities aimed at solving educational problems, the following interconnected components can be identified that determine the sequence of activities: task analysis; acceptance of the learning task; updating existing knowledge necessary to solve it; drawing up a plan for solving the problem; its practical implementation; control and evaluation

understanding the task, awareness of the methods of activity that take place in the process of solving a learning task.

The essence of learning is that the student not only acquires subject knowledge and skills, but also masters methods of action in relation to the acquired subject content. Therefore, when developing a teaching project, it is necessary to distinguish between the process of educational activity in which assimilation occurs and self-assimilation.

A specific feature of the teaching is its focus and organization in the direction of students mastering methods of activity, starting with the process of its construction. The specific content of the activity, which is planned to be learned in the learning process, is always associated in the subject’s consciousness with the execution of an action or system of actions. Thus, cognitive actions are primary in the process of assimilation. The process of assimilation, as well as the acquired knowledge itself, is secondary in nature and outside of activity, outside the system of actions, they lose their power as incentives for learning or specific goals, as tools or tools of cognition.

The structure of cognitive activity identifies general actions that are performed by students when studying any discipline. This is planning specific ways to obtain the required result, mentally highlighting its parameters, monitoring methods for obtaining the required result, monitoring the compliance of the obtained result with the required one, diagnosing the causes of non-conformity (if any), justifying the principle of action, choosing a method, predicting options for action, making decisions, including including by choosing a rational option of action, determining the necessary correction of the original plan. In the course of performing these actions, the student must imagine the object of activity, the final and intermediate goals, mentally construct on this basis, predict the process of achieving the goal by identifying the set of actions in it, compare the selected actions with their full composition, analyze the differences and associated features of the process being studied, their impact on the object of activity.

The use of general actions in teaching is a characteristic feature of the fundamentalization of content, due to the fact that in teaching, along with the process

learning, a purposeful process of constructing new knowledge must constantly function. The constructive activity of the student begins where he enters into a specific interaction with its elements of knowledge about objects and phenomena of the external world as means of cognition. These interactions are part of the content of search cognitive activity with extensive use of intuition and are associated with the development of cognitive interest and knowledge needs. Search activity is carried out most effectively when the role of means of educational cognition is played by invariants of knowledge - fundamental (theoretical) scientific principles that underlie all variants of activity.

The form of cognitive activity of students is no less important in learning. Since ancient times, three forms have been known: material, speech and mental. However, the attitude towards them in learning theory was different. Historically, there was an opinion that mental activity is leading in learning, and speech is simply a means of expressing thoughts. Material activity, if used at all, is limited in the practical training of students during practical training. However, this provision is valid only in certain conditions, when known knowledge and production skills need to be consolidated in educational work.

In the general case, the problem is not so simple, and without pretending to analyze it comprehensively, we will consider some approaches to its solution existing in theory. It is known that these three forms of activity exist objectively as forms of social, scientific, labor activity (production, science, culture, etc.), which perform certain specific functions both in society as a whole and in education, exerting their influence on all aspects of the educational process. This influence can be realized directly, in the form of requirements for the quality of practical training of students in literacy, counting, mathematical calculations, etc., or indirectly, through the content of academic disciplines and forms of education. Social forms of activity influence the educational process collectively, in conjunction with each other. Thus, in lectures, scientific concepts are usually illustrated with modern examples from life, technology, and production

processes are described using the theoretical apparatus of the subjects being studied.

In order to identify the cumulative influence of social forms of activity on students’ academic work, it is necessary to establish their significant connections. In archeology and cultural history, the following natural continuity of forms of social activity in the development of human society has been identified. The first form of human activity was labor: the production of objects that ensure life and reproduction. As the experience of material activity accumulated, the need arose for its transfer to the younger generation and for the division of labor, which led to the emergence of various forms of communication, including speech. Speech, initially “woven” into the process of material production, gradually develops under the influence of needs and production relations, at the same time abstracting and acquiring its own sound and graphic methods of implementation, adequate to the depicted objects. Thus, in phylogenesis, speech activity was material, but then, in its own self-development, it acquired specific verbal means of displaying objective reality: grammar, vocabulary, linguistics, etc.

Simultaneously with the process of systematic use of speech as a means of communication between people, other processes related to the development of production took place: the accumulation of experience in creative transformative activity, the expansion of the sphere of material production and social needs, the identification of the characteristics of the labor process, the properties of various material objects and their connections in time and in space, establishing cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena. Generalizing this experience and passing it on to the younger generation required new, adequate goals and means. Therefore, in the process of development and systematic use of speech structures, analytical-synthetic methods of theoretical activity gradually mature and mental actions are formed. Thus, mental activity is initially generated by verbal activity, and only later, at a certain stage of its development, does it “split off” from speech, becoming a relatively independent activity, preserving, like speech, its main property of reflecting reality, but in a qualitatively new, scientific level.

Having become independent highly developed forms of activity, speech and mental activity have an active influence “in the opposite” sense: mental activity becomes leading in a person’s orientation in life conditions, it is reflected in speech and anticipates the process and result of practical, material activity.

The briefly considered phylogenetic development of forms of activity is important in the analysis of ontogeny

tical process of comprehensive development of students in the learning process. Without repeating the connections between the content of these forms discussed above, let us analyze their continuity in the educational work of schoolchildren. It is obvious that learning can also be carried out in all three forms of activity, and the methods and means of each form historically developed in society appear before students as objects of assimilation, i.e. Forms of cognitive activity of schoolchildren are derived in learning from historically developed forms of activity. Their connections are also “present” in learning in an implicit, compressed form: external, materialized activity is connected in educational work with speech and mental activities. Accordingly, there are “direct” and “inverse” relationships between them, classified according to the criterion of the generating form: when acquiring significantly new knowledge and methods of activity, the materialized form generates a speech form, which, collapsing, is transformed into a mental one; after assimilation, mental actions precede speech ones and determine the effectiveness of practical work.

Connections between forms of cognitive activity and their mutual influence presuppose the organization of the assimilation of specific methods inherent in each form. Thus, the materialized activity of students is associated with work, with physical models: devices, teaching handouts, with the design and development of technical objects and processes. Speech activity is carried out when preparing and delivering a report, abstract, etc. All these forms are widely used in teaching students, but the question of their optimal balance and the use of their connections has not yet been studied in secondary school didactics. Its practical solution is carried out empirically, based on the accumulated teaching experience, the methodological capabilities of teaching staff and the desire of individual teachers, which indicates the existing potential reserves for increasing the efficiency of the educational process.

This is the essence, the general characteristic of the structure of the Teaching - the basic concept of the educational system as an integral pedagogical process. Having opened it, we can begin to consider the technology itself.

teacher’s responsibility for supporting and organizing students’ activities in various types of education.

Pedagogy. Textbook for students of pedagogical universities and pedagogical colleges / Ed. P.I. Faggot. - M: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1998. - 640 p.