From Kalita to Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo

The main battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place on August 26 (September 7) near the village of Borodino near Mozhaisk, 124 km from Moscow. In French historiography, this battle is called the Battle of the Moscow River. His Serene Highness Prince M.I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, having decided to enter into a general battle, proceeded from several factors. He took into account the mood of the army, which was eager to engage the enemy in battle and the understanding of the fact that the ancient Russian capital could not be given up without a battle.

For the battle site, it was necessary to choose a position that would satisfy Kutuzov’s basic requirements. The field had to accommodate the main forces of the army, be able to build them in deep order, allow the troops to maneuver, and have natural obstacles for better defense. In addition, the army should have been able to block the New and Old Smolensk roads leading to Moscow. Quartermaster General Tol discovered this position in front of the city of Mozhaisk. In the center of the field stood the village of Borodino, from which the battle got its name.

The number of armies and the location of Russian troops

The Russian army (the combined 1st and 2nd Western armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration) consisted of about 120 thousand people: 103 thousand regular troops, about 7-8 thousand Cossack and other irregular cavalry, 10 thousand. warriors mainly of the Moscow and Smolensk militias (according to other sources, about 20 thousand militias) and 624 field artillery guns. It is also necessary to take into account that the regular troops included about 15 thousand recruits who underwent only initial military training.

On the day of the battle, the “Grand Army” of the French emperor numbered about 135-136 thousand soldiers with 587 field artillery pieces. In addition, the French army had approximately 15 thousand auxiliary forces (non-combatants), whose combat capability and functions corresponded to the Russian militias. The number of armies opposing each other still causes debate among researchers. The French army had not only a numerical superiority, but also a qualitative one - the French infantry mainly consisted of experienced soldiers, Napoleon had superiority in heavy cavalry. However, these advantages were balanced by the Russian fighting spirit and the high morale of the army.

The position of the Russian army on the Borodino field was about 8 kilometers long. In the south it began near the village of Utitsa, and in the north - near the village of Maslovo. The right flank, approximately 5 km long, ran along the bank of the Koloch River and well covered the New Smolensk Road. In the event of an unfavorable outcome of the battle, Mikhail Kutuzov could only withdraw his troops along this road. Here the Russian position was protected from the flank by a dense forest, which excluded the enemy’s outflanking maneuver. In addition, the terrain here was hilly, intersected by rivers and streams. Natural obstacles were strengthened by a number of fortifications: Maslovsky flushes, gun positions, abatis.

The position on the left flank was more open, so there were more field fortifications here. Semenovsky (Bagrationovsky) flushes were built on the left flank. The Shevardinsky redoubt was located ahead of them. However, the fortifications were not completed at the start of the battle. The center of the Russian army's position was based on the Raevsky Battery (battery of the Kurgan Heights), the French called it the Great Redoubt.

The battle formation of the Russian army was composed of three lines: the first contained infantry corps, the second - cavalry, and the third - reserves. The army's artillery was evenly distributed throughout the position.

On August 24, the battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt took place. During it, it became clear that the enemy was going to deliver the main blow to the left flank of the Russian troops, which was defended by the 2nd Army under the command of Bagration. On August 25 there was a lull, both sides were preparing for the decisive battle, and the construction of defensive structures continued. According to ancient tradition, the Russian army prepared for a decisive battle as if it were a holiday. The soldiers washed, shaved, put on clean linen, confessed, etc. Napoleon Bonaparte personally reconnoitered the positions of the Russian army.

Start of battle (5:30–9:00)

At 5:30 am, about 100 French guns opened fire on the positions of the Russian left flank. Simultaneously with the shelling of Russian positions, Delzon's division from the 4th Corps of Beauharnais moved to the village of Borodino (the center of the Russian position). The first to meet the onslaught of the enemy was His Majesty's Life Guards Jaeger Regiment under the command of one of the bravest regimental commanders, Karl Bistrom. For about half an hour, the guards repelled the onslaught of superior enemy forces (the regiment lost more than a third of its strength). Then, under the threat of being outflanked, they were forced to retreat across the Kolocha River. One of the French regiments also crossed the river. Barclay de Tolly threw three regiments of chasseurs into battle. The rangers overthrew the French (the French 106th regiment was almost completely destroyed) and burned the bridge across the river. The battle ended by 8 o'clock in the morning, the French retained the village of Borodino, but they were unable to cross the Koloch River.

The main action took place on Bagration's flushes. Flashes were called field fortifications, which consisted of two faces, each 20-30 m long, at an acute angle, the corner with its apex facing the enemy. They were defended by the 2nd Combined Grenadier Division of General Mikhail Semenovich Vorontsov. Each flush was defended by one battalion. The French, after an artillery bombardment, attacked the fléches. The divisions of generals Dessay and Compan from the 1st Corps of Davout went on the offensive. From the very beginning the battle became fierce and stubborn. It is still unknown exactly how many enemy attacks followed the Semenov flushes. The fortifications changed hands several times. Napoleon unleashed the main blow on the left flank, trying from the very beginning of the battle to turn the tide in his favor. The battle was accompanied by an artillery duel, in which dozens of guns took part (the French were constantly increasing the number of guns in this direction). In addition, several large clashes of cavalry formations occurred on the left flank. The Russian cavalry was not inferior to the enemy, and the “Great Army” lost up to half of its cavalry on the Borodino field. Subsequently, Napoleon was never able to restore the strength of his cavalry.

In the first attack, the French infantry overcame the resistance of the rangers and made their way through the Utitsky forest. However, when the divisions of generals Dessay and Compan began to line up on the edge opposite the southernmost flush, they came under heavy fire from Russian artillery and were overturned by a flank counterattack by Vorontsov's rangers. At 8 o'clock the French launched a second attack and captured the southern flush. The commander of the 2nd Army, Bagration, sent the 27th Infantry Division of General Dmitry Petrovich Neverovsky, as well as the Akhtyrsky Hussar and Novorossiysk Dragoon Regiments to help Vorontsov’s division to strike the enemy’s flank. The French were driven out of their fortifications and suffered heavy losses. So, Marshal Davout was shell-shocked, both division commanders - Dessay and Compana - and almost all the brigade commanders were wounded. Russian troops also suffered severe losses: Vorontsov’s combined grenadier division practically ceased to exist, with only about 300 people left in it. Vorontsov himself was wounded in the leg when he led the last battalion of the division in a bayonet attack.

Battle of Borodino (9:00–12:30)

Napoleon intensified the pressure on the left flank: three infantry divisions of Ney’s 3rd Corps and three of Murat’s cavalry corps launched a third attack. The number of artillery barrels in this direction was increased to 160 units.

Bagration expected an enemy attack and ordered the commander of the 7th Infantry Corps, Raevsky (he was defending the central position), to immediately advance the entire second line of his troops to the flushes. He also instructed the commander of the 3rd Infantry Corps, Tuchkov, to immediately send the 3rd Infantry Division of General Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn to the Semenovsky flashes. In addition, at the request of Bagration, Kutuzov sent the reserve Life Guards Lithuanian and Izmailovsky regiments, the 1st Combined Grenadier Division, the regiments of the 3rd Cavalry Corps and the 1st Cuirassier Division to the left flank. At the same time, the 2nd Infantry Corps of Baggovut from the 1st Army began to move from the right flank to the left.

The French, after a heavy artillery bombardment, broke into the southern flush. During this battle, General Neverovsky was wounded. The 2nd Cuirassier Division from Borozdin's 8th Corps overthrew the enemy formations. Moreover, the Russian cavalrymen almost captured the king of the Kingdom of Naples and the commander of the French cavalry, Joachim Murat; he was saved by the infantry. However, in a fierce battle, the French were able to defend the captured fortifications.

The situation was corrected by the attack of Konovnitsyn’s division; he arrived at the flushes at 10 o’clock and knocked out the enemy with a bayonet strike. During this battle, brigade commander Alexander Alekseevich Tuchkov 4th died. He led the attack of the Revel and Murom regiments and was mortally wounded in the chest (they could not take him out of the battlefield and bury him). After Bagration was wounded, Konovnitsyn led the defense of the left flank; the general, while repelling enemy attacks, was wounded twice, but did not abandon his soldiers.

Around the same time, Junot’s 8th Corps passed through the Utitsky forest to the rear of the Semenovsky flushes. The situation was saved by the 1st cavalry battery of Captain Zakharov, which at that time was moving towards the flushes. Having discovered the enemy, Zakharov deployed his guns and opened fire on the Westphalians who were building. The arriving regiments of Baggovut's 2nd Corps struck with bayonets and overthrew the enemy.

At the 11th hour, Napoleon threw up to 45 thousand bayonets and sabers into a new attack, concentrating up to 400 guns against the Russian left flank. Bagration led his forces - about 20 thousand soldiers - on a counterattack. A brutal hand-to-hand battle ensued, which lasted about an hour. During it, the advantage began to lean in favor of the Russian troops, but Bagration's wound - a fragment of a cannonball crushed the tibia of the hero's left leg (the hero died of blood poisoning on September 12 (25), 1812) - led to the confusion of the troops and they began to retreat. Konovnitsyn took command. He withdrew the soldiers behind the Semenovsky ravine, the flushes remained with the French. Behind the ravine there were reserve batteries and guards regiments; the French did not dare to attack the new Russian positions on the move. There was a brief lull on the left flank.

Battle for the Kurgan Battery. Napoleon, in order to support the attack on the Semenov flushes and prevent the Russian command from transferring troops from the center to the left flank, gave the order to his left wing to strike the Russian troops at Kurgan Heights and capture it. This position was defended by the 26th Infantry Division of General Ivan Fedorovich Paskevich from the 7th Raevsky Corps. At the beginning of the battle, the battery itself had 18 guns. Units of the 4th Corps of the Viceroy of Italy Eugene Beauharnais went on the offensive. Enemy forces crossed the Koloch River and struck the Great Redoubt.

By this point, Raevsky had sent his entire second line to defend Semenovsky flushes. The first enemy attack was repelled by artillery fire. Beauharnais almost immediately launched a second attack. Kutuzov brought into battle the entire horse artillery reserve of 60 guns and part of the light artillery of the 1st Army. However, the enemy, despite heavy artillery fire, was able to break into Russian positions.

At this time, the chief of staff of the 1st Western Army, Alexey Petrovich Ermolov, and the chief of artillery of the entire army, Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov, were passing by the height. They organized and led a counterattack by the 3rd battalion of the Ufa Infantry Regiment and the 18th Jaeger Regiment. At the same time, the regiments of Paskevich and Vasilchikov hit the enemy flanks. Russian soldiers recaptured the redoubt with a bayonet attack, and the enemy suffered heavy losses. Brigadier General Bonamy was captured. During the battle, Kutaisov died. Ermolov led the defense of the battery until he was shell-shocked, then he handed over command to General Pyotr Gavrilovich Likhachev. Paskevich's division was almost completely destroyed, Raevsky's corps was taken to the rear and replaced by Likhachev's 24th Infantry Division.

Battle for the Utitsky Kurgan. In the very south of the Russian position, the 5th Corps (Polish) of General Poniatowski moved around the left flank of the Russian position and at about 8 o'clock in the morning near the village of Utitsa collided with the 3rd Infantry Corps of General N.A. Tuchkov 1st. At this moment, Tuchkov had already sent Konovnitsyn’s 3rd Infantry Division to Bagration’s disposal and had only one division – the 1st Grenadier Division. The enemy pushed Tuchkov's soldiers out of Utitsa. Russian soldiers retreated to the Utitsky Kurgan. All attempts by the Poles to move forward and capture the mound were repulsed. However, at about 11 o'clock Poniatowski, having received the support of Junot's 8th Corps, was able to capture the Utitsky Kurgan. Tuchkov personally led the counterattack of the Pavlovsk Grenadier Regiment and recaptured the position. But in this attack the brave commander received a mortal wound. He was replaced by Baggovut. He left the position only around one o'clock in the afternoon, when it became known about the fall of Semenov flushes.

At about 12 noon, Kutuzov and Napoleon regrouped their troops on the battlefield. Kutuzov sent reinforcements to the defenders of Kurgan Heights and strengthened the left flank, where units of the 2nd Army retreated beyond the Semenovsky ravine.

To be continued…

RAEVSKY General Raevsky's 7th Corps stood in the center of the Russian position, behind the Kurgan Battery, which became known as the "Raevsky Battery." The battle near Saltanovka on July 23, 1812 brought Raevsky a loud...

RAEVSKY

General Raevsky's 7th Corps stood in the center of the Russian position, behind the Kurgan Battery, which became known as "Raevsky's Battery." The battle near Saltanovka on July 23, 1812 brought Raevsky great fame, which will only be eclipsed by the Battle of Borodino itself. Officer S.I. Mayevsky recalled:

“Raevsky took me to the height of the battery, which in relation to the field was the same as the belvedere in relation to the city. A hundred guns bombarded it. Raevsky with a triumphant expression told me: “Tell Prince [Kutuzov] - this is what is happening here.”

Some researchers of the Borodino battle believe that it was Raevsky who held the honor of repelling the battery, which Ermolov then attributed to himself and Kutaisov. Russian troops returned to the battery and practically destroyed the 30th French regiment in a bayonet battle. Raevsky's battery was taken only at the end of the battle by a swift attack by French cuirassiers led by General Auguste Caulaincourt. During this attack, Caulaincourt was killed.

PLATOV

One of the mysteries of the Battle of Borodino is connected with the name of the Don Ataman Matvey Platov. Although Platov's Cossacks made a great contribution to the victory over the vanguard of King Jerome Bonaparte at Mir (July 8–10, 1812), many in the army were dissatisfied with the actions of the Don, who, in their opinion, did not provide enough cover for the main forces during the retreat. On August 29, command of the vanguard was transferred to Infantry General P. P. Konovnitsyn.

The disgraced chieftain, having learned that practically no one was opposing the right flank of the Russian troops, proposed a raid. Platov's Cossacks and the 1st Cavalry Corps of Cavalry General F.P. Uvarov crossed the Kolocha River and began to penetrate the rear of the French troops. Supported by only two batteries of horse artillery, the cavalry could not do much. Uvarov carried out several indecisive attacks on the infantry, and the Cossacks “pinched” the convoy of troops of Prince Eugene of Beauharnais. Many historians agree that the raid by Platov and Uvarov gave the Russian troops two hours of precious time, and they took a breath before the enemy’s decisive attacks on Raevsky’s battery. However, Kutuzov had a different opinion - Uvarov and Platov became the only senior ranks in the Russian army who were “deprived” of awards for Borodino.

CLAUSEWITZ

In the corps of Count Uvarov, there was a Prussian subject, Carl von Clausewitz, who later became a famous military theorist. Like some other Prussian patriots, he chose to resign and enter Russian service rather than fight on Napoleon’s side. To his disappointment, Clausewitz found himself out of work in Russia due to ignorance of the language and distrust of foreigners that dominated the Russian army. On August 24 he wrote to his wife:

“I doubt that we will be able to win this battle, but from the point of view of the war as a whole, we will lose only a little from this, if we are able to withstand two years of fighting […] If the war drags on and there is another campaign, then I hope to become more suitable, since in winter I will study Russian.”

When Uvarov's cavalry went on a raid, Clausewitz took part in it, although he did not believe in the success of this enterprise. “The author thanks God that in these circumstances his role was reduced to zero, and he was not even able to participate in the conversations that General Uvarov conducted in Russian with the officers sent to him,” Claueswitz later recalled. For the Battle of Borodino he was awarded the Order of St. Vladimir. Later, the Prussian officer did great service to Russia by participating in negotiations with General York, which ended on December 30 with the signing of the Taurogen Convention, after which Prussia actually went over to the side of Russia.

In 1814, Clausewitz returned to Prussian service and soon began work on his famous treatise On War.

RUSSIAN OFFICER

There is no information about most of the 130,000 soldiers and officers who went to the Borodino field on September 7, 1812. In this article we will present a collective portrait of a Russian officer who took part in this battle.

Naturally, the overwhelming majority of Russian officers were nobles, but 15% of those who wore epaulettes came from “non-noble” classes. 4.5% of officers rose to the ranks of soldiers' children, another 1% entered the service from peasants, but rose to the rank of officer. With the exception of a small percentage of children of merchants and priests, the rest of the non-noble officers came from commoners.
Moscow was defended not only by officers who were Russian by origin. If the presence in the Russian army of 4.5% of officers from the Baltic Germans is predictable, then it will be quite surprising to learn that Polish officers, who numbered 3.4%, fought with Napoleon’s troops, including their fellow tribesmen.

The level of education of Russian officers was low. Only 22.3% of them were trained in the cadet corps. Half of the officers had only primary education, that is, they could only read and write. Perhaps the most striking fact is that two illiterate officers fought on the Borodino field (one of them came from nobles and the other from peasants).

The Russian army was very young. 19 of the officers who participated in the battle were teenagers 16 years of age or younger. At the same time, just under 20% of the officer corps is recruited by all young men under 20 years of age. Thus, the Russian officer was on average 5–7 years younger than his French counterpart.

Sent to help P.A. Tuchkov's regiments - the Life Grenadier and the Grenadier Count Arakcheev - arrived very promptly and took up positions, the first on the heights near the high road, the second on the edge of the forest to the left of the road. The Revel regiment shifted to the right. The French cavalry, which appeared across the river on the Russian left flank, managed to reach the destroyed bridge under deadly fire from artillery and rangers, but was forced to retreat. The rangers were supported by fire from the combined grenadier battalion of the 23rd division and the battalion of the Count Arakcheev regiment. The situation stabilized, both sides increased their strength, with the French constantly maintaining a significant numerical superiority. The regiments of the 2nd and 4th infantry corps gradually approached the Russians; By 5 p.m., Lieutenant General P.P. took command of the troops. Konovnitsyn, who later recalled: “At 5 o’clock in the afternoon, the remaining regiments of the division entrusted to me, which were placed to the left of the high road, arrived with me at the battlefield and were immediately put into action. The strong action of the enemy artillery was withstood with excellent courage, and could not cause the slightest confusion.”

By evening the sky was covered with clouds and it began to get dark quickly. In an attempt to make up for lost time, Marshal Ney launched a massive attack in all directions at about 7 p.m.; French batteries fired murderously. On the Russian right flank, the enemy captured the village of Grechishna, but the Polotsk infantry regiment, which arrived in time, overthrew the French and restored its previous position. At the same time, the battery covering the main road suddenly stopped firing - as it turned out, the artillerymen had run out of ammunition. Taking this opportunity, the French riflemen, and then the columns, crossed Strogan. General P.A. Tuchkov asked Konovnitsyn to take one of the grenadier regiments for a counterattack. Having received permission, he drove up to the Ekaterinoslav Grenadier Regiment, apparently formed into a platoon column due to lack of space.

Tuchkov himself describes further events: “...I announced to the regimental commander the order... that the regiment should follow me to meet the advancing enemy, but to my surprise I heard from the commander of that regiment various excuses, such as: that his people were very tired and what There are already many regiments in disarray, and his regiment is in order, so it would seem to him better to save it than to expose it to new danger. I reprimanded him for this and, without listening to anything, ordered the regiment, already formed in a column, to follow me, which was done. But meanwhile it had already begun to get dark and it was even quite dark..., seeing the bad disposition of the regimental commander and judging by this and that, I could not hope that the regiment would successfully carry out my undertaking... I had barely taken a few steps at the head of the column, how a bullet hit my horse’s neck, causing it to rise on its hind legs and fall to the ground. Seeing this, the regiment stopped; but I jumped off my horse and, in order to encourage the people, shouted to them to follow me forward, for it was not I who was wounded, but my horse, and with this word, standing on the right flank of the first platoon of the column, I led it towards the enemy, who, Seeing our approach, he stopped and waited for us. I don’t know why, but I had a premonition that the people of the rear platoons of the column, taking advantage of the darkness of the evening, could delay me, and therefore I walked with the first platoon, shortening my step as much as possible, so that the other platoons could not delay. Thus, approaching the enemy, already a few steps away, the column shouted “Hurray”! rushed at the enemy with bayonets. I don't know if the whole regiment followed the first platoon; but the enemy, meeting us with bayonets, overturned our column, and I, receiving a bayonet wound in the right side, fell to the ground. At this time, several enemy soldiers jumped up to me to pin me; but at that very moment a French officer named Etienne, wanting to have this pleasure himself, shouted at them to let him do it. Laissez moi faire, je m"en vais Pachever, were his words (Let me go, I will finish with him. - I.U), and at the same time he hit me on the head... with a saber. Blood gushed out and suddenly filled my mouth and throat , so that I could not utter a single word, although I was in perfect memory. He dealt fatal blows to my head four times, repeating with each: Ah, je m"en vais Pachever, but in the darkness and passion I did not see him. that the more he tried to strike me, the less he succeeded in this: for I, having fallen to the ground, lay with my head close to it, which is why the end of the saber, with every blow, resting on the ground, ... could no longer harm me, as soon as it caused light wounds to the head, without damaging the skull... Because of the clouds flowing above us, suddenly the shining moon illuminated us with its light, and Etienne, seeing the Annen star on my chest, stopping what may already have been the last fatal blow, said to the soldiers surrounding him: “Don’t touch him, this is a general, it’s better to take him prisoner”...

Battle of Valutina Mountain. P. Tess. 1840s Fragment.

An unsuccessful attack by the grenadiers put the center of the Russian position in a difficult position, but the French triumph was short-lived. P.P. Konovnitsyn wrote in his report:

“Around the evening, enemy columns, preceded by many riflemen, made a decisive movement against the troops covering the main road; and they even managed to push them back somewhat, but the corrective under your command exceeds the position of duty general of His Imperial Majesty, aide-de-camp Colonel Kikin, adjutant to the chief of the main staff, Major General Ermolov, of the Life Guards artillery brigade, Lieutenant Grabe, and the staff captain de Juncker, who is also with him. They hastened to gather the scattered people into columns, and, encouraging them by their own example, with the beating of drums, they quickly attacked the enemy with bayonets, which was immediately shot down and driven away ... ".

The decisive role for the success of the attack, obviously, was played by the deeply layered defense in the center of the Russian position. At once several columns of regiments standing on the high road, like a giant piston, again pushed the French across the river. The regiments of the right flank also took part in the attack.

At this point, active hostilities ceased, but “strong rifle fire resumed again from both sides and continued until late at night.” According to Konovnitsyn, “the battlefield remained completely held...” The French were the first to cease fire, and at night the Russian regiments, having fully completed the tasks assigned to them, began to move after the main forces.

After the battle of Valutina Mountain. View of Russian positions from the French side.

In general, in the battle of August 7, the Russian army lost at least 6 thousand people, the French - at least 8 thousand. The ferocity of the battle can be judged by the losses of individual regiments; Thus, the life grenadiers lost about 660 people, that is, three times more than in the upcoming Battle of Borodino. Several more regiments were missing over 300 lower ranks. In conditions of difficult, spontaneously developing combat operations with superior enemy forces, Russian troops were able to fully complete their assigned tasks, inflicting great damage on the enemy. The main burden of the fight fell on the infantry, whose regiments from various formations were brought into battle whenever possible. At the same time, the violation of the command structure at the level of corps, divisions and even brigades did not lead to a decrease in the combat effectiveness of the troops.

The first act of the grandiose Battle of Borodino was the battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt on August 24. The unfinished redoubt was defended by a detachment of Lieutenant General Prince A.I. Gorchakov 2nd. At the forefront was the 27th Infantry Division under Major General D.P. Neverovsky and the Jaeger Brigade of the 12th Division. The 1st brigade of the 27th division (Simbirsk and Vilna infantry regiments), having placed one battalion (obviously Vilna) in the redoubt, stood directly behind the fortification. The 2nd brigade (Odessa and Tarnopol regiments) deployed in one line of battalion columns to the left of the redoubt. The 6th, 41st and 49th Jaegers under the command of Colonel Glebov 1st occupied the village of Doronino and its surroundings. According to some reports, the 50th Jaeger initially occupied the vicinity of the village of Fomkino, but under pressure from the French retreated to the extreme left flank. The infantry was supported by cavalry regiments. At some distance from the redoubt, reserves were located - the 2nd Grenadier, 2nd Combined Grenadier and 2nd Cuirassier divisions.

Topic 15 Moscow is the center of the unification of Russian lands. Dmitry Donskoy

Fight for the championship

Gradually, the largest and strongest principalities emerged in Rus' - Moscow, Tver, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan. The Grand Duchy of Vladimir with its capital Vladimir-on-Klyazma was considered the center of Rus'. The label of the Khan of the Golden Horde for this reign gave its owner power over all of Russia. It extended to all the principalities of the northeast and northwest.

The principalities and republics concluded agreements with each other - on borders, trade, resolution of controversial cases, extradition of fugitive peasants and slaves, mutual military assistance, and a common line in foreign affairs. Disputes and strife between rulers, violations of treaties and mutual attacks were a constant phenomenon. Misunderstandings were settled with the help of senior and neutral princes and spiritual lords. In this regard, Russian metropolitans played a major role, moving from Kyiv to Vladimir, and then to Moscow. Metropolitans, archimandrites, bishops acted as if they were peacemakers - they reconciled the princes, as did, for example, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity Monastery.

In the arena of the struggle for political leadership, Moscow is moving to the forefront. Alexander Nevsky bequeathed Moscow to his youngest son Daniil. Under him, it became the capital of the principality, perhaps the most seedy and unenviable in Rus'. At the turn of the XIII and XIV centuries, its territory expanded noticeably: it included Kolomna (1300) and Mozhaisk (1303) with their lands captured by the regiments of Daniil and his son Yuri. According to the will of Prince Ivan Dmitrievich, the childless grandson of Nevsky, the Pereyaslav Principality passes to Moscow.

And Yuri Danilovich of Moscow in the first quarter of the 14th century. is already fighting for the Vladimir throne with his cousin Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver. The struggle between Yuri Danilovich and Mikhail Yaroslavich leads to the death of both of them in the Horde.

All these years, “confusion” reigned in Rus' - cities and villages were robbed and burned by the Horde and their own Russian troops. Finally, Alexander Mikhailovich, brother of Dmitry, executed in the Horde, became the Grand Duke of Vladimir; Moscow Grand Duke - Ivan Danilovich, brother of the also executed Moscow ruler.

In 1327, an uprising broke out in Tver against the Horde Baskak Chol Khan. Taking advantage of this, Ivan Danilovich immediately hurried to Khan Uzbek. Having returned with the Tatar army, he walked through the Tver region with fire and sword, receiving Novgorod and Kostroma as a reward. And only in 1332 Ivan Danilovich finally received a label for the reign of Vladimir.

Having become the ruler “over all Russian land,” Ivan Danilovich diligently expanded his land holdings - he bought them, seized them. In the Horde he behaved humbly and flatteringly, and did not skimp on gifts to the khans and khans, princes and murzas. He collected and transported tribute and exactions, part of what he collected ended up in his Kremlin basements. Starting with him, the label for the reign of Vladimir was received, with short exceptions, by Moscow rulers. They headed the Moscow-Vladimir Principality, one of the most extensive states in Eastern Europe.

Moscow's power and political influence increased. The Horde Khan, thanks to the “humble wisdom” of Ivan Danilovich, became, as it were, an instrument for strengthening Moscow. The princes of Rostov, Galitsky, Belozersk, and Uglich submitted to Ivan. Horde raids and pogroms stopped in Rus', and the time for “great silence” came. The prince himself, as the legend says, was nicknamed Kalita - he walked everywhere with a purse (kalit) on his belt, giving gifts to the poor and needy. “Christians” rested “from the great languor, many hardships and violence of the Tatars.”

From Kalita to Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo

The Moscow government had to repel attacks by Lithuanian troops. Three times, with an interval of two years (1368, 1370, 1372), “Lithuanianism” approached Moscow. In alliance with the outstanding commander Olgerd Gediminovich, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Mikhail Alexandrovich of Tverskoy, whose sister was married to the Lithuanian ruler, acted. They ravaged Moscow cities and volosts. In response, Moscow regiments burned Tver villages. In 1372, Olgerd suffered a major defeat. Moscow was defended and a stone Kremlin was built there.

The Tver prince twice received the label for a great reign in the Horde. But the campaign of 1375, organized by Moscow and of an all-Russian character, put an end to his claims. Tver capitulated. Mikhail recognized himself as “junior” in relation to the “senior” prince of Moscow-Vladimir, renounced claims to the Vladimir throne, from an alliance with Lithuania, pledged to act together with Moscow against the horde, to recognize the independence of the Kashin appanage principality (and this meant the dismemberment of the Tver principality) , return the lands captured from Novgorod the Great.

The events of the 60s and the first half of the 70s strengthened the role of Moscow as an all-Russian center. Her authority in Rus' has grown greatly. The agreement with Novgorod provided for a joint struggle with Livonia, Lithuania and Tver. Ryazan's attempt to resist Moscow ended in failure.

Moscow and other Russian principalities are moving to confront the Horde. This was facilitated by another “complaint” - bloody civil strife between the khans and the Murzas. Over two decades, up to two and a half dozen khans changed. It happened that two khans ruled in the Horde at once - to the east of the Volga and to the west of it. Temporary workers appeared and disappeared. One of them, the strongest and cruelest, was Mamai, a temnik, that is, the commander of a 10,000-strong army. Not being a descendant of Genghis Khan, but married to the daughter of Genghisid, he actually ruled the Horde. He replaced the khans with his will, whom Russian chroniclers called “Mamaev’s kings.” The fierce struggle weakened the horde and the dependence of the peoples subject to it on it, and they began to straighten their shoulders

Already in 1365, the Ryazan princes defeated the army of the Horde prince Tagai. From his headquarters in Narovchat, he attacked their lands and burned Ryazan. But when he was returning with his full and stolen property, the Ryazan people overtook him in the steppe. The fierce battle ended in their victory. Two years later, the same fate befell Bulat-Temir. , another Horde prince who settled in the Middle Volga.

Three years passed and the Horde devastated the Ryazan land. Danger threatened Moscow's possessions. Dmitry Ivanovich and his cousin Vladimir Andreevich, Prince of Serpukhov-Borovsk, led an army to the Oka River. The Horde did not dare to cross and went to their ulus in the Lower Volga.

In 1374, Dmitry stopped paying tribute to the Horde and thereby broke off relations with it. At the same time, the rebel residents of Nizhny Novgorod killed the 1.5 thousand detachment of the Horde ambassador Saraika. In response, Mamai sent a punitive detachment that ravaged the Nizhny Novgorod places. In 1377, Moscow troops led by Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Bobrok-Volynets and the Nizhny Novgorod army took the city of Bulgar. The trade route along the Volga came under the control of Moscow.

But in the same year, the Horde prince Arab Shah (Arapsha, according to the chronicles) defeated the Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod governors on the Pyana River. Having underestimated the strength of the enemy, showing carelessness, they put their armor in carts and bags (it was very hot) and got carried away with drunken drinking. The unexpected blow of the Horde ended in their complete victory. The winners subjected Nizhny Novgorod and other cities of the principality to a terrible pogrom.

A year later, Mamai sent an army of several tens of thousands of people. They were led by the experienced commander Murza Begich. The Horde sought to regain its former power over the Russian lands. But for Dmitry Ivanovich and his comrades, Drunken’s lesson was of no use. A large Moscow army led by the ruler himself came out to meet Begich.

Both troops, approximately equal in number, converged in early August 1378 on the Vozha River, within the Ryazan borders, south of the Oka. They stood on its opposite banks. We waited for several days and exchanged fire across Vozha. Finally, on August 11, Begich sent cavalry, and it, having crossed to the northern shore, attacked the Russian center, commanded by Prince Dmitry himself. His large regiment repulsed the onslaught and launched a counteroffensive. Regiments of the right and left hands rushed into battle from the flanks. Their powerful blow led to the defeat and flight of the Horde. Many, including Begich, died; others, abandoning a huge convoy, fled to the steppe.

Mamai, embittered by the defeat, organized a raid on the Ryazan principality. It was ruined to the ground again. The Horde, not satisfied with this, is preparing a new campaign. His goal is to bleed Rus', again make it an obedient vassal of the khans, and undermine the growing power of Moscow.

Rus' was also preparing. On the Kulikovo field, in the upper reaches of the Don, two huge forces met - troops on both sides numbered many tens of thousands of warriors. Mamai approached the Don, probably by the beginning of August. He waited for the approach of the regiments of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Yagaila Olgerdovich.

Dmitry Ivanovich quickly gathered an army: they sent him regiments from most of the Russian lands, and detachments came from Western Russian lands led by the Yagaila brothers. The prince led them to Kolomna, and then the army headed to the Don, at the confluence of the Nepryadva River.

The Russian army crossed the Don on the night of September 8, 1380. Here the next day a bloody battle took place. In the center of the Russian position there was a large regiment, on the flanks there were regiments of the right and left arm, in front there was an advanced regiment, behind there was a reserve regiment, on the eastern outskirts in the green Dubrava, behind the Smolka River there was an ambush regiment. Mamai placed mercenary infantry in the center and Horde cavalry on the flanks. Around noon, the duel between Peresvet and Chelubey, Russian and Horde heroes who died in the battle, gave the signal for battle. The Horde forces dealt a terrible blow to the advanced regiment, completely destroying it and losing many of their own, and attacked a large regiment. The large regiment held out. The Horde failed to break the right flank either. Mamai carried the attack to the left flank. The Horde horse regiments flew here like a tornado, and the Russians began to slowly retreat to Nepryadva. The enemy rushed forward, threw back the reserve regiment, and began to bypass the large regiment, striving to cross the Nepryadva.

The course of the battle was turned around by an ambush regiment that unexpectedly entered the battle. Fresh Russian cavalry, rushing out of the oak grove like a whirlwind, attacked the enemy in the flank and rear. It was so swift and terrible that the Horde, crushed and defeated, was seized by panic. Mamai's army ceased to exist, and he himself fled to Crimea and died there in Cafe (Feodosia).