PAGE_BREAK-- heavy metals, which characterizes a wide group of pollutants, has recently become widespread. In various scientific and applied works, authors interpret the meaning of this concept differently. In this regard, the amount of elements classified as heavy metals varies widely. Numerous characteristics are used as membership criteria: atomic mass, density, toxicity, prevalence in the natural environment, degree of involvement in natural and man-made cycles. In some cases, the definition of heavy metals includes elements classified as brittle (for example, bismuth) or metalloids (for example, arsenic).
In works devoted to the problems of environmental pollution and environmental monitoring, today heavy metals include more than 40 metals of the periodic table D.I. Mendeleev with an atomic mass of over 50 atomic units: V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cd, Sn, Hg, Pb, Bi etc. At the same time, the following conditions play an important role in the categorization of heavy metals: their high toxicity to living organisms in relatively low concentrations, as well as the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Almost all metals that fall under this definition (with the exception of lead, mercury, cadmium and bismuth, the biological role of which is currently unclear) are actively involved in biological processes and are part of many enzymes. According to the classification of N. Reimers, metals with a density of more than 8 g/cm3 should be considered heavy. Thus, heavy metals include Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Co, Sb, Sn, Bi, Hg.
Formally defined heavy metals corresponds to a large number of elements. However, according to researchers engaged in practical activities related to organizing observations of the state and pollution of the environment, compounds of these elements are far from equivalent as pollutants. Therefore, in many works, the scope of the group of heavy metals is narrowed, in accordance with priority criteria determined by the direction and specifics of the work. Thus, in the now classic works of Yu.A. Israel in the list of chemical substances to be determined in natural environments at background stations in biosphere reserves, in section heavy metals named Pb, Hg, Cd, As. On the other hand, according to the decision of the Task Force on Heavy Metal Emissions, working under the auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and collecting and analyzing information on pollutant emissions in European countries, only Zn, As, Se and Sb were attributed to heavy metals. According to N. Reimers’ definition, noble and rare metals stand apart from heavy metals, respectively, they remain only Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Co, Sb, Sn, Bi, Hg. In applied work, heavy metals are most often added Pt, Ag, W, Fe, Au, Mn.
Metal ions are essential components of natural bodies of water. Depending on environmental conditions (pH, redox potential, presence of ligands), they exist in different oxidation states and are part of a variety of inorganic and organometallic compounds, which can be truly dissolved, colloidal dispersed, or part of mineral and organic suspensions.
Truly dissolved forms of metals, in turn, are very diverse, which is associated with the processes of hydrolysis, hydrolytic polymerization (formation of polynuclear hydroxo complexes) and complexation with various ligands. Accordingly, both the catalytic properties of metals and their availability for aquatic microorganisms depend on the forms of their existence in the aquatic ecosystem.
Many metals form fairly strong complexes with organic matter; These complexes are one of the most important forms of migration of elements in natural waters. Most organic complexes are formed via the chelate cycle and are stable. Complexes formed by soil acids with salts of iron, aluminum, titanium, uranium, vanadium, copper, molybdenum and other heavy metals are relatively well soluble in neutral, slightly acidic and slightly alkaline environments. Therefore, organometallic complexes are capable of migrating in natural waters over very long distances. This is especially important for low-mineralized and primarily surface waters, in which the formation of other complexes is impossible.
To understand the factors that regulate the concentration of metal in natural waters, their chemical reactivity, bioavailability and toxicity, it is necessary to know not only the total content, but also the proportion of free and bound forms of the metal.
The transition of metals in an aqueous environment into a metal complex form has three consequences:
1. An increase in the total concentration of metal ions may occur due to its transition into solution from bottom sediments;
2. The membrane permeability of complex ions can differ significantly from the permeability of hydrated ions;
3. The toxicity of the metal may change greatly as a result of complexation.
So, chelate forms Cu, Cd, Hg less toxic than free ions. To understand the factors that regulate the concentration of the metal in natural waters, their chemical reactivity, bioavailability and toxicity, it is necessary to know not only the total content, but also the proportion of bound and free forms.
Sources of water pollution with heavy metals are wastewater from electroplating shops, mining enterprises, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, and machine-building plants. Heavy metals are found in fertilizers and pesticides and can enter water bodies through agricultural runoff.
Increased concentrations of heavy metals in natural waters are often associated with other types of pollution, such as acidification. Acid precipitation contributes to a decrease in pH and the transition of metals from a state sorbed on mineral and organic substances to a free state.
First of all, those metals of interest are those that most pollute the atmosphere due to their use in significant quantities in industrial activities and, as a result of accumulation in the external environment, pose a serious danger in terms of their biological activity and toxic properties. These include lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc, bismuth, cobalt, nickel, copper, tin, antimony, vanadium, manganese, chromium, molybdenum and arsenic.
Biogeochemical properties of heavy metals
V - high, U - moderate, N - low
Vanadium.
Vanadium is found predominantly in a dispersed state and is found in iron ores, oil, asphalt, bitumen, oil shale, coal, etc. One of the main sources of vanadium pollution in natural waters is oil and its refined products.
In natural waters it occurs in very low concentrations: in river water 0.2 - 4.5 μg/dm3, in sea water - on average 2 μg/dm3
In water it forms stable anionic complexes (V4O12)4- and (V10O26)6-. In the migration of vanadium, the role of dissolved complex compounds with organic substances, especially with humic acids, is significant.
Elevated concentrations of vanadium are harmful to human health. The MPC of vanadium is 0.1 mg/dm3 (the limiting hazard indicator is sanitary-toxicological), the MPCv is 0.001 mg/dm3.
Natural sources of bismuth entering natural waters are the processes of leaching of bismuth-containing minerals. The source of entry into natural waters can also be wastewater from pharmaceutical and perfume production, and some glass industry enterprises.
It is found in submicrogram concentrations in unpolluted surface waters. The highest concentration was found in groundwater and is 20 μg/dm3, in sea waters - 0.02 μg/dm3. The MAC is 0.1 mg/dm3
The main sources of iron compounds in surface waters are the processes of chemical weathering of rocks, accompanied by their mechanical destruction and dissolution. In the process of interaction with mineral and organic substances contained in natural waters, a complex complex of iron compounds is formed, which are in the water in a dissolved, colloidal and suspended state. Significant amounts of iron come from underground runoff and wastewater from metallurgical, metalworking, textile, paint and varnish industries and agricultural runoff.
Phase equilibria depend on the chemical composition of water, pH, Eh and, to some extent, temperature. In routine analysis weighted form emit particles larger than 0.45 microns. It consists predominantly of iron-containing minerals, iron oxide hydrate and iron compounds sorbed in suspensions. The truly dissolved and colloidal forms are usually considered together. Dissolved iron It is represented by compounds in ionic form, in the form of a hydroxo complex and complexes with dissolved inorganic and organic substances of natural waters. It is mainly Fe(II) that migrates in ionic form, and Fe(III) in the absence of complexing substances cannot be in a dissolved state in significant quantities.
Iron is found mainly in waters with low Eh values.
As a result of chemical and biochemical (with the participation of iron bacteria) oxidation, Fe(II) transforms into Fe(III), which, when hydrolyzed, precipitates in the form of Fe(OH)3. Both Fe(II) and Fe(III) are characterized by a tendency to form hydroxo complexes of the type +, 4+, +, 3+, - and others, coexisting in solution in different concentrations depending on pH and generally determining the state of the iron-hydroxyl system. The main form of Fe(III) in surface waters is its complex compounds with dissolved inorganic and organic compounds, mainly humic substances. At pH = 8.0, the main form is Fe(OH)3. The colloidal form of iron is the least studied; it is the hydrate of iron oxide Fe(OH)3 and complexes with organic substances.
The iron content in surface waters of land is tenths of a milligram; near swamps it is a few milligrams. An increased iron content is observed in swamp waters, in which it is found in the form of complexes with salts of humic acids - humates. The highest concentrations of iron (up to several tens and hundreds of milligrams per 1 dm3) are observed in groundwater with low pH values.
Being a biologically active element, iron to a certain extent affects the intensity of phytoplankton development and the qualitative composition of microflora in a reservoir.
Iron concentrations are subject to marked seasonal fluctuations. Typically, in reservoirs with high biological productivity during the period of summer and winter stagnation, there is a noticeable increase in the concentration of iron in the bottom layers of water. Autumn-spring mixing of water masses (homothermy) is accompanied by the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III) and the precipitation of the latter in the form of Fe(OH)3.
It enters natural waters through the leaching of soils, polymetallic and copper ores, as a result of the decomposition of aquatic organisms capable of accumulating it. Cadmium compounds are carried into surface waters with wastewater from lead-zinc plants, ore processing plants, a number of chemical enterprises (sulfuric acid production), galvanic production, and also with mine waters. A decrease in the concentration of dissolved cadmium compounds occurs due to the processes of sorption, precipitation of cadmium hydroxide and carbonate and their consumption by aquatic organisms.
Dissolved forms of cadmium in natural waters are mainly mineral and organomineral complexes. The main suspended form of cadmium is its sorbed compounds. A significant portion of cadmium can migrate within the cells of aquatic organisms.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, cadmium is contained in submicrogram concentrations; in polluted and waste waters, the concentration of cadmium can reach tens of micrograms per 1 dm3.
Cadmium compounds play an important role in the life processes of animals and humans. In elevated concentrations it is toxic, especially in combination with other toxic substances.
The maximum permissible concentration is 0.001 mg/dm3, the maximum permissible concentration is 0.0005 mg/dm3 (the limiting sign of harm is toxicological).
Cobalt compounds enter natural waters as a result of leaching processes from copper pyrite and other ores, from soils during the decomposition of organisms and plants, as well as with wastewater from metallurgical, metalworking and chemical plants. Some amounts of cobalt come from soils as a result of decomposition of plant and animal organisms.
Cobalt compounds in natural waters are in a dissolved and suspended state, the quantitative relationship between which is determined by the chemical composition of the water, temperature and pH values. Dissolved forms are represented mainly by complex compounds, incl. with organic substances of natural waters. Compounds of divalent cobalt are most typical for surface waters. In the presence of oxidizing agents, trivalent cobalt can exist in noticeable concentrations.
Cobalt is one of the biologically active elements and is always found in the body of animals and plants. Insufficient cobalt content in soils is associated with insufficient cobalt content in plants, which contributes to the development of anemia in animals (taiga-forest non-chernozem zone). As part of vitamin B12, cobalt very actively influences the supply of nitrogenous substances, increases the content of chlorophyll and ascorbic acid, activates biosynthesis and increases the content of protein nitrogen in plants. However, increased concentrations of cobalt compounds are toxic.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, its content ranges from tenths to thousandths of a milligram per 1 dm3, the average content in sea water is 0.5 μg/dm3. The maximum permissible concentration is 0.1 mg/dm3, the maximum permissible concentration is 0.01 mg/dm3.
Manganese
Manganese enters surface waters as a result of leaching of ferromanganese ores and other minerals containing manganese (pyrolusite, psilomelane, braunite, manganite, black ochre). Significant amounts of manganese come from the decomposition of aquatic animals and plant organisms, especially blue-greens, diatoms and higher aquatic plants. Manganese compounds are carried into reservoirs with wastewater from manganese enrichment factories, metallurgical plants, chemical industry enterprises and mine waters.
A decrease in the concentration of manganese ions in natural waters occurs as a result of the oxidation of Mn(II) to MnO2 and other high-valent oxides that precipitate. The main parameters that determine the oxidation reaction are the concentration of dissolved oxygen, pH value and temperature. The concentration of dissolved manganese compounds decreases due to their utilization by algae.
The main form of migration of manganese compounds in surface waters is suspensions, the composition of which is determined in turn by the composition of the rocks drained by the waters, as well as colloidal hydroxides of heavy metals and sorbed manganese compounds. Organic substances and the processes of complex formation of manganese with inorganic and organic ligands are of significant importance in the migration of manganese in dissolved and colloidal forms. Mn(II) forms soluble complexes with bicarbonates and sulfates. Complexes of manganese with chlorine ions are rare. Complex compounds of Mn(II) with organic substances are usually less stable than with other transition metals. These include compounds with amines, organic acids, amino acids and humic substances. Mn(III) in high concentrations can be in a dissolved state only in the presence of strong complexing agents; Mn(YII) does not occur in natural waters.
In river waters, the manganese content usually ranges from 1 to 160 μg/dm3, the average content in sea waters is 2 μg/dm3, in underground waters - n.102 - n.103 μg/dm3.
Manganese concentrations in surface waters are subject to seasonal fluctuations.
The factors determining changes in manganese concentrations are the relationship between surface and underground runoff, the intensity of its consumption during photosynthesis, the decomposition of phytoplankton, microorganisms and higher aquatic vegetation, as well as the processes of its deposition to the bottom of water bodies.
The role of manganese in the life of higher plants and algae in water bodies is very large. Manganese promotes the utilization of CO2 by plants, which increases the intensity of photosynthesis and participates in the processes of nitrate reduction and nitrogen assimilation by plants. Manganese promotes the transition of active Fe(II) to Fe(III), which protects the cell from poisoning, accelerates the growth of organisms, etc. The important ecological and physiological role of manganese necessitates the study and distribution of manganese in natural waters.
For reservoirs of sanitary use, the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) (for manganese ion) is set to 0.1 mg/dm3.
Below are maps of the distribution of average concentrations of metals: manganese, copper, nickel and lead, constructed according to observational data for 1989 - 1993. in 123 cities. The use of more recent data is assumed to be inappropriate, since due to the reduction in production, the concentrations of suspended substances and, accordingly, metals have significantly decreased.
Impact on health. Many metals are part of dust and have a significant impact on health.
Manganese enters the atmosphere from emissions from ferrous metallurgy (60% of all manganese emissions), mechanical engineering and metalworking (23%), non-ferrous metallurgy (9%), and numerous small sources, for example, from welding.
High concentrations of manganese lead to neurotoxic effects, progressive damage to the central nervous system, and pneumonia.
The highest concentrations of manganese (0.57 - 0.66 μg/m3) are observed in large centers of metallurgy: Lipetsk and Cherepovets, as well as Magadan. Most cities with high concentrations of Mn (0.23 - 0.69 μg/m3) are concentrated on the Kola Peninsula: Zapolyarny, Kandalaksha, Monchegorsk, Olenegorsk (see map).
For 1991 - 1994 manganese emissions from industrial sources decreased by 62%, average concentrations by 48%.
Copper is one of the most important trace elements. The physiological activity of copper is associated mainly with its inclusion in the active centers of redox enzymes. Insufficient copper content in soils negatively affects the synthesis of proteins, fats and vitamins and contributes to the infertility of plant organisms. Copper is involved in the process of photosynthesis and affects the absorption of nitrogen by plants. At the same time, excessive concentrations of copper have an adverse effect on plant and animal organisms.
Cu(II) compounds are most common in natural waters. Of the Cu(I) compounds, the most common are Cu2O, Cu2S, and CuCl, which are sparingly soluble in water. In the presence of ligands in an aqueous medium, along with the equilibrium of hydroxide dissociation, it is necessary to take into account the formation of various complex forms that are in equilibrium with metal aqua ions.
The main source of copper entering natural waters is wastewater from chemical and metallurgical industries, mine water, and aldehyde reagents used to kill algae. Copper can result from corrosion of copper piping and other structures used in water supply systems. In groundwater, the copper content is determined by the interaction of water with rocks containing it (chalcopyrite, chalcocite, covellite, bornite, malachite, azurite, chrysacolla, brotantine).
The maximum permissible concentration of copper in the water of reservoirs for sanitary water use is 0.1 mg/dm3 (the limiting sign of hazard is general sanitary), in the water of fishery reservoirs - 0.001 mg/dm3.
City
Norilsk
Monchegorsk
Krasnouralsk
Kolchugino
Zapolyarny
Emissions M (thousand tons/year) of copper oxide and average annual concentrations q (μg/m3) of copper.
Copper enters the air with emissions from metallurgical production. In solid emissions it is contained mainly in the form of compounds, mainly copper oxide.
Non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises account for 98.7% of all anthropogenic emissions of this metal, of which 71% are carried out by enterprises of the Norilsk Nickel concern located in Zapolyarny and Nikel, Monchegorsk and Norilsk, and approximately 25% of copper emissions are carried out in Revda and Krasnouralsk , Kolchugino and others.
High concentrations of copper lead to intoxication, anemia and hepatitis.
As can be seen from the map, the highest concentrations of copper are noted in the cities of Lipetsk and Rudnaya Pristan. Copper concentrations have also increased in the cities of the Kola Peninsula, in Zapolyarny, Monchegorsk, Nikel, Olenegorsk, as well as in Norilsk.
Copper emissions from industrial sources decreased by 34%, average concentrations by 42%.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum compounds enter surface waters as a result of leaching from exogenous molybdenum-containing minerals. Molybdenum also enters water bodies with wastewater from processing plants and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises. A decrease in the concentrations of molybdenum compounds occurs as a result of precipitation of sparingly soluble compounds, adsorption processes by mineral suspensions and consumption by plant aquatic organisms.
Molybdenum in surface waters is mainly in the form MoO42-. It is very likely that it exists in the form of organomineral complexes. The possibility of some accumulation in the colloidal state follows from the fact that the oxidation products of molybdenite are loose, finely dispersed substances.
In river waters, molybdenum was found in concentrations from 2.1 to 10.6 μg/dm3. Sea water contains an average of 10 µg/dm3 of molybdenum.
In small quantities, molybdenum is necessary for the normal development of plant and animal organisms. Molybdenum is part of the enzyme xanthine oxidase. With molybdenum deficiency, the enzyme is formed in insufficient quantities, which causes negative reactions in the body. In elevated concentrations, molybdenum is harmful. With an excess of molybdenum, metabolism is disrupted.
The maximum permissible concentration of molybdenum in water bodies for sanitary use is 0.25 mg/dm3.
Arsenic enters natural waters from mineral springs, areas of arsenic mineralization (arsenic pyrite, realgar, orpiment), as well as from zones of oxidation of polymetallic, copper-cobalt and tungsten rocks. Some arsenic comes from soils and also from decomposition of plant and animal organisms. The consumption of arsenic by aquatic organisms is one of the reasons for the decrease in its concentration in water, which is most clearly manifested during the period of intensive plankton development.
Significant amounts of arsenic enter water bodies from wastewater from processing plants, dye production waste, tanneries and pesticide plants, as well as from agricultural lands where pesticides are used.
In natural waters, arsenic compounds are in a dissolved and suspended state, the relationship between which is determined by the chemical composition of the water and pH values. In dissolved form, arsenic occurs in tri- and pentavalent forms, mainly as anions.
In unpolluted river waters, arsenic is usually found in microgram concentrations. In mineral waters its concentration can reach several milligrams per 1 dm3, in sea waters it contains an average of 3 µg/dm3, in underground waters it is found in concentrations of n.105 µg/dm3. Arsenic compounds in high concentrations are toxic to the body of animals and humans: they inhibit oxidative processes and inhibit the oxygen supply to organs and tissues.
The maximum permissible concentration for arsenic is 0.05 mg/dm3 (the limiting hazard indicator is sanitary-toxicological) and the maximum permissible concentration for arsenic is 0.05 mg/dm3.
The presence of nickel in natural waters is determined by the composition of the rocks through which the water passes: it is found in places where sulfide copper-nickel ores and iron-nickel ores are deposited. It enters water from soils and from plant and animal organisms during their decay. Increased nickel content compared to other types of algae was found in blue-green algae. Nickel compounds also enter water bodies with wastewater from nickel plating shops, synthetic rubber plants, and nickel concentration factories. Huge nickel emissions accompany the burning of fossil fuels.
Its concentration may decrease as a result of the precipitation of compounds such as cyanides, sulfides, carbonates or hydroxides (with increasing pH values), due to its consumption by aquatic organisms and adsorption processes.
In surface waters, nickel compounds are in dissolved, suspended and colloidal states, the quantitative ratio between which depends on the composition of the water, temperature and pH values. Sorbents for nickel compounds can be iron hydroxide, organic substances, highly dispersed calcium carbonate, and clays. Dissolved forms are primarily complex ions, most commonly with amino acids, humic and fulvic acids, and also as a strong cyanide complex. The most common nickel compounds in natural waters are those in which it is found in the +2 oxidation state. Ni3+ compounds are usually formed in an alkaline environment.
Nickel compounds play an important role in hematopoietic processes, being catalysts. Its increased content has a specific effect on the cardiovascular system. Nickel is one of the carcinogenic elements. It can cause respiratory diseases. It is believed that free nickel ions (Ni2+) are approximately 2 times more toxic than its complex compounds.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, the concentration of nickel usually ranges from 0.8 to 10 μg/dm3; in polluted ones it amounts to several tens of micrograms per 1 dm3. The average concentration of nickel in sea water is 2 μg/dm3, in groundwater - n.103 μg/dm3. In groundwater washing nickel-containing rocks, the concentration of nickel sometimes increases to 20 mg/dm3.
Nickel enters the atmosphere from non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, which account for 97% of all nickel emissions, of which 89% come from enterprises of the Norilsk Nickel concern located in Zapolyarny and Nikel, Monchegorsk and Norilsk.
Increased nickel content in the environment leads to the emergence of endemic diseases, bronchial cancer. Nickel compounds belong to group 1 carcinogens.
The map shows several points with high average nickel concentrations in the locations of the Norilsk Nickel concern: Apatity, Kandalaksha, Monchegorsk, Olenegorsk.
Nickel emissions from industrial enterprises decreased by 28%, average concentrations by 35%.
Emissions M (thousand tons/year) and average annual concentrations q (µg/m3) of nickel.
It enters natural waters as a result of leaching processes of tin-containing minerals (cassiterite, stannin), as well as with wastewater from various industries (dying of fabrics, synthesis of organic paints, production of alloys with the addition of tin, etc.).
The toxic effect of tin is small.
In unpolluted surface waters, tin is found in submicrogram concentrations. In groundwater its concentration reaches a few micrograms per 1 dm3. The maximum permissible concentration is 2 mg/dm3.
Mercury compounds can enter surface waters as a result of leaching of rocks in the area of mercury deposits (cinnabar, metacinnabarite, livingstonite), during the decomposition of aquatic organisms that accumulate mercury. Significant quantities enter water bodies with wastewater from enterprises producing dyes, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and some explosives. Coal-fired thermal power plants emit significant amounts of mercury compounds into the atmosphere, which end up in water bodies as a result of wet and dry deposition.
A decrease in the concentration of dissolved mercury compounds occurs as a result of their extraction by many marine and freshwater organisms, which have the ability to accumulate it in concentrations many times higher than its content in water, as well as adsorption processes by suspended substances and bottom sediments.
In surface waters, mercury compounds are in a dissolved and suspended state. The ratio between them depends on the chemical composition of the water and pH values. Suspended mercury is sorbed mercury compounds. Dissolved forms are undissociated molecules, complex organic and mineral compounds. Mercury can be present in the water of water bodies in the form of methylmercury compounds.
Mercury compounds are highly toxic, they affect the human nervous system, cause changes in the mucous membrane, impaired motor function and secretion of the gastrointestinal tract, changes in the blood, etc. Bacterial methylation processes are aimed at the formation of methylmercury compounds, which are many times more toxic than mineral salts mercury Methylmercury compounds accumulate in fish and can enter the human body.
The maximum permissible concentration of mercury is 0.0005 mg/dm3 (the limiting sign of hazard is sanitary-toxicological), the maximum permissible concentration is 0.0001 mg/dm3.
Natural sources of lead entering surface waters are the processes of dissolution of endogenous (galena) and exogenous (anglesite, cerussite, etc.) minerals. A significant increase in the content of lead in the environment (including in surface waters) is associated with the combustion of coal, the use of tetraethyl lead as an anti-knock agent in motor fuel, with the removal of ore processing plants, some metallurgical plants, chemical production plants into water bodies with wastewater. mines, etc. Significant factors in reducing the concentration of lead in water are its adsorption by suspended substances and precipitation with them into bottom sediments. Lead, among other metals, is extracted and accumulated by aquatic organisms.
Lead is found in natural waters in a dissolved and suspended (sorbed) state. In dissolved form it is found in the form of mineral and organomineral complexes, as well as simple ions, in insoluble form - mainly in the form of sulfides, sulfates and carbonates.
In river waters, the concentration of lead ranges from tenths to units of micrograms per 1 dm3. Even in the water of water bodies adjacent to areas of polymetallic ores, its concentration rarely reaches tens of milligrams per 1 dm3. Only in chloride thermal waters does the concentration of lead sometimes reach several milligrams per 1 dm3.
The limiting indicator of the harmfulness of lead is sanitary-toxicological. The maximum permissible concentration for lead is 0.03 mg/dm3, the maximum permissible concentration for lead is 0.1 mg/dm3.
Lead is contained in emissions from metallurgy, metalworking, electrical engineering, petrochemical and motor transport enterprises.
The impact of lead on health occurs through inhalation of air containing lead and ingestion of lead through food, water, and dust particles. Lead accumulates in the body, in bones and surface tissues. Lead affects the kidneys, liver, nervous system and blood-forming organs. The elderly and children are especially sensitive to even low doses of lead.
Emissions M (thousand tons/year) and average annual concentrations q (µg/m3) of lead.
Over seven years, lead emissions from industrial sources fell by 60% due to production cuts and many plant closures. The sharp decrease in industrial emissions is not accompanied by a decrease in vehicle emissions. Average lead concentrations decreased by only 41%. The differences in lead emission reductions and concentrations may be explained by under-reporting of vehicle emissions in previous years; Currently, the number of cars and the intensity of their traffic have increased.
Tetraethyl lead
It enters natural waters due to its use as an antiknock agent in motor fuel of water vehicles, as well as with surface runoff from urban areas.
This substance is characterized by high toxicity and has cumulative properties.
The sources of silver entering surface waters are groundwater and wastewater from mines, processing plants, and photographic enterprises. Increased silver content is associated with the use of bactericidal and algicidal preparations.
Silver can be present in wastewater in dissolved and suspended form, mostly in the form of halide salts.
In unpolluted surface waters, silver is found in submicrogram concentrations. In groundwater, the concentration of silver ranges from a few to tens of micrograms per 1 dm3, in sea water - on average 0.3 μg/dm3.
Silver ions are capable of destroying bacteria and even in small concentrations they sterilize water (the lower limit of the bactericidal effect of silver ions is 2.10-11 mol/dm3). The role of silver in the body of animals and humans has not been sufficiently studied.
The MPC of silver is 0.05 mg/dm3.
Antimony enters surface waters due to the leaching of antimony minerals (stibnite, senarmontite, valentinite, servantite, stibiocanite) and with wastewater from rubber, glass, dyeing, and match factories.
In natural waters, antimony compounds are in a dissolved and suspended state. Under the redox conditions characteristic of surface waters, the existence of both trivalent and pentavalent antimony is possible.
In unpolluted surface waters, antimony is found in submicrogram concentrations, in sea water its concentration reaches 0.5 μg/dm3, in groundwater - 10 μg/dm3. The MPC of antimony is 0.05 mg/dm3 (the limiting hazard indicator is sanitary-toxicological), the MPCv is 0.01 mg/dm3.
Tri- and hexavalent chromium compounds enter surface waters as a result of leaching from rocks (chromite, crocoite, uvarovite, etc.). Some amounts come from the decomposition of organisms and plants from soils. Significant quantities may enter water bodies with wastewater from electroplating shops, dyeing shops of textile factories, tanneries and chemical industry enterprises. A decrease in the concentration of chromium ions can be observed as a result of their consumption by aquatic organisms and adsorption processes.
In surface waters, chromium compounds are in dissolved and suspended states, the ratio between which depends on the composition of the water, temperature, and pH of the solution. Suspended chromium compounds are mainly sorbed chromium compounds. Sorbents can be clays, iron hydroxide, highly dispersed settling calcium carbonate, remains of plant and animal organisms. In dissolved form, chromium can be found in the form of chromates and dichromates. Under aerobic conditions, Cr(VI) transforms into Cr(III), the salts of which hydrolyze in neutral and alkaline media to release hydroxide.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, the chromium content ranges from a few tenths of a microgram per liter to several micrograms per liter; in polluted water bodies it reaches several tens and hundreds of micrograms per liter. The average concentration in sea waters is 0.05 µg/dm3, in groundwater - usually within the range of n.10 - n.102 µg/dm3.
Compounds of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) in increased quantities have carcinogenic properties. Cr(VI) compounds are more dangerous.
It enters natural waters as a result of the processes of destruction and dissolution of rocks and minerals occurring in nature (sphalerite, zincite, goslarite, smithsonite, calamine), as well as with wastewater from ore processing factories and electroplating shops, production of parchment paper, mineral paints, viscose fiber and etc.
In water it exists mainly in ionic form or in the form of its mineral and organic complexes. Sometimes found in insoluble forms: as hydroxide, carbonate, sulfide, etc.
In river waters, the concentration of zinc usually ranges from 3 to 120 μg/dm3, in sea waters - from 1.5 to 10 μg/dm3. The content in ore waters and especially in mine waters with low pH values can be significant.
Zinc is one of the active microelements that influence the growth and normal development of organisms. At the same time, many zinc compounds are toxic, primarily its sulfate and chloride.
The MAC for Zn2+ is 1 mg/dm3 (the limiting indicator of harm is organoleptic), the MAC for Zn2+ is 0.01 mg/dm3 (the limiting indicator of harm is toxicological).
Heavy metals already occupy the second place in terms of danger, inferior to pesticides and significantly ahead of such well-known pollutants as carbon dioxide and sulfur, and in the forecast they should become the most dangerous, more dangerous than nuclear power plant waste and solid waste. Pollution with heavy metals is associated with their widespread use in industrial production, coupled with weak purification systems, as a result of which heavy metals enter the environment, including the soil, polluting and poisoning it.
Heavy metals are priority pollutants, monitoring of which is mandatory in all environments. In various scientific and applied works, authors interpret the meaning of the concept “heavy metals” differently. In some cases, elements classified as brittle (for example, bismuth) or metalloids (for example, arsenic) fall under the definition of heavy metals.
Soil is the main medium into which heavy metals enter, including from the atmosphere and the aquatic environment. It also serves as a source of secondary pollution of surface air and waters that flow from it into the World Ocean. From the soil, heavy metals are absorbed by plants, which then become food for more highly organized animals.
continuation
--PAGE_BREAK-- 3.3. Lead toxicity
Currently, lead ranks first among the causes of industrial poisoning. This is due to its widespread use in various industries. Workers who mine lead ore, in lead smelters, in the production of batteries, during soldering, in printing houses, in the production of crystal glass or ceramic products, leaded gasoline, lead paints, etc. are exposed to lead. Lead pollution of atmospheric air, soil and water in the vicinity of such industries, as well as near major highways, poses a threat of lead exposure to the population living in these areas, and, above all, children, who are more sensitive to the effects of heavy metals.
It should be noted with regret that in Russia there is no state policy on legal, regulatory and economic regulation of the impact of lead on the environment and public health, on reducing emissions (discharges, waste) of lead and its compounds into the environment, and on completely stopping the production of lead-containing gasoline.
Due to extremely unsatisfactory educational work to explain to the population the degree of danger of the effects of heavy metals on the human body, in Russia the number of contingents with professional contact with lead is not decreasing, but is gradually increasing. Cases of chronic lead intoxication have been recorded in 14 industries in Russia. The leading industries are the electrical engineering industry (battery production), instrument making, printing and non-ferrous metallurgy, in which intoxication is caused by exceeding the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of lead in the air of the working area by 20 or more times.
A significant source of lead is automobile exhaust fumes, as half of Russia still uses leaded gasoline. However, metallurgical plants, in particular copper smelters, remain the main source of environmental pollution. And there are leaders here. On the territory of the Sverdlovsk region there are 3 of the largest sources of lead emissions in the country: in the cities of Krasnouralsk, Kirovograd and Revda.
The chimneys of the Krasnouralsk copper smelter, built during the years of Stalinist industrialization and using equipment from 1932, annually spew 150-170 tons of lead into the city of 34,000, covering everything with lead dust.
The concentration of lead in the soil of Krasnouralsk varies from 42.9 to 790.8 mg/kg with a maximum permissible concentration of MPC = 130 μ/kg. Water samples in the water supply of a neighboring village. Oktyabrsky, fed by an underground water source, exceeded the maximum permissible concentration by up to two times.
Lead pollution of the environment affects human health. Exposure to lead disrupts the female and male reproductive systems. For women of pregnant and childbearing age, elevated levels of lead in the blood pose a particular danger, since under the influence of lead menstrual function is disrupted, premature births, miscarriages and fetal death are more common due to the penetration of lead through the placental barrier. Newborn babies have a high mortality rate.
Lead poisoning is extremely dangerous for young children - it affects the development of the brain and nervous system. Testing of 165 Krasnouralsk children aged 4 years and older revealed a significant delay in mental development in 75.7%, and mental retardation, including mental retardation, was found in 6.8% of the children examined.
Preschool-age children are most susceptible to the harmful effects of lead because their nervous systems are still developing. Even at low doses, lead poisoning causes a decrease in intellectual development, attention and ability to concentrate, a lag in reading, and leads to the development of aggression, hyperactivity and other problems in the child’s behavior. These developmental abnormalities can be long-lasting and irreversible. Low birth weight, stunting and hearing loss also result from lead poisoning. High doses of intoxication lead to mental retardation, coma, convulsions and death.
A white paper published by Russian experts reports that lead pollution covers the entire country and is one of numerous environmental disasters in the former Soviet Union that have come to light in recent years. Most of the territory of Russia experiences a load from lead deposition that exceeds the critical load for the normal functioning of the ecosystem. In dozens of cities, lead concentrations in the air and soil exceed the values corresponding to the maximum permissible concentrations.
The highest level of air pollution with lead, exceeding the maximum permissible concentration, was observed in the cities of Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Tobolsk, Tyumen, Karabash, Vladimir, Vladivostok.
The maximum loads of lead deposition, leading to the degradation of terrestrial ecosystems, are observed in the Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, Tula, Rostov and Leningrad regions.
Stationary sources are responsible for the discharge of more than 50 tons of lead in the form of various compounds into water bodies. At the same time, 7 battery factories discharge 35 tons of lead annually through the sewer system. An analysis of the distribution of lead discharges into water bodies in Russia shows that the Leningrad, Yaroslavl, Perm, Samara, Penza and Oryol regions are leaders in this type of load.
The country needs urgent measures to reduce lead pollution, but for now Russia's economic crisis is overshadowing environmental problems. In a long-running industrial depression, Russia lacks the means to clean up past pollution, but if the economy begins to recover and factories return to work, pollution could only worsen.
10 most polluted cities of the former USSR
(Metals are listed in descending order of priority level for a given city)
4. Soil hygiene. Waste disposal.
The soil in cities and other populated areas and their surroundings has long been different from natural, biologically valuable soil, which plays an important role in maintaining ecological balance. The soil in cities is subject to the same harmful effects as the urban air and hydrosphere, so significant degradation occurs everywhere. Soil hygiene is not given enough attention, although its importance as one of the main components of the biosphere (air, water, soil) and a biological environmental factor is even more significant than water, since the quantity of the latter (primarily the quality of groundwater) is determined by the condition of the soil, and it is impossible to separate these factors from each other. The soil has the ability of biological self-purification: in the soil, the breakdown of waste that enters it and its mineralization occurs; Ultimately, the soil compensates for the lost minerals at their expense.
If, as a result of overloading the soil, any of the components of its mineralizing ability is lost, this will inevitably lead to a disruption of the self-purification mechanism and to complete degradation of the soil. And, on the contrary, creating optimal conditions for self-purification of the soil helps to maintain ecological balance and conditions for the existence of all living organisms, including humans.
Therefore, the problem of neutralizing waste that has harmful biological effects is not limited to the issue of their removal; it is a more complex hygienic problem, since soil is the link between water, air and humans.
4.1.
The role of soil in metabolism
The biological relationship between soil and humans is carried out mainly through metabolism. The soil is, as it were, a supplier of minerals necessary for the metabolic cycle, for the growth of plants consumed by humans and herbivores, which are in turn eaten by humans and carnivores. Thus, the soil provides food for many representatives of the plant and animal world.
Consequently, the deterioration of soil quality, a decrease in its biological value, and its ability to self-purify cause a biological chain reaction, which, in the case of prolonged harmful effects, can lead to a variety of health disorders among the population. Moreover, if mineralization processes are slowed down, nitrates, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc. formed during the breakdown of substances can enter groundwater used for drinking purposes and cause serious diseases (for example, nitrates can cause methemoglobinemia, primarily in infants).
Consumption of water from iodine-poor soil can cause endemic goiter, etc.
4.2.
Ecological relationship between soil and water and liquid waste (wastewater)
Man extracts from the soil the water necessary to maintain metabolic processes and life itself. Water quality depends on soil conditions; it always reflects the biological state of a given soil.
This especially applies to groundwater, the biological value of which is significantly determined by the properties of soil and soil, the latter’s ability to self-purify, its filtration capacity, the composition of its macroflora, microfauna, etc.
The direct influence of soil on surface waters is less significant; it is associated mainly with precipitation. For example, after heavy rains, various pollutants are washed from the soil into open bodies of water (rivers, lakes), including artificial fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphate), pesticides, herbicides; in areas of karst and fractured deposits, pollutants can penetrate through cracks into deep-lying groundwater.
Inadequate wastewater treatment can also cause harmful biological effects on the soil and ultimately lead to soil degradation. Therefore, soil protection in populated areas is one of the main requirements for protecting the environment as a whole.
4.3.
Limits of soil load with solid waste (household and street garbage, industrial waste, dry sludge remaining after sedimentation of wastewater, radioactive substances, etc.)
The problem is compounded by the fact that, as a result of the generation of increasing amounts of solid waste in cities, the soil in their surroundings is subject to increasingly significant stress. The properties and composition of the soil are deteriorating at an increasingly rapid pace.
Of the 64.3 million tons of paper produced in the United States, 49.1 million tons end up in waste (of this amount, 26 million tons are “supplied” by households, and 23.1 million tons are supplied by retail chains).
In connection with the above, the removal and final neutralization of solid waste represents a very significant, more difficult to implement hygienic problem in the conditions of increasing urbanization.
The final neutralization of solid waste in contaminated soil seems possible. However, due to the constantly deteriorating ability of urban soil to self-purify, final neutralization of waste buried in the ground is impossible.
A person could successfully use the biochemical processes occurring in the soil, its neutralizing and disinfecting ability to neutralize solid waste, but urban soil, as a result of centuries of human habitation and activity in cities, has long become unsuitable for this purpose.
The mechanisms of self-purification and mineralization occurring in the soil, the role of the bacteria and enzymes involved in them, as well as intermediate and final products of the decomposition of substances are well known. Currently, research is aimed at identifying the factors that ensure the biological balance of natural soil, as well as at clarifying the question of how much solid waste (and what its composition) can lead to disruption of the biological balance of the soil.
Amount of household waste (garbage) per inhabitant of some major cities of the world
It should be noted that the hygienic condition of the soil in cities as a result of its overload is rapidly deteriorating, although the ability of the soil to self-purify is the main hygienic requirement for maintaining biological balance. The soil in cities is no longer able to cope with its task without human help. The only way out of this situation is complete neutralization and destruction of waste in accordance with hygienic requirements.
Therefore, the construction of public utilities should be aimed at preserving the natural ability of the soil to self-purify, and if this ability has already become unsatisfactory, then it must be restored artificially.
The most unfavorable is the toxic effect of industrial waste, both liquid and solid. An increasing amount of such waste is entering the soil, which it is not able to cope with. For example, soil contamination with arsenic has been established in the vicinity of superphosphate production plants (within a radius of 3 km). As is known, some pesticides, such as organochlorine compounds that enter the soil, do not decompose for a long time.
The situation is similar with some synthetic packaging materials (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, etc.).
Some toxic compounds enter groundwater sooner or later, as a result of which not only the biological balance of the soil is disrupted, but the quality of groundwater also deteriorates to such an extent that it can no longer be used as drinking water.
Percentage of the amount of basic synthetic materials contained in household waste (garbage)
*
Together with waste of other heat-hardening plastics.
The problem of waste has increased these days also because part of the waste, mainly human and animal feces, is used to fertilize agricultural land [feces contain a significant amount of nitrogen - 0.4-0.5%, phosphorus (P203) - 0.2-0 .6%, potassium (K?0) -0.5-1.5%, carbon -5-15%]. This city problem has spread to the city's surrounding areas.
4.4.
The role of soil in the spread of various diseases
Soil plays a certain role in the spread of infectious diseases. This was reported back in the last century by Petterkoffer (1882) and Fodor (1875), who mainly highlighted the role of soil in the spread of intestinal diseases: cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, etc. They also drew attention to the fact that some bacteria and viruses remain viable and virulent in the soil for months. Subsequently, a number of authors confirmed their observations, especially in relation to urban soil. For example, the causative agent of cholera remains viable and pathogenic in groundwater from 20 to 200 days, the causative agent of typhoid fever in feces - from 30 to 100 days, and the causative agent of paratyphoid fever - from 30 to 60 days. (From the point of view of the spread of infectious diseases, urban soil poses a much greater danger than field soil fertilized with manure.)
To determine the degree of soil contamination, a number of authors use the determination of bacterial count (Escherichia coli), as in determining water quality. Other authors consider it advisable to determine, in addition, the number of thermophilic bacteria taking part in the mineralization process.
The spread of infectious diseases through soil is greatly facilitated by irrigation of land with wastewater. At the same time, the mineralization properties of the soil deteriorate. Therefore, irrigation with wastewater should be carried out under constant strict sanitary supervision and only outside the urban area.
4.5.
Harmful effects of the main types of pollutants (solid and liquid waste) leading to soil degradation
4.5.1.
Neutralization of liquid waste in soil
In a number of settlements that do not have sewerage, some waste, including manure, is neutralized in the soil.
As you know, this is the simplest method of neutralization. However, it is permissible only if we are dealing with biologically complete soil that has retained the ability to self-purify, which is not typical for urban soils. If the soil no longer possesses these qualities, then in order to protect it from further degradation, the need arises for complex technical structures for the neutralization of liquid waste.
In some places, waste is neutralized in compost pits. From a technical standpoint, this solution is challenging. In addition, liquids are able to penetrate the soil over fairly long distances. The task is further complicated by the fact that urban wastewater contains an increasing amount of toxic industrial waste, which worsens the mineralization properties of the soil to an even greater extent than human and animal feces. Therefore, it is permissible to discharge only wastewater that has been pre-sedimented into compost pits. Otherwise, the filtration capacity of the soil is impaired, then the soil loses its other protective properties, pores gradually become clogged, etc.
The use of human feces to irrigate agricultural fields represents a second method of neutralizing liquid waste. This method poses a double hygienic danger: firstly, it can lead to soil overload; secondly, this waste can become a serious source of infection. Therefore, feces must first be disinfected and subjected to appropriate treatment and only then used as fertilizer. Here two opposing points of view collide. According to hygienic requirements, feces are subject to almost complete destruction, and from the point of view of the national economy they represent a valuable fertilizer. Fresh feces cannot be used to water gardens and fields without first disinfecting them. If you still have to use fresh feces, then they require such a degree of neutralization that they no longer represent almost any value as a fertilizer.
Feces can be used as fertilizer only in specially designated areas - with constant sanitary and hygienic control, especially over the state of groundwater, quantity, flies, etc.
The requirements for the removal and soil neutralization of animal feces are, in principle, no different from the requirements for the neutralization of human feces.
Until recently, manure represented in agriculture a significant source of valuable nutrients necessary to increase soil fertility. However, in recent years, manure has lost its importance, partly due to the mechanization of agriculture, partly due to the increasing use of artificial fertilizers.
In the absence of appropriate treatment and neutralization, manure is also dangerous, just like unneutralized human feces. Therefore, before being taken out to the fields, manure is allowed to ripen so that during this time the necessary biothermal processes can occur in it (at a temperature of 60-70°C). After this, the manure is considered “mature” and freed from most of the pathogens it contains (bacteria, worm eggs, etc.).
It must be remembered that manure storage facilities can provide ideal breeding grounds for flies that contribute to the spread of various intestinal infections. It should be noted that flies most readily choose pig manure for reproduction, then horse manure, sheep manure, and lastly cow manure. Before transporting manure to fields, it must be treated with insecticides.
continuation
--PAGE_BREAK--
CONTENTS
Introduction
1. Soil cover and its use
2. Soil erosion (water and wind) and methods of combating it
3. Industrial soil pollution
3.1 Acid rain
3.2 Heavy metals
3.3 Lead toxicity
4. Soil hygiene. Waste disposal
4.1 The role of soil in metabolism
4.2 Ecological relationships between soil and water and liquid waste (wastewater)
4.3 Limits of soil load with solid waste (household and street garbage, industrial waste, dry sludge after sewage sedimentation, radioactive substances)
4.4 The role of soil in the spread of various diseases
4.5 Harmful effects of the main types of pollutants (solid and liquid wastes) leading to soil degradation
4.5.1 Neutralization of liquid waste in soil
4.5.2.1 Neutralization of solid waste in soil
4.5.2.2 Garbage collection and removal
4.5.3 Final removal and rendering harmless
4.6 Disposal of radioactive waste
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction.
A certain part of the soil, both in Russia and throughout the world, leaves agricultural use every year for various reasons, discussed in detail in the UIR. Thousands or more hectares of land suffer from erosion, acid rain, improper cultivation and toxic waste. To avoid this, you need to become familiar with the most productive and inexpensive reclamation measures (For the definition of reclamation, see the main part of the work) that increase the fertility of the soil cover, and above all with the negative impact on the soil itself, and how to avoid it.
These studies provide insight into the harmful effects on soil and have been conducted through a number of books, articles and scientific journals dealing with soil issues and environmental protection.
The problem of soil pollution and degradation has always been relevant. Now we can add to what has been said that in our time the anthropogenic influence has a strong impact on nature and is only growing, and the soil is one of the main sources of food and clothing for us, not to mention the fact that we walk on it and will always be in close contact with her.
1. Soil cover and its use.
Soil cover is the most important natural formation. Its importance for the life of society is determined by the fact that soil is the main source of food, providing 97-98% of the food resources of the planet's population. At the same time, the soil cover is a place of human activity on which industrial and agricultural production is located.
Highlighting the special role of food in the life of society, V.I. Lenin pointed out: “The real foundations of the economy are the food fund.”
The most important property of the soil cover is its fertility, which is understood as the totality of soil properties that ensure the yield of agricultural crops. Natural soil fertility is regulated by the supply of nutrients in the soil and its water, air and thermal regimes. The role of soil cover in the productivity of terrestrial ecological systems is great, since soil nourishes land plants with water and many compounds and is an essential component of the photosynthetic activity of plants. Soil fertility also depends on the amount of solar energy accumulated in it. Living organisms, plants and animals inhabiting the Earth record solar energy in the form of phyto- or zoomass. The productivity of terrestrial ecological systems depends on the thermal and water balance of the earth's surface, which determines the variety of forms of exchange of matter and matter within the geographic envelope of the planet.
Analyzing the importance of land for social production, K. Marx identified two concepts: land-matter and land-capital. The first of these should be understood the earth that arose in the process of its evolutionary development without the will and consciousness of people and is the place of human settlement and the source of his food. From the moment when land, in the process of development of human society, becomes a means of production, it appears in a new quality - capital, without which the labor process is unthinkable, “... because it gives the worker... a place on which he stands... , and its process - the scope of action...”. It is for this reason that the earth is a universal factor in any human activity.
The role and place of land are different in various spheres of material production, primarily in industry and agriculture. In the manufacturing industry, construction, and transport, the land is the place where labor processes take place regardless of the natural fertility of the soil. Land plays a different role in agriculture. Under the influence of human labor, natural fertility turns from potential into economic. The specificity of the use of land resources in agriculture leads to the fact that they act in two different qualities, as a subject of labor and as a means of production. K. Marx noted: “By the mere new investment of capital in plots of land... people increased land-capital without any increase in the matter of the earth, i.e., the space of the earth.”
Land in agriculture acts as a productive force due to its natural fertility, which does not remain constant. With rational use of land, such fertility can be increased by improving its water, air and thermal conditions through reclamation measures and increasing the content of nutrients in the soil. On the contrary, with irrational use of land resources, their fertility decreases, resulting in a decrease in agricultural yields. In some places, cultivation of crops becomes completely impossible, especially on saline and eroded soils.
At a low level of development of the productive forces of society, the expansion of food production occurs due to the involvement of new lands in agriculture, which corresponds to the extensive development of agriculture. This is facilitated by two conditions: the availability of free land and the possibility of farming at an affordable average level of capital costs per unit area. This use of land resources and farming is typical of many developing countries in the modern world.
During the era of scientific and technological revolution, there was a sharp distinction between the farming system in industrialized and developing countries. The former are characterized by the intensification of agriculture using the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, in which agriculture develops not due to an increase in the area of cultivated land, but due to an increase in the amount of capital invested in the land. The well-known limitation of land resources for most industrialized capitalist countries, the increase in demand for agricultural products throughout the world due to high rates of population growth, and a higher culture of agriculture contributed to the transfer of agriculture in these countries back to the 50s on the path of intensive development. The acceleration of the process of intensification of agriculture in industrialized capitalist countries is associated not only with the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, but mainly with the profitability of investing capital in agriculture, which concentrated agricultural production in the hands of large landowners and ruined small farmers.
Agriculture developed in other ways in developing countries. Among the acute natural resource problems of these countries, the following can be identified: low agricultural standards, which caused soil degradation (increased erosion, salinization, decreased fertility) and natural vegetation (for example, tropical forests), depletion of water resources, desertification of land, especially clearly manifested in African countries. continent. All these factors, associated with the socio-economic problems of developing countries, have led to chronic food shortages in these countries. Thus, at the beginning of the 80s, in terms of provision per person with grain (222 kg) and meat (14 kg), developing countries were inferior to industrialized capitalist countries, respectively, several times. Solving the food problem in developing countries is unthinkable without major socio-economic transformations.
In our country, the basis of land relations is the national (national) ownership of land, which arose as a result of the nationalization of all land. Agrarian relations are built on the basis of plans according to which agriculture should develop in the future, with financial and credit assistance from the state and the supply of the required number of machines and fertilizers. Paying agricultural workers according to the quantity and quality of work stimulates a constant increase in their living standards.
The use of the land fund as a whole is carried out on the basis of long-term state plans. An example of such plans was the development of virgin and fallow lands in the east of the country (mid-50s), thanks to which it became possible to introduce more than 41 million hectares of new areas into arable land in a short period of time. Another example is a set of measures related to the implementation of the Food Program, which provides for accelerating the development of agricultural production based on improving farming standards, extensive land reclamation activities, as well as the implementation of a broad program of socio-economic reconstruction of agricultural areas.
The world's land resources as a whole make it possible to provide food for more people than is currently available and will be the case in the near future. At the same time, due to population growth, especially in developing countries, the amount of arable land per capita is decreasing.
In agricultural regions, in the direction from north to south, there is a natural decrease in the area of poorly cultivated land and an increase in the area of arable land, which reaches a maximum in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. If in the northern regions of the Non-Chernozem Zone of the RSFSR the area of arable land is 5-6% of the total area, then in the forest-steppe and steppe zones the area of arable land increases more than 10 times, reaching 60-70%. To the north and south of these zones, the agricultural territory is sharply reduced. In the north, the limit of sustainable agriculture is determined by the sum of positive temperatures of 1000° during the growing season, in the south - by the annual precipitation of 200-300 mm. The exception is the better moistened foothill and mountainous areas of the south of the European part of the country and Central Asia, where agricultural development of the territory is 20%. In the north of the Russian Plain in the forest-tundra and tundra zones, the area of arable land is only 75 thousand hectares (less than 0.1% of the territory).
To accelerate the development of the country's agriculture, a number of large-scale measures are required:
Introduction of a scientifically based farming system for each natural zone and its individual regions;
Implementation of a wide program of land reclamation in various natural areas;
Elimination of processes of secondary salinization and swamping of reclamation areas;
Application of complexes of measures to combat water and wind erosion on areas measuring millions of hectares;
Creation of a network of cultivated pastures in various natural zones using their irrigation, watering and fertilization;
Carrying out a wide range of measures to cultivate reclaimed soils with the creation of a deep structured horizon;
Modernization of the machine and tractor fleet and tillage implements;
Application of a full dose of fertilizers for all crops, including those that are poorly soluble in the protective coating;
Implementation of a set of measures for the social reconstruction of agricultural territories (construction of roads, housing, warehouses, schools, hospitals, etc.);
Full preservation of the existing land fund. This program can be designed for a long time.
The non-chernozem zone of the RSFSR extends from the Baltic plains in the west to the Ural Range in the east, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean in the north to the forest-steppe border in the south. Its area is about 2.8 km2. The non-Black Earth region is characterized by a high concentration of population. More than 60 million people live here (about 44% of the population of the RSFSR), including about 73% in cities. This zone has 47 million hectares of agricultural land, of which 32 million hectares are arable land. The non-chernozem zone is distinguished by developed agriculture, which accounts for up to 30% of agricultural products of the RSFSR, including almost all flax fiber, up to 20% of grain, more than 50 - potatoes, about 40 - milk and eggs, 43 - vegetables, 30% - meat .
The most important feature of the Non-Chernozem Zone is the presence of a large area of natural feeding grounds. For every hectare of arable land there are from 1 to 3 hectares of forage hayfields and pastures. Natural and climatic conditions almost everywhere favor the development of agriculture specializing in meat and dairy specialization. To intensify agriculture, it is planned to carry out reclamation measures and chemicalization of agricultural land in swamps and wetlands.
2. Soil erosion (water and wind) and methods of combating it.
The widespread use of land, especially increased during the era of scientific and technological revolution, led to an increase in the spread of water and wind erosion (deflation). Under their influence, soil aggregates are removed (by water or wind) from the upper, most valuable layer of soil, which leads to a decrease in its fertility. Water and wind erosion, causing depletion of soil resources, are a dangerous environmental factor.
The total area of land subject to water and wind erosion is measured in many millions of hectares. According to available estimates, 31% of land is susceptible to water erosion, and 34% to wind erosion. Indirect evidence of the increased scale of water and wind erosion in the era of scientific and technological revolution is the increase in solid runoff by rivers into the ocean, which is now estimated at 60 billion tons, although 30 years ago this value was almost 2 times less.
Total agricultural land use (including pastures and hayfields) is about 1/3 of the land area. As a result of water and wind erosion, about 430 million hectares of land have been damaged worldwide, and if the current scale of erosion continues, this value could double by the end of the century.
The most susceptible to wind erosion are soil particles 0.5-0.1 mm or less, which, at wind speeds at the soil surface of 3.8-6.6 m/s, begin to move and move over long distances. Fine soil particles (<,0,1 мм) способны преодолевать расстояние в сотни (иногда тысячи километров). На основании аэрокосмических снимков выявлено, что пыльные бури в Сахаре прослеживались вплоть до Северной Америки.
The 0.5-0.1 mm category of particles is one of the agronomically valuable ones, therefore wind erosion reduces soil fertility. An equally active process is water erosion, since when washed away by water, the size of the washed-out soil particles increases.
Soil loss depends on the type of soil, its physical and mechanical composition, the amount of surface runoff and the condition of the soil surface (agricultural background). Soil loss rates vary for different arable lands within very wide limits. For southern chernozems, soil loss rates (t/ha) vary from 21.7 (autumn plowing along the slope), 14.9 (the same across the slope) to 0.2 (long-term fallow land). The intensity of erosion in the modern era is generated by direct or indirect consequences of anthropogenic origin. The first include wide plowing of land in erosion-hazardous areas, especially in arid or semi-arid zones. This phenomenon is typical for most developing countries.
However, the intensity of erosion has also increased in developed countries, including France, Italy, Germany, and Greece. Some areas of the Non-Chernozem Zone of the RSFSR are considered erosion-hazardous, since gray forest soils are very susceptible to erosion. Erosion also occurs in waterlogged irrigated areas.
Areas in which water and wind erosion occur simultaneously are in a difficult situation. In our country, these include forest-steppe and partially steppe regions of the Central Chernozem Region, the Volga region, Trans-Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia with intensive agricultural use. Water and wind erosion develop in a zone of insufficient moisture with alternating wet and drought-resistant years (or seasons) according to the following schemes: washout - soil drying - blowing, blowing - soil waterlogging - washout. It is noted that it can manifest itself differently in areas with complex terrain: on slopes with northern exposures, water erosion predominates, and on southern slopes with a wind-impact effect, wind erosion predominates. The simultaneous development of water and wind erosion can cause particularly large disturbances of the soil cover.
Wind erosion occurs in steppe regions with large areas of arable land at wind speeds of 10-15 m/s. (Volga region, North Caucasus, south of Western Siberia). The greatest damage to agriculture is caused by dust storms (observed in early spring and summer), which lead to the destruction of crops, a decrease in soil fertility, air pollution, and the entry of strips and reclamation systems. The border of dust storms runs south of the line Balta - Kremenchug - Poltava - Kharkov - Balashov - Kuibyshev - Ufa - Novotroitsk.
The soil conservation farming system developed in Kazakhstan has found widespread use. Its basis is the transition from moldboard tillage using a plow to non-mouldboard cultivation using flat-cutting implements that preserve stubble and plant residues on the soil surface, and on soils of light mechanical composition - the introduction of soil-protective crop rotations with strip placement of annual crops and perennial grasses. Thanks to the soil conservation farming system, not only soil protection from wind erosion is ensured, but also more efficient use of precipitation. With flat-cut tillage, the soil freezes to a shallower depth and spring surface runoff is used to moisten the surface soil horizons, resulting in a reduction in the destructive effect of droughts on grain crops in the driest years. Soil erosion can cause both direct damage - due to a decrease in soil fertility, and indirect damage - due to the transfer of some valuable arable land to other, less valuable ones (for example, forest belts or meadows). Only for agroforestry measures to protect soils from erosion, which many millions of hectares of arable land require, it is necessary to use about 2.6% of this area for forest planting.
To protect soils from erosion, a system of scientific, organizational, agroforestry and hydraulic engineering measures is currently used. The main types of combating water erosion are to minimize the amount of surface runoff and transfer it to underground through soil-protective crop rotations with a 1:2 ratio of perennial grasses and annual crops, deep transverse furrowing of slopes, soil digging, and the introduction of forest plantations. Hydraulic measures to combat water erosion include the construction of ponds and reservoirs to reduce the amount of melt runoff. Depending on the degree of soil erosion, all agricultural land is divided into nine categories. The first of them includes lands that are not subject to erosion, the ninth includes lands unsuitable for agriculture. For each of the land categories (except for the ninth), its own anti-erosion farming system is recommended.
3. Industrial soil pollution.
3.1. Acid rain
The term "acid rain" refers to all types of meteorological precipitation - rain, snow, hail, fog, sleet - whose pH is less than the average pH of rainwater (the average pH for rainwater is 5.6). Sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen oxides (NO x) released during human activity are transformed in the earth's atmosphere into acid-forming particles. These particles react with atmospheric water, turning it into acid solutions, which lower the pH of rainwater. The term “acid rain” was first coined in 1872 by English explorer Angus Smith. The Victorian smog in Manchester caught his attention. And although scientists of that time rejected the theory of the existence of acid rain, today no one doubts that acid rain is one of the causes of the death of life in water bodies, forests, crops, and vegetation. In addition, acid rain destroys buildings and cultural monuments, pipelines, renders cars unusable, reduces soil fertility and can lead to toxic metals seeping into aquifers.
The water of ordinary rain is also a slightly acidic solution. This occurs because natural atmospheric substances such as carbon dioxide (CO2) react with rainwater. In this case, weak carbonic acid is formed (CO 2 + H 2 O -> H 2 CO 3). While the ideal pH of rainwater is 5.6-5.7, in real life the acidity (pH) of rainwater in one area may differ from the acidity of rainwater in another area. This, first of all, depends on the composition of gases contained in the atmosphere of a particular area, such as sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxides.
In 1883, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius coined two terms - acid and base. He called acids substances that, when dissolved in water, form free positively charged hydrogen ions (H +). He called bases substances that, when dissolved in water, form free negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH -). The term pH is used as an indicator of the acidity of water. “The term pH means, translated from English, “an indicator of the degree of concentration of hydrogen ions.”
The pH value is measured on a scale from 0 to 14. Water and aqueous solutions contain both hydrogen ions (H +) and hydroxide ions (OH -). When the concentration of hydrogen ions (H +) in water or solution is equal to the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH -) in the same solution, then such a solution is neutral. The pH value of a neutral solution is 7 (on a scale from 0 to 14). As you already know, when acids are dissolved in water, the concentration of free hydrogen ions (H+) increases. They then increase the acidity of the water or, in other words, the pH of the water. At the same time, with an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions (H +), the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH -) decreases. Those solutions whose pH value on the given scale ranges from 0 to<7, называются кислыми. Когда в воду попадают щелочи, то в воде повышается концентрация гидроксид-ионов (ОН -). При этом в растворе понижается концентрация ионов водорода (Н +). Растворы, значение рН которых находится в пределах от >7 to 14 are called alkaline.
One more feature of the pH scale should be noted. Each subsequent step on the pH scale indicates a tenfold decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions (H +) (and, accordingly, acidity) in the solution and an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH -). For example, the acidity of a substance with a pH value is ten times higher than the acidity of a substance with a pH value of 5, one hundred times higher than the acidity of a substance with a pH value of 6, and one hundred thousand times higher than the acidity of a substance with a pH value of 9.
Acid rain is formed by a reaction between water and pollutants such as sulfur oxide (SO2) and various oxides of nitrogen (NOx). These substances are released into the atmosphere by motor vehicles, as a result of the activities of metallurgical enterprises and power plants, as well as by burning coal and wood. Reacting with atmospheric water, they turn into solutions of acids - sulfuric, sulfurous, nitrous and nitric. Then, along with snow or rain, they fall to the ground.
The consequences of acid rain are observed in the USA, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia, the republics of the former Yugoslavia and many other countries around the globe.
Acid rain has a negative impact on bodies of water - lakes, rivers, bays, ponds - increasing their acidity to such a level that flora and fauna die in them. Aquatic plants grow best in water with pH values between 7 and 9.2. With an increase in acidity (pH values move to the left of reference point 7), aquatic plants begin to die, depriving other animals of the reservoir of food. At pH6 acidity, freshwater shrimp die. When the acidity rises to pH5.5, bottom bacteria that decompose organic matter and leaves die, and organic debris begins to accumulate at the bottom. Then plankton dies - a tiny animal that forms the basis of the food chain of the reservoir and feeds on substances formed when bacteria decompose organic substances. When acidity reaches pH 4.5, all fish, most frogs and insects die.
As organic matter accumulates at the bottom of water bodies, toxic metals begin to leach out. Increased water acidity promotes higher solubility of hazardous metals such as aluminum, cadmium, mercury and lead from sediments and soils.
These toxic metals pose a risk to human health. People who drink water with high levels of lead or eat fish with high levels of mercury can become seriously ill.
Acid rain harms more than just aquatic life. It also destroys vegetation on land. Scientists believe that although the mechanism is not yet fully understood, "a complex mixture of pollutants, including acid precipitation, ozone, and heavy metals... combine to lead to forest degradation.
Economic losses from acid rain in the US are estimated by one study to be $13 million annually on the East Coast, and by the end of the century losses will reach $1.750 billion from forest loss; $8.300 billion in crop losses (in the Ohio River Basin alone) and $40 million in medical expenses in Minnesota alone. The only way to change the situation for the better, according to many experts, is to reduce the amount of harmful emissions into the atmosphere.
3.2. Heavy metals
Heavy metals are priority pollutants, monitoring of which is mandatory in all environments.
Term heavy metals, which characterizes a wide group of pollutants, has recently become widespread. In various scientific and applied works, authors interpret the meaning of this concept differently. In this regard, the amount of elements classified as heavy metals varies widely. Numerous characteristics are used as membership criteria: atomic mass, density, toxicity, prevalence in the natural environment, degree of involvement in natural and man-made cycles. In some cases, elements classified as brittle (for example, bismuth) or metalloids (for example, arsenic) fall under the definition of heavy metals.
In works devoted to the problems of environmental pollution and environmental monitoring, today heavy metals include more than 40 metals of the periodic table D.I. Mendeleev with an atomic mass of over 50 atomic units: V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cd, Sn, Hg, Pb, Bi etc. At the same time, the following conditions play an important role in the categorization of heavy metals: their high toxicity to living organisms in relatively low concentrations, as well as the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify. Almost all metals that fall under this definition (with the exception of lead, mercury, cadmium and bismuth, the biological role of which is currently unclear) are actively involved in biological processes and are part of many enzymes. According to the classification of N. Reimers, metals with a density of more than 8 g/cm 3 should be considered heavy. Thus, heavy metals include Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Co, Sb, Sn, Bi, Hg .
Formally defined heavy metals corresponds to a large number of elements. However, according to researchers engaged in practical activities related to organizing observations of the state and pollution of the environment, compounds of these elements are far from equivalent as pollutants. Therefore, in many works, the scope of the group of heavy metals is narrowed, in accordance with priority criteria determined by the direction and specifics of the work. Thus, in the now classic works of Yu.A. Israel in the list of chemical substances to be determined in natural environments at background stations in biosphere reserves, in section heavy metals named Pb, Hg, Cd, As. On the other hand, according to the decision of the Task Force on Heavy Metal Emissions, working under the auspices of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and collecting and analyzing information on pollutant emissions in European countries, only Zn, As, Se and Sb were attributed to heavy metals. According to N. Reimers’ definition, noble and rare metals stand apart from heavy metals, respectively, they remain only Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Co, Sb, Sn, Bi, Hg. In applied work, heavy metals are most often added Pt, Ag, W, Fe, Au, Mn .
Metal ions are essential components of natural bodies of water. Depending on environmental conditions (pH, redox potential, presence of ligands), they exist in different oxidation states and are part of a variety of inorganic and organometallic compounds, which can be truly dissolved, colloidal dispersed, or part of mineral and organic suspensions.
Truly dissolved forms of metals, in turn, are very diverse, which is associated with the processes of hydrolysis, hydrolytic polymerization (formation of polynuclear hydroxo complexes) and complexation with various ligands. Accordingly, both the catalytic properties of metals and their availability for aquatic microorganisms depend on the forms of their existence in the aquatic ecosystem.
Many metals form fairly strong complexes with organic matter; These complexes are one of the most important forms of migration of elements in natural waters. Most organic complexes are formed via the chelate cycle and are stable. Complexes formed by soil acids with salts of iron, aluminum, titanium, uranium, vanadium, copper, molybdenum and other heavy metals are relatively well soluble in neutral, slightly acidic and slightly alkaline environments. Therefore, organometallic complexes are capable of migrating in natural waters over very long distances. This is especially important for low-mineralized and primarily surface waters, in which the formation of other complexes is impossible.
To understand the factors that regulate the concentration of metal in natural waters, their chemical reactivity, bioavailability and toxicity, it is necessary to know not only the total content, but also the proportion of free and bound forms of the metal.
The transition of metals in an aqueous environment into a metal complex form has three consequences:
1. An increase in the total concentration of metal ions may occur due to its transition into solution from bottom sediments;
2. The membrane permeability of complex ions can differ significantly from the permeability of hydrated ions;
3. The toxicity of the metal may change greatly as a result of complexation.
So, chelate forms Cu, Cd, Hg less toxic than free ions. To understand the factors that regulate the concentration of the metal in natural waters, their chemical reactivity, bioavailability and toxicity, it is necessary to know not only the total content, but also the proportion of bound and free forms.
Sources of water pollution with heavy metals are wastewater from electroplating shops, mining enterprises, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, and machine-building plants. Heavy metals are found in fertilizers and pesticides and can enter water bodies through agricultural runoff.
Increased concentrations of heavy metals in natural waters are often associated with other types of pollution, such as acidification. Acid precipitation contributes to a decrease in pH and the transition of metals from a state sorbed on mineral and organic substances to a free state.
First of all, those metals of interest are those that most pollute the atmosphere due to their use in significant quantities in industrial activities and, as a result of accumulation in the external environment, pose a serious danger in terms of their biological activity and toxic properties. These include lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc, bismuth, cobalt, nickel, copper, tin, antimony, vanadium, manganese, chromium, molybdenum and arsenic.
Biogeochemical properties of heavy metals
| Property |
|||||||
| Biochemical activity |
|||||||
| Toxicity |
|||||||
| Carcinogenicity |
|||||||
| Aerosol enrichment |
|||||||
| Mineral distribution form |
|||||||
| Organic form of propagation |
|||||||
| Mobility |
|||||||
| Trend towards bioconcentration |
|||||||
| Accumulation efficiency |
|||||||
| Complexing ability |
|||||||
| Tendency to hydrolysis |
|||||||
| Solubility of compounds |
|||||||
| Life time |
V - high, U - moderate, N - low
Vanadium is found predominantly in a dispersed state and is found in iron ores, oil, asphalt, bitumen, oil shale, coal, etc. One of the main sources of vanadium pollution in natural waters is oil and its refined products.
In natural waters it is found in very low concentrations: in river water 0.2 - 4.5 μg/dm 3, in sea water - on average 2 μg/dm 3
In water it forms stable anionic complexes (V 4 O 12) 4- and (V 10 O 26) 6-. In the migration of vanadium, the role of dissolved complex compounds with organic substances, especially with humic acids, is significant.
Elevated concentrations of vanadium are harmful to human health. The maximum permissible concentration for vanadium is 0.1 mg/dm 3 (the limiting hazard indicator is sanitary-toxicological), the maximum permissible concentration for vr is 0.001 mg/dm 3.
Natural sources of bismuth entering natural waters are the processes of leaching of bismuth-containing minerals. The source of entry into natural waters can also be wastewater from pharmaceutical and perfume production, and some glass industry enterprises.
It is found in submicrogram concentrations in unpolluted surface waters. The highest concentration was found in groundwater and is 20 μg/dm 3, in sea waters - 0.02 μg/dm 3. The maximum permissible concentration is 0.1 mg/dm 3
The main sources of iron compounds in surface waters are the processes of chemical weathering of rocks, accompanied by their mechanical destruction and dissolution. In the process of interaction with mineral and organic substances contained in natural waters, a complex complex of iron compounds is formed, which are in the water in a dissolved, colloidal and suspended state. Significant amounts of iron come from underground runoff and wastewater from metallurgical, metalworking, textile, paint and varnish industries and agricultural runoff.
Phase equilibria depend on the chemical composition of water, pH, Eh and, to some extent, temperature. In routine analysis weighted form emit particles larger than 0.45 microns. It consists predominantly of iron-containing minerals, iron oxide hydrate and iron compounds sorbed in suspensions. The truly dissolved and colloidal forms are usually considered together. Dissolved iron It is represented by compounds in ionic form, in the form of a hydroxo complex and complexes with dissolved inorganic and organic substances of natural waters. It is mainly Fe(II) that migrates in ionic form, and Fe(III) in the absence of complexing substances cannot be in a dissolved state in significant quantities.
Iron is found mainly in waters with low Eh values.
As a result of chemical and biochemical (with the participation of iron bacteria) oxidation, Fe(II) transforms into Fe(III), which, when hydrolyzed, precipitates in the form of Fe(OH) 3 . Both Fe(II) and Fe(III) are characterized by a tendency to form hydroxo complexes of the type + , 4+ , + , 3+ , - and others, coexisting in solution in different concentrations depending on pH and generally determining the state of the iron-hydroxyl system. The main form of Fe(III) in surface waters is its complex compounds with dissolved inorganic and organic compounds, mainly humic substances. At pH = 8.0, the main form is Fe(OH) 3. The colloidal form of iron is the least studied; it is the hydrate of iron oxide Fe(OH) 3 and complexes with organic substances.
The iron content in surface waters of land is tenths of a milligram; near swamps it is a few milligrams. An increased iron content is observed in swamp waters, in which it is found in the form of complexes with salts of humic acids - humates. The highest concentrations of iron (up to several tens and hundreds of milligrams per 1 dm 3) are observed in groundwater with low pH values.
Being a biologically active element, iron to a certain extent influences the intensity of phytoplankton development and the qualitative composition of microflora in a reservoir.
Iron concentrations are subject to marked seasonal fluctuations. Typically, in reservoirs with high biological productivity during the period of summer and winter stagnation, there is a noticeable increase in the concentration of iron in the bottom layers of water. Autumn-spring mixing of water masses (homothermy) is accompanied by the oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III) and the precipitation of the latter in the form of Fe(OH) 3 .
It enters natural waters through the leaching of soils, polymetallic and copper ores, as a result of the decomposition of aquatic organisms capable of accumulating it. Cadmium compounds are carried into surface waters with wastewater from lead-zinc plants, ore processing plants, a number of chemical enterprises (sulfuric acid production), galvanic production, and also with mine waters. A decrease in the concentration of dissolved cadmium compounds occurs due to the processes of sorption, precipitation of cadmium hydroxide and carbonate and their consumption by aquatic organisms.
Dissolved forms of cadmium in natural waters are mainly mineral and organomineral complexes. The main suspended form of cadmium is its sorbed compounds. A significant portion of cadmium can migrate within the cells of aquatic organisms.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, cadmium is contained in submicrogram concentrations; in polluted and waste waters, the concentration of cadmium can reach tens of micrograms per 1 dm 3.
Cadmium compounds play an important role in the life processes of animals and humans. In elevated concentrations it is toxic, especially in combination with other toxic substances.
The maximum permissible concentration in is 0.001 mg/dm 3, the maximum permissible concentration v is 0.0005 mg/dm 3 (the limiting sign of harm is toxicological).
Cobalt compounds enter natural waters as a result of leaching processes from copper pyrite and other ores, from soils during the decomposition of organisms and plants, as well as with wastewater from metallurgical, metalworking and chemical plants. Some amounts of cobalt come from soils as a result of decomposition of plant and animal organisms.
Cobalt compounds in natural waters are in a dissolved and suspended state, the quantitative relationship between which is determined by the chemical composition of the water, temperature and pH values. Dissolved forms are represented mainly by complex compounds, incl. with organic substances of natural waters. Compounds of divalent cobalt are most typical for surface waters. In the presence of oxidizing agents, trivalent cobalt can exist in noticeable concentrations.
Cobalt is one of the biologically active elements and is always found in the body of animals and plants. Insufficient cobalt content in soils is associated with insufficient cobalt content in plants, which contributes to the development of anemia in animals (taiga-forest non-chernozem zone). As part of vitamin B12, cobalt very actively influences the supply of nitrogenous substances, increases the content of chlorophyll and ascorbic acid, activates biosynthesis and increases the content of protein nitrogen in plants. However, increased concentrations of cobalt compounds are toxic.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, its content ranges from tenths to thousandths of a milligram per 1 dm 3, the average content in sea water is 0.5 μg/dm 3. The maximum permissible concentration in is 0.1 mg/dm 3, the maximum permissible concentration in v is 0.01 mg/dm 3.
Manganese
Manganese enters surface waters as a result of leaching of ferromanganese ores and other minerals containing manganese (pyrolusite, psilomelane, braunite, manganite, black ochre). Significant amounts of manganese come from the decomposition of aquatic animals and plant organisms, especially blue-greens, diatoms and higher aquatic plants. Manganese compounds are carried into reservoirs with wastewater from manganese enrichment factories, metallurgical plants, chemical industry enterprises and mine waters.
A decrease in the concentration of manganese ions in natural waters occurs as a result of the oxidation of Mn(II) to MnO 2 and other high-valent oxides that precipitate. The main parameters that determine the oxidation reaction are the concentration of dissolved oxygen, pH value and temperature. The concentration of dissolved manganese compounds decreases due to their utilization by algae.
The main form of migration of manganese compounds in surface waters is suspensions, the composition of which is determined in turn by the composition of the rocks drained by the waters, as well as colloidal hydroxides of heavy metals and sorbed manganese compounds. Organic substances and the processes of complex formation of manganese with inorganic and organic ligands are of significant importance in the migration of manganese in dissolved and colloidal forms. Mn(II) forms soluble complexes with bicarbonates and sulfates. Complexes of manganese with chlorine ions are rare. Complex compounds of Mn(II) with organic substances are usually less stable than with other transition metals. These include compounds with amines, organic acids, amino acids and humic substances. Mn(III) in high concentrations can be in a dissolved state only in the presence of strong complexing agents; Mn(YII) is not found in natural waters.
In river waters, the manganese content usually ranges from 1 to 160 μg/dm 3, the average content in sea waters is 2 μg/dm 3, in underground waters - n. 10 2 - n. 10 3 µg/dm 3.
Manganese concentrations in surface waters are subject to seasonal fluctuations.
The factors determining changes in manganese concentrations are the relationship between surface and underground runoff, the intensity of its consumption during photosynthesis, the decomposition of phytoplankton, microorganisms and higher aquatic vegetation, as well as the processes of its deposition to the bottom of water bodies.
The role of manganese in the life of higher plants and algae in water bodies is very large. Manganese promotes the utilization of CO 2 by plants, which increases the intensity of photosynthesis and participates in the processes of nitrate reduction and nitrogen assimilation by plants. Manganese promotes the transition of active Fe(II) to Fe(III), which protects the cell from poisoning, accelerates the growth of organisms, etc. The important ecological and physiological role of manganese necessitates the study and distribution of manganese in natural waters.
For reservoirs of sanitary use, the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) (for manganese ion) is set to 0.1 mg/dm 3 .
Below are maps of the distribution of average concentrations of metals: manganese, copper, nickel and lead, constructed according to observational data for 1989 - 1993. in 123 cities. The use of more recent data is assumed to be inappropriate, since due to the reduction in production, the concentrations of suspended substances and, accordingly, metals have significantly decreased.
Impact on health. Many metals are part of dust and have a significant impact on health.
Manganese enters the atmosphere from emissions from ferrous metallurgy (60% of all manganese emissions), mechanical engineering and metalworking (23%), non-ferrous metallurgy (9%), and numerous small sources, for example, from welding.
High concentrations of manganese lead to neurotoxic effects, progressive damage to the central nervous system, and pneumonia.
The highest concentrations of manganese (0.57 - 0.66 μg/m3) are observed in large centers of metallurgy: Lipetsk and Cherepovets, as well as Magadan. Most cities with high concentrations of Mn (0.23 - 0.69 μg/m3) are concentrated on the Kola Peninsula: Zapolyarny, Kandalaksha, Monchegorsk, Olenegorsk (see map).
For 1991 - 1994 manganese emissions from industrial sources decreased by 62%, average concentrations by 48%.
 |
Copper is one of the most important trace elements. The physiological activity of copper is associated mainly with its inclusion in the active centers of redox enzymes. Insufficient copper content in soils negatively affects the synthesis of proteins, fats and vitamins and contributes to the infertility of plant organisms. Copper is involved in the process of photosynthesis and affects the absorption of nitrogen by plants. At the same time, excessive concentrations of copper have an adverse effect on plant and animal organisms.
Cu(II) compounds are most common in natural waters. Of the Cu(I) compounds, the most common are Cu 2 O, Cu 2 S, and CuCl, which are sparingly soluble in water. In the presence of ligands in an aqueous medium, along with the equilibrium of hydroxide dissociation, it is necessary to take into account the formation of various complex forms that are in equilibrium with metal aqua ions.
The main source of copper entering natural waters is wastewater from chemical and metallurgical industries, mine water, and aldehyde reagents used to destroy algae. Copper can result from corrosion of copper piping and other structures used in water supply systems. In groundwater, the copper content is determined by the interaction of water with rocks containing it (chalcopyrite, chalcocite, covellite, bornite, malachite, azurite, chrysacolla, brotantine).
The maximum permissible concentration of copper in the water of reservoirs for sanitary water use is 0.1 mg/dm 3 (the limiting sign of hazard is general sanitary), in the water of fishery reservoirs - 0.001 mg/dm 3.
Emissions M (thousand tons/year) of copper oxide and average annual concentrations q (μg/m 3) of copper.
Copper enters the air with emissions from metallurgical production. In solid emissions it is contained mainly in the form of compounds, mainly copper oxide.
Non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises account for 98.7% of all anthropogenic emissions of this metal, of which 71% are carried out by enterprises of the Norilsk Nickel concern located in Zapolyarny and Nikel, Monchegorsk and Norilsk, and approximately 25% of copper emissions are carried out in Revda and Krasnouralsk , Kolchugino and others.
 |
High concentrations of copper lead to intoxication, anemia and hepatitis.
As can be seen from the map, the highest concentrations of copper are noted in the cities of Lipetsk and Rudnaya Pristan. Copper concentrations have also increased in the cities of the Kola Peninsula, in Zapolyarny, Monchegorsk, Nikel, Olenegorsk, as well as in Norilsk.
Copper emissions from industrial sources decreased by 34%, average concentrations by 42%.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum compounds enter surface waters as a result of leaching from exogenous molybdenum-containing minerals. Molybdenum also enters water bodies with wastewater from processing plants and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises. A decrease in the concentrations of molybdenum compounds occurs as a result of precipitation of sparingly soluble compounds, adsorption processes by mineral suspensions and consumption by plant aquatic organisms.
Molybdenum in surface waters is mainly in the form MoO 4 2-. It is very likely that it exists in the form of organomineral complexes. The possibility of some accumulation in the colloidal state follows from the fact that the oxidation products of molybdenite are loose, finely dispersed substances.
In river waters, molybdenum was found in concentrations from 2.1 to 10.6 μg/dm3. Sea water contains an average of 10 µg/dm3 of molybdenum.
In small quantities, molybdenum is necessary for the normal development of plant and animal organisms. Molybdenum is part of the enzyme xanthine oxidase. With molybdenum deficiency, the enzyme is formed in insufficient quantities, which causes negative reactions in the body. In elevated concentrations, molybdenum is harmful. With an excess of molybdenum, metabolism is disrupted.
The maximum permissible concentration of molybdenum in water bodies for sanitary use is 0.25 mg/dm3.
Arsenic enters natural waters from mineral springs, areas of arsenic mineralization (arsenic pyrite, realgar, orpiment), as well as from zones of oxidation of polymetallic, copper-cobalt and tungsten rocks. Some arsenic comes from soils and also from decomposition of plant and animal organisms. The consumption of arsenic by aquatic organisms is one of the reasons for the decrease in its concentration in water, which is most clearly manifested during the period of intensive plankton development.
Significant amounts of arsenic enter water bodies from wastewater from processing plants, dye production waste, tanneries and pesticide plants, as well as from agricultural lands where pesticides are used.
In natural waters, arsenic compounds are in a dissolved and suspended state, the relationship between which is determined by the chemical composition of the water and pH values. In dissolved form, arsenic occurs in tri- and pentavalent forms, mainly as anions.
In unpolluted river waters, arsenic is usually found in microgram concentrations. In mineral waters, its concentration can reach several milligrams per 1 dm 3, in sea waters it contains an average of 3 μg/dm 3, in underground waters it is found in concentrations n. 10 5 µg/dm3. Arsenic compounds in high concentrations are toxic to the body of animals and humans: they inhibit oxidative processes and inhibit the oxygen supply to organs and tissues.
The maximum permissible concentration for arsenic is 0.05 mg/dm 3 (the limiting hazard indicator is sanitary-toxicological) and the maximum permissible concentration for arsenic is 0.05 mg/dm 3.
The presence of nickel in natural waters is determined by the composition of the rocks through which the water passes: it is found in places where sulfide copper-nickel ores and iron-nickel ores are deposited. It enters water from soils and from plant and animal organisms during their decay. Increased nickel content compared to other types of algae was found in blue-green algae. Nickel compounds also enter water bodies with wastewater from nickel plating shops, synthetic rubber plants, and nickel concentration factories. Huge nickel emissions accompany the burning of fossil fuels.
Its concentration may decrease as a result of the precipitation of compounds such as cyanides, sulfides, carbonates or hydroxides (with increasing pH values), due to its consumption by aquatic organisms and adsorption processes.
In surface waters, nickel compounds are in dissolved, suspended and colloidal states, the quantitative ratio between which depends on the composition of the water, temperature and pH values. Sorbents for nickel compounds can be iron hydroxide, organic substances, highly dispersed calcium carbonate, and clays. Dissolved forms are primarily complex ions, most commonly with amino acids, humic and fulvic acids, and also as a strong cyanide complex. The most common nickel compounds in natural waters are those in which it is found in the +2 oxidation state. Ni 3+ compounds are usually formed in an alkaline environment.
Nickel compounds play an important role in hematopoietic processes, being catalysts. Its increased content has a specific effect on the cardiovascular system. Nickel is one of the carcinogenic elements. It can cause respiratory diseases. It is believed that free nickel ions (Ni 2+) are approximately 2 times more toxic than its complex compounds.
 |
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, the concentration of nickel usually ranges from 0.8 to 10 μg/dm 3 ; in contaminated ones it amounts to several tens of micrograms per 1 dm 3. The average concentration of nickel in sea water is 2 μg/dm 3, in groundwater - n. 10 3 µg/dm3. In groundwater washing nickel-containing rocks, the concentration of nickel sometimes increases to 20 mg/dm3.
Nickel enters the atmosphere from non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, which account for 97% of all nickel emissions, of which 89% come from enterprises of the Norilsk Nickel concern located in Zapolyarny and Nikel, Monchegorsk and Norilsk.
Increased nickel content in the environment leads to the emergence of endemic diseases, bronchial cancer. Nickel compounds belong to group 1 carcinogens.
The map shows several points with high average nickel concentrations in the locations of the Norilsk Nickel concern: Apatity, Kandalaksha, Monchegorsk, Olenegorsk.
Nickel emissions from industrial enterprises decreased by 28%, average concentrations by 35%.
Emissions M (thousand tons/year) and average annual concentrations q (µg/m 3) of nickel.
It enters natural waters as a result of leaching processes of tin-containing minerals (cassiterite, stannin), as well as with wastewater from various industries (dying of fabrics, synthesis of organic paints, production of alloys with the addition of tin, etc.).
The toxic effect of tin is small.
In unpolluted surface waters, tin is found in submicrogram concentrations. In groundwater its concentration reaches a few micrograms per 1 dm3. The maximum permissible concentration is 2 mg/dm3.
Mercury compounds can enter surface waters as a result of leaching of rocks in the area of mercury deposits (cinnabar, metacinnabarite, livingstonite), during the decomposition of aquatic organisms that accumulate mercury. Significant quantities enter water bodies with wastewater from enterprises producing dyes, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and some explosives. Coal-fired thermal power plants emit significant amounts of mercury compounds into the atmosphere, which end up in water bodies as a result of wet and dry deposition.
A decrease in the concentration of dissolved mercury compounds occurs as a result of their extraction by many marine and freshwater organisms, which have the ability to accumulate it in concentrations many times higher than its content in water, as well as adsorption processes by suspended substances and bottom sediments.
In surface waters, mercury compounds are in a dissolved and suspended state. The ratio between them depends on the chemical composition of the water and pH values. Suspended mercury is sorbed mercury compounds. Dissolved forms are undissociated molecules, complex organic and mineral compounds. Mercury can be present in the water of water bodies in the form of methylmercury compounds.
Mercury compounds are highly toxic, they affect the human nervous system, cause changes in the mucous membrane, impaired motor function and secretion of the gastrointestinal tract, changes in the blood, etc. Bacterial methylation processes are aimed at the formation of methylmercury compounds, which are many times more toxic than mineral salts mercury Methylmercury compounds accumulate in fish and can enter the human body.
The maximum permissible concentration in mercury is 0.0005 mg/dm 3 (the limiting sign of harm is sanitary-toxicological), the maximum permissible concentration vr is 0.0001 mg/dm 3.
Natural sources of lead entering surface waters are the processes of dissolution of endogenous (galena) and exogenous (anglesite, cerussite, etc.) minerals. A significant increase in the content of lead in the environment (including in surface waters) is associated with the combustion of coal, the use of tetraethyl lead as an anti-knock agent in motor fuel, with the removal of ore processing plants, some metallurgical plants, chemical production plants into water bodies with wastewater. mines, etc. Significant factors in reducing the concentration of lead in water are its adsorption by suspended substances and precipitation with them into bottom sediments. Lead, among other metals, is extracted and accumulated by aquatic organisms.
Lead is found in natural waters in a dissolved and suspended (sorbed) state. In dissolved form it is found in the form of mineral and organomineral complexes, as well as simple ions, in insoluble form - mainly in the form of sulfides, sulfates and carbonates.
In river waters, the concentration of lead ranges from tenths to units of micrograms per 1 dm 3. Even in the water of water bodies adjacent to areas of polymetallic ores, its concentration rarely reaches tens of milligrams per 1 dm 3. Only in chloride thermal waters does the concentration of lead sometimes reach several milligrams per 1 dm 3 .
The limiting indicator of the harmfulness of lead is sanitary-toxicological. The maximum permissible concentration for lead is 0.03 mg/dm 3, the maximum permissible concentration for lead is 0.1 mg/dm 3.
Lead is contained in emissions from metallurgy, metalworking, electrical engineering, petrochemical and motor transport enterprises.
The impact of lead on health occurs through inhalation of air containing lead and ingestion of lead through food, water, and dust particles. Lead accumulates in the body, in bones and surface tissues. Lead affects the kidneys, liver, nervous system and blood-forming organs. The elderly and children are especially sensitive to even low doses of lead.
Emissions M (thousand tons/year) and average annual concentrations q (µg/m 3) of lead.
 |
Over seven years, lead emissions from industrial sources fell by 60% due to production cuts and many plant closures. The sharp decrease in industrial emissions is not accompanied by a decrease in vehicle emissions. Average lead concentrations decreased by only 41%. The differences in lead emission reductions and concentrations may be explained by under-reporting of vehicle emissions in previous years; Currently, the number of cars and the intensity of their traffic have increased.
Tetraethyl lead
It enters natural waters due to its use as an antiknock agent in motor fuel of water vehicles, as well as with surface runoff from urban areas.
This substance is characterized by high toxicity and has cumulative properties.
The sources of silver entering surface waters are groundwater and wastewater from mines, processing plants, and photographic enterprises. Increased silver content is associated with the use of bactericidal and algicidal preparations.
Silver can be present in wastewater in dissolved and suspended form, mostly in the form of halide salts.
In unpolluted surface waters, silver is found in submicrogram concentrations. In groundwater, the concentration of silver ranges from a few to tens of micrograms per 1 dm 3, in sea water - on average 0.3 μg/dm 3.
Silver ions are capable of destroying bacteria and even in small concentrations they sterilize water (the lower limit of the bactericidal effect of silver ions is 2.10 -11 mol/dm 3). The role of silver in the body of animals and humans has not been sufficiently studied.
The maximum permissible concentration for silver is 0.05 mg/dm3.
Antimony enters surface waters due to the leaching of antimony minerals (stibnite, senarmontite, valentinite, servantite, stibiocanite) and with wastewater from rubber, glass, dyeing, and match factories.
In natural waters, antimony compounds are in a dissolved and suspended state. Under the redox conditions characteristic of surface waters, the existence of both trivalent and pentavalent antimony is possible.
In unpolluted surface waters, antimony is found in submicrogram concentrations, in sea water its concentration reaches 0.5 μg/dm 3, in groundwater - 10 μg/dm 3. The maximum permissible concentration for antimony is 0.05 mg/dm 3 (the limiting hazard indicator is sanitary-toxicological), the maximum permissible concentration for vr is 0.01 mg/dm 3.
Tri- and hexavalent chromium compounds enter surface waters as a result of leaching from rocks (chromite, crocoite, uvarovite, etc.). Some amounts come from the decomposition of organisms and plants from soils. Significant quantities may enter water bodies with wastewater from electroplating shops, dyeing shops of textile factories, tanneries and chemical industry enterprises. A decrease in the concentration of chromium ions can be observed as a result of their consumption by aquatic organisms and adsorption processes.
In surface waters, chromium compounds are in dissolved and suspended states, the ratio between which depends on the composition of the water, temperature, and pH of the solution. Suspended chromium compounds are mainly sorbed chromium compounds. Sorbents can be clays, iron hydroxide, highly dispersed settling calcium carbonate, remains of plant and animal organisms. In dissolved form, chromium can be found in the form of chromates and dichromates. Under aerobic conditions, Cr(VI) transforms into Cr(III), the salts of which hydrolyze in neutral and alkaline media to release hydroxide.
In unpolluted and slightly polluted river waters, the chromium content ranges from a few tenths of a microgram per liter to several micrograms per liter; in polluted water bodies it reaches several tens and hundreds of micrograms per liter. The average concentration in sea waters is 0.05 μg/dm 3, in underground waters it is usually within n. 10 - n. 10 2 µg/dm3.
Compounds of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) in increased quantities have carcinogenic properties. Cr(VI) compounds are more dangerous.
It enters natural waters as a result of the processes of destruction and dissolution of rocks and minerals occurring in nature (sphalerite, zincite, goslarite, smithsonite, calamine), as well as with wastewater from ore processing factories and electroplating shops, production of parchment paper, mineral paints, viscose fiber and etc.
In water it exists mainly in ionic form or in the form of its mineral and organic complexes. Sometimes found in insoluble forms: as hydroxide, carbonate, sulfide, etc.
In river waters, the concentration of zinc usually ranges from 3 to 120 μg/dm 3, in sea waters - from 1.5 to 10 μg/dm 3. The content in ore waters and especially in mine waters with low pH values can be significant.
Zinc is one of the active microelements that influence the growth and normal development of organisms. At the same time, many zinc compounds are toxic, primarily its sulfate and chloride.
The maximum permissible concentration in Zn 2+ is 1 mg/dm 3 (the limiting indicator of harm is organoleptic), the maximum permissible concentration for Zn 2+ is 0.01 mg/dm 3 (the limiting indicator of harm is toxicological).
Heavy metals already occupy the second place in terms of danger, inferior to pesticides and significantly ahead of such well-known pollutants as carbon dioxide and sulfur, and in the forecast they should become the most dangerous, more dangerous than nuclear power plant waste and solid waste. Pollution with heavy metals is associated with their widespread use in industrial production, coupled with weak purification systems, as a result of which heavy metals enter the environment, including the soil, polluting and poisoning it.
Heavy metals are priority pollutants, monitoring of which is mandatory in all environments. In various scientific and applied works, authors interpret the meaning of the concept “heavy metals” differently. In some cases, elements classified as brittle (for example, bismuth) or metalloids (for example, arsenic) fall under the definition of heavy metals.
Soil is the main medium into which heavy metals enter, including from the atmosphere and the aquatic environment. It also serves as a source of secondary pollution of surface air and waters that flow from it into the World Ocean. From the soil, heavy metals are absorbed by plants, which then become food for more highly organized animals.
3.3. Lead toxicity
Currently, lead ranks first among the causes of industrial poisoning. This is due to its widespread use in various industries. Workers who mine lead ore, in lead smelters, in the production of batteries, during soldering, in printing houses, in the production of crystal glass or ceramic products, leaded gasoline, lead paints, etc. are exposed to lead. Lead pollution of atmospheric air, soil and water in the vicinity of such industries, as well as near major highways, poses a threat of lead exposure to the population living in these areas, and, above all, children, who are more sensitive to the effects of heavy metals.
It should be noted with regret that in Russia there is no state policy on legal, regulatory and economic regulation of the impact of lead on the environment and public health, on reducing emissions (discharges, waste) of lead and its compounds into the environment, and on completely stopping the production of lead-containing gasoline.
Due to extremely unsatisfactory educational work to explain to the population the degree of danger of the effects of heavy metals on the human body, in Russia the number of contingents with professional contact with lead is not decreasing, but is gradually increasing. Cases of chronic lead intoxication have been recorded in 14 industries in Russia. The leading industries are the electrical engineering industry (battery production), instrument making, printing and non-ferrous metallurgy, in which intoxication is caused by exceeding the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of lead in the air of the working area by 20 or more times.
A significant source of lead is automobile exhaust fumes, as half of Russia still uses leaded gasoline. However, metallurgical plants, in particular copper smelters, remain the main source of environmental pollution. And there are leaders here. On the territory of the Sverdlovsk region there are 3 of the largest sources of lead emissions in the country: in the cities of Krasnouralsk, Kirovograd and Revda.
The chimneys of the Krasnouralsk copper smelter, built during the years of Stalinist industrialization and using equipment from 1932, annually spew 150-170 tons of lead into the city of 34,000, covering everything with lead dust.
The concentration of lead in the soil of Krasnouralsk varies from 42.9 to 790.8 mg/kg with a maximum permissible concentration of MPC = 130 μ/kg. Water samples in the water supply of a neighboring village. Oktyabrsky, fed by an underground water source, exceeded the maximum permissible concentration by up to two times.
Lead pollution of the environment affects human health. Exposure to lead disrupts the female and male reproductive systems. For women of pregnant and childbearing age, elevated levels of lead in the blood pose a particular danger, since under the influence of lead menstrual function is disrupted, premature births, miscarriages and fetal death are more common due to the penetration of lead through the placental barrier. Newborn babies have a high mortality rate.
Lead poisoning is extremely dangerous for young children - it affects the development of the brain and nervous system. Testing of 165 Krasnouralsk children aged 4 years and older revealed a significant delay in mental development in 75.7%, and mental retardation, including mental retardation, was found in 6.8% of the children examined.
Preschool-age children are most susceptible to the harmful effects of lead because their nervous systems are still developing. Even at low doses, lead poisoning causes a decrease in intellectual development, attention and ability to concentrate, a lag in reading, and leads to the development of aggression, hyperactivity and other problems in the child’s behavior. These developmental abnormalities can be long-lasting and irreversible. Low birth weight, stunting and hearing loss also result from lead poisoning. High doses of intoxication lead to mental retardation, coma, convulsions and death.
A white paper published by Russian experts reports that lead pollution covers the entire country and is one of numerous environmental disasters in the former Soviet Union that have come to light in recent years. Most of the territory of Russia experiences a load from lead deposition that exceeds the critical load for the normal functioning of the ecosystem. In dozens of cities, lead concentrations in the air and soil exceed the values corresponding to the maximum permissible concentrations.
The highest level of air pollution with lead, exceeding the maximum permissible concentration, was observed in the cities of Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Tobolsk, Tyumen, Karabash, Vladimir, Vladivostok.
The maximum loads of lead deposition, leading to the degradation of terrestrial ecosystems, are observed in the Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, Tula, Rostov and Leningrad regions.
Stationary sources are responsible for the discharge of more than 50 tons of lead in the form of various compounds into water bodies. At the same time, 7 battery factories discharge 35 tons of lead annually through the sewer system. An analysis of the distribution of lead discharges into water bodies in Russia shows that the Leningrad, Yaroslavl, Perm, Samara, Penza and Oryol regions are leaders in this type of load.
The country needs urgent measures to reduce lead pollution, but for now Russia's economic crisis is overshadowing environmental problems. In a long-running industrial depression, Russia lacks the means to clean up past pollution, but if the economy begins to recover and factories return to work, pollution could only worsen.
10 most polluted cities of the former USSR
(Metals are listed in descending order of priority level for a given city)
| 1. Rudnaya Pristan (Primorsky region) |
lead, zinc, copper, manganese+vanadium, manganese. |
| 2. Belovo (Kemerovo region) |
zinc, lead, copper, nickel. |
| 3. Revda (Sverdlovsk region) |
copper, zinc, lead. |
| 4. Magnitogorsk |
nickel, zinc, lead. |
| 5. Glubokoe (Belarus) |
copper, lead, zinc. |
| 6. Ust-Kamenogorsk (Kazakhstan) |
zinc, copper, nickel. |
| 7. Dalnegorsk (Primorsky Krai) |
lead, zinc. |
| 8. Monchegorsk (Murmansk region) |
nickel. |
| 9. Alaverdi (Armenia) |
copper, nickel, lead. |
| 10. Konstantinovka (Ukraine) |
lead, mercury. |
4. Soil hygiene. Waste disposal.
The soil in cities and other populated areas and their surroundings has long been different from natural, biologically valuable soil, which plays an important role in maintaining ecological balance. The soil in cities is subject to the same harmful effects as the urban air and hydrosphere, so significant degradation occurs everywhere. Soil hygiene is not given enough attention, although its importance as one of the main components of the biosphere (air, water, soil) and a biological environmental factor is even more significant than water, since the quantity of the latter (primarily the quality of groundwater) is determined by the condition of the soil, and it is impossible to separate these factors from each other. The soil has the ability of biological self-purification: in the soil, the breakdown of waste that enters it and its mineralization occurs; Ultimately, the soil compensates for the lost minerals at their expense.
If, as a result of overloading the soil, any of the components of its mineralizing ability is lost, this will inevitably lead to a disruption of the self-purification mechanism and to complete degradation of the soil. And, on the contrary, creating optimal conditions for self-purification of the soil helps to maintain ecological balance and conditions for the existence of all living organisms, including humans.
Therefore, the problem of neutralizing waste that has harmful biological effects is not limited to the issue of their removal; it is a more complex hygienic problem, since soil is the link between water, air and humans.
4.1. The role of soil in metabolism
The biological relationship between soil and humans is carried out mainly through metabolism. The soil is, as it were, a supplier of minerals necessary for the metabolic cycle, for the growth of plants consumed by humans and herbivores, which are in turn eaten by humans and carnivores. Thus, the soil provides food for many representatives of the plant and animal world.
Consequently, the deterioration of soil quality, a decrease in its biological value, and its ability to self-purify cause a biological chain reaction, which, in the case of prolonged harmful effects, can lead to a variety of health disorders among the population. Moreover, if mineralization processes are slowed down, nitrates, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc. formed during the breakdown of substances can enter groundwater used for drinking purposes and cause serious diseases (for example, nitrates can cause methemoglobinemia, primarily in infants).
Consumption of water from iodine-poor soil can cause endemic goiter, etc.
4.2. Ecological relationship between soil and water and liquid waste (wastewater)
Man extracts from the soil the water necessary to maintain metabolic processes and life itself. Water quality depends on soil conditions; it always reflects the biological state of a given soil.
This especially applies to groundwater, the biological value of which is significantly determined by the properties of soil and soil, the latter’s ability to self-purify, its filtration capacity, the composition of its macroflora, microfauna, etc.
The direct influence of soil on surface waters is less significant; it is associated mainly with precipitation. For example, after heavy rains, various pollutants are washed from the soil into open bodies of water (rivers, lakes), including artificial fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphate), pesticides, herbicides; in areas of karst and fractured deposits, pollutants can penetrate through cracks into deep-lying groundwater.
Inadequate wastewater treatment can also cause harmful biological effects on the soil and ultimately lead to soil degradation. Therefore, soil protection in populated areas is one of the main requirements for protecting the environment as a whole.
4.3. Limits of soil load with solid waste (household and street garbage, industrial waste, dry sludge remaining after sedimentation of wastewater, radioactive substances, etc.)
The problem is compounded by the fact that, as a result of the generation of increasing amounts of solid waste in cities, the soil in their surroundings is subject to increasingly significant stress. The properties and composition of the soil are deteriorating at an increasingly rapid pace.
Of the 64.3 million tons of paper produced in the United States, 49.1 million tons end up in waste (of this amount, 26 million tons are “supplied” by households, and 23.1 million tons are supplied by retail chains).
In connection with the above, the removal and final neutralization of solid waste represents a very significant, more difficult to implement hygienic problem in the conditions of increasing urbanization.
The final neutralization of solid waste in contaminated soil seems possible. However, due to the constantly deteriorating ability of urban soil to self-purify, final neutralization of waste buried in the ground is impossible.
A person could successfully use the biochemical processes occurring in the soil, its neutralizing and disinfecting ability to neutralize solid waste, but urban soil, as a result of centuries of human habitation and activity in cities, has long become unsuitable for this purpose.
The mechanisms of self-purification and mineralization occurring in the soil, the role of the bacteria and enzymes involved in them, as well as intermediate and final products of the decomposition of substances are well known. Currently, research is aimed at identifying the factors that ensure the biological balance of natural soil, as well as at clarifying the question of how much solid waste (and what its composition) can lead to disruption of the biological balance of the soil.
Amount of household waste (garbage) per inhabitant of some major cities of the world
It should be noted that the hygienic condition of the soil in cities as a result of its overload is rapidly deteriorating, although the ability of the soil to self-purify is the main hygienic requirement for maintaining biological balance. The soil in cities is no longer able to cope with its task without human help. The only way out of this situation is the complete neutralization and destruction of waste in accordance with hygienic requirements.
Therefore, the construction of public utilities should be aimed at preserving the natural ability of the soil to self-purify, and if this ability has already become unsatisfactory, then it must be restored artificially.
The most unfavorable is the toxic effect of industrial waste - both liquid and solid. An increasing amount of such waste is entering the soil, which it is not able to cope with. For example, soil contamination with arsenic has been established in the vicinity of superphosphate production plants (within a radius of 3 km). As is known, some pesticides, such as organochlorine compounds that enter the soil, do not decompose for a long time.
The situation is similar with some synthetic packaging materials (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, etc.).
Some toxic compounds enter groundwater sooner or later, as a result of which not only the biological balance of the soil is disrupted, but the quality of groundwater also deteriorates to such an extent that it can no longer be used as drinking water.
Percentage of the amount of basic synthetic materials contained in household waste (garbage)
* Together with waste of other heat-hardening plastics.
The problem of waste has increased these days also because part of the waste, mainly human and animal feces, is used to fertilize agricultural land [feces contain a significant amount of nitrogen -0.4-0.5%, phosphorus (P203) -0.2-0 .6%, potassium (K?0) -0.5-1.5%, carbon -5-15%]. This city problem has spread to the city's surrounding areas.
4.4. The role of soil in the spread of various diseases
Soil plays a certain role in the spread of infectious diseases. This was reported back in the last century by Petterkoffer (1882) and Fodor (1875), who mainly highlighted the role of soil in the spread of intestinal diseases: cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, etc. They also drew attention to the fact that some bacteria and viruses remain viable and virulent in the soil for months. Subsequently, a number of authors confirmed their observations, especially in relation to urban soil. For example, the causative agent of cholera remains viable and pathogenic in groundwater from 20 to 200 days, the causative agent of typhoid fever in feces - from 30 to 100 days, the causative agent of paratyphoid - from 30 to 60 days. (From the point of view of the spread of infectious diseases, urban soil poses a much greater danger than field soil fertilized with manure.)
To determine the degree of soil contamination, a number of authors use the determination of bacterial count (Escherichia coli), as in determining water quality. Other authors consider it advisable to determine, in addition, the number of thermophilic bacteria taking part in the mineralization process.
The spread of infectious diseases through soil is greatly facilitated by irrigation of land with wastewater. At the same time, the mineralization properties of the soil deteriorate. Therefore, irrigation with wastewater should be carried out under constant strict sanitary supervision and only outside the urban area.
4.5. Harmful effects of the main types of pollutants (solid and liquid waste) leading to soil degradation
4.5.1. Neutralization of liquid waste in soil
In a number of settlements that do not have sewerage, some waste, including manure, is neutralized in the soil.
As you know, this is the simplest method of neutralization. However, it is permissible only if we are dealing with biologically complete soil that has retained the ability to self-purify, which is not typical for urban soils. If the soil no longer possesses these qualities, then in order to protect it from further degradation, the need arises for complex technical structures for the neutralization of liquid waste.
In some places, waste is neutralized in compost pits. From a technical standpoint, this solution is challenging. In addition, liquids are able to penetrate the soil over fairly long distances. The task is further complicated by the fact that urban wastewater contains an increasing amount of toxic industrial waste, which worsens the mineralization properties of the soil to an even greater extent than human and animal feces. Therefore, it is permissible to discharge only wastewater that has been pre-sedimented into compost pits. Otherwise, the filtration capacity of the soil is impaired, then the soil loses its other protective properties, pores gradually become clogged, etc.
The use of human feces to irrigate agricultural fields represents a second method of neutralizing liquid waste. This method poses a double hygienic danger: firstly, it can lead to overloading of the soil; secondly, this waste can become a serious source of infection. Therefore, feces must first be disinfected and subjected to appropriate treatment and only then used as fertilizer. Here two opposing points of view collide. According to hygienic requirements, feces are subject to almost complete destruction, and from the point of view of the national economy they represent a valuable fertilizer. Fresh feces cannot be used to water gardens and fields without first disinfecting them. If you still have to use fresh feces, then they require such a degree of neutralization that they no longer represent almost any value as a fertilizer.
Feces can be used as fertilizer only in specially designated areas - with constant sanitary and hygienic control, especially the condition of groundwater, quantity, flies, etc.
The requirements for the removal and soil neutralization of animal feces are, in principle, no different from the requirements for the neutralization of human feces.
Until recently, manure represented in agriculture a significant source of valuable nutrients necessary to increase soil fertility. However, in recent years, manure has lost its importance, partly due to the mechanization of agriculture, partly due to the increasing use of artificial fertilizers.
In the absence of appropriate treatment and neutralization, manure is also dangerous, just like unneutralized human feces. Therefore, before being taken out to the fields, manure is allowed to mature so that during this time the necessary biothermal processes can occur in it (at a temperature of 60-70°C). After this, the manure is considered “mature” and freed from most of the pathogens it contains (bacteria, worm eggs, etc.).
It must be remembered that manure storage facilities can provide ideal breeding grounds for flies that contribute to the spread of various intestinal infections. It should be noted that flies most readily choose pig manure for reproduction, then horse manure, sheep manure, and lastly cow manure. Before transporting manure to fields, it must be treated with insecticides.
4.5.2. Neutralization of solid waste in soil.
Nowadays, the amount of solid waste everywhere is increasing at an alarming rate.
The placement and disposal of solid waste in populated areas is a problem of major importance. However, even today in most places they use the most primitive methods of waste disposal, using almost no technical structures, but relying only on the mineralization capacity of the soil.
Finding the most effective ways to dispose of solid waste is a vital issue. The problem is complicated by the fact that a significant part of the urban area with hard surfaces (roads, streets, sidewalks) cannot be used for landfilling.
Solid waste treatment consists of: collection, removal of waste and its disposal.
4.5.2.1. Garbage collection and removal.
It is most advisable to collect household waste in apartments in a pedal-operated plastic bin with a lid. Then the garbage is placed in special containers (tanks) in the yard or it is first dumped into the garbage chute. The latter method is more convenient for residents, and also more hygienic, since there is no need to leave garbage in the apartment until it is taken out into a container. The downside to a garbage disposal is that it is difficult to keep clean. Particularly successful is the combination of a garbage chute with a waste incinerator located in the basement.
To neutralize household waste, it is most advisable to use a grinding device connected to a sink in the kitchen. The crushed waste goes directly into the sewer. However, this method has a number of disadvantages. For example, the problem of removing crushed household waste from a closed sewer network has not yet been resolved. The waste crushing technique itself has a number of disadvantages. Therefore, in the United States, where this method has become widespread, congestion often occurs in the sewer network.
From a hygiene point of view, this method deserves attention because, on the one hand, kitchen waste does not represent an overload for the soil into which it ultimately ends up; on the other hand, the method is economical, since transportation of waste becomes unnecessary and there is no need to allocate land plots under landfills.
It is advisable to supply large, multi-apartment residential buildings, large institutions and enterprises that have a garbage chute but no incinerator with large-capacity containers (500-3000 l). Containers are delivered on special vehicles with a crane to a landfill or incineration plant. The disadvantage of using containers is that the waste in them cannot be compacted. Near large residential buildings it is necessary to equip special areas for containers.
In some places where garbage is not regularly collected, they are forced to build closed “houses” of concrete for collecting and temporarily storing garbage. These “houses” must be located at least 20 m from residential buildings, and an access road for garbage trucks must be provided to them. The doors of the “houses” should be kept closed at all times so that they do not become a breeding ground for flies and do not spread odors around them.
One of the important tasks is to keep city streets clean. Collection and transportation of street waste, cleaning pavements with special machines, washing and watering streets, a sufficient number of garbage bins in the busiest parts of the city (at public transport stops, in parks and squares), snow removal in winter and appropriate care of pavements and sidewalks during icing (use of sand or salt) are the most important components of this task.
Street garbage may contain pathogenic microorganisms, including pathogens of tuberculosis, tetanus, anthrax, various pathogenic cocci, etc. Finally, slippery streets can cause serious accidents (due to injuries).
Containers with garbage are transported on specially equipped garbage trucks, in which the garbage is compacted. Recently, waste collection in plastic or paper bags has become widespread. This method of collecting waste is more hygienic than collecting it in containers, since no dust is generated when transporting bags and it is possible to sort waste (into combustible - non-combustible substances, synthetic materials, etc.).
4.5.2.2. Final removal and neutralization of solid waste.
The most common way to dispose of solid waste is to fill ravines and quarries with it (for example, on the territory of former brick factories). Subsequently, city parks are laid out on these land plots, residential buildings are built, etc.
The simplest version of this method is open city landfills. This option is unsatisfactory from a sanitary and hygienic point of view (the soil and groundwater are polluted, flies, rats, etc. breed in landfills). Therefore, the disposal of waste in open landfills should be considered only a forced solution to the problem; the landfill should be located at a distance of at least 1 km from the built-up part of the city.
An improved hygienic option can be considered the so-called “Sanitary land fill” adopted in the USA - a method that subsequently became widespread in other countries of the world. The delivered garbage is dumped into pre-dug ditches, then it is compacted (tamped) and covered with a layer of earth 70-80 cm thick.
However, this improved option for final waste disposal and disposal has certain disadvantages. First of all, the amount of solid waste increases every year, so that waste disposal requires increasingly larger areas every year.
From a hygienic point of view, the latter method of processing waste can be considered satisfactory. If necessary, it can also be used in built-up urban areas. The advantage of the method is that it can be used in any area; in addition, by filling ravines and pits with waste, restored land plots can be used for various purposes. Its disadvantage is the need for fairly large areas, and waste disposal is still incomplete. In addition, organic substances needed for agriculture cannot be used.
From a hygienic point of view, burning waste is the most acceptable, which is why it has become widespread throughout the world. The combustion process has also improved significantly; More and more advanced waste incinerators are being built every year.
The first waste incineration plants with their low chimneys heavily polluted the air, into which significant amounts of dust and ash (up to 13 mg/m 3) fell. Modern waste incineration plants are equipped with special equipment suitable for burning not only ordinary waste, but also polyvinyl chloride waste and other synthetic materials (plastics). The pipes of new plants are taller and equipped with electric dust filters. Such factories can also be located in built-up urban areas. This method of waste disposal reduces waste transportation costs and provides a significant economic effect.
The disadvantage of this method is that the construction of modern waste incineration plants involves significant capital investments. Moreover, the operating costs are also quite high. The operation of waste incineration plants is economical only in large cities with dense buildings (with a population of at least 400-600 thousand). In such cities there are no conditions for waste disposal by other means and waste incineration is the only acceptable method.
Local waste incineration plants are justified in enterprises that produce plastic products, in institutions where the waste is infected and must be incinerated on site (hospitals, some research institutions, etc.).
4.6. Removal of radioactive waste.
Any type of radioactive waste is subject to special treatment and neutralization.
In peacetime, radioactive waste is generated only at enterprises that produce radioactive substances and use them in their work (nuclear reactors serving their enterprises, etc.). Small amounts of radioactive waste are generated in radioactive isotope laboratories of some research institutions, in medical institutions (radiotherapy departments, radioactive isotope laboratories, etc.), as well as in some industrial and agricultural enterprises that work with radioactive substances.
Since radioactive substances ionize what they come into contact with, including the human body, they are almost impossible to eliminate, and due to their cumulative effect they are much more dangerous than ordinary waste.
Currently, there are two ways to dispose of radioactive waste: radioactive substances with low activity are repeatedly diluted and released into the environment (for example, wastewater contaminated with low-level substances with a short half-life is discharged into the sewer network; gaseous radioactive substances are released through high pipes into the air, etc.). This method is no longer suitable for neutralizing highly active radioisotope waste with a long half-life. These radioactive substances are first concentrated and then placed in special storage facilities. In this case, care must be taken to ensure that radioactive waste does not leak into the environment (soil, surface water bodies, air, etc.).
Radioactive waste is stored in special containers immersed in the ground (containers) or in deep reinforced concrete wells (shafts). Since soil and groundwater must be protected as much as possible from radioactive contamination, the walls of the well must be absolutely sealed. Despite all the precautions taken, it is necessary to constantly monitor soil and groundwater for radioactivity.
There are standards that clearly define the permissible doses of radioactive waste discharged into sewers.
Conclusion
In this work, fairly detailed information was obtained about many types of soil pollution. Their negative impacts on the soil, as well as areas of our country susceptible to pollution, are considered. Data on reclamation measures, irrigation and drainage of soils were also obtained. We found out that with excessive irrigation and high groundwater levels, there is a danger of secondary soil salinization.
As for the types of pollution, we learned what the situation is with acid rain in Russia, and how it is formed (from what and by what reactions); which places may be subject to erosion and are exposed to oil pollution and which areas of Russia need to be protected from them.
From the field of agriculture, the maximum permissible concentrations of fertilizers, as well as the harm from their abuse, were considered. Data have been obtained on various types of pesticides and the harmful effects after their use.
Regarding solid, liquid and radioactive waste, possible methods for their disposal were presented.
It has also been found that soil plays a role in the spread of various diseases. Some bacteria persist in the soil for a long time.
The information obtained gives the reader a variety of information about the soil and the processes occurring on its surface. If we want to keep our soil in order, we need to take at least basic measures to clean it.
LIST OF SOURCES USED
1. Razumikhin N.V. Implementation of the USSR food program and environmental protection, 1986.
2. Lenin V.I. Complete Works, vol. 42, p. 150.
3. Marx K., Engels F. Complete. collection cit., vol. 23, p. 191.
4. "The 20th century: the last 10 years." Moscow: JSC Publishing Group "Progress", 1992.
5. "Chemistry and Society". Moscow: Mir, 1995.
6. Bakács Tibor. Environmental Protection, 1980.
7. “Ecology and life.” Spring 1(9) 1999.
It's no secret that everyone wants to have a dacha in an ecologically clean area, where there is no urban pollution. The environment contains heavy metals (arsenic, lead, copper, mercury, cadmium, manganese and others), which even come from car exhaust gases. It should be understood that the earth is a natural purifier of the atmosphere and groundwater; it accumulates not only heavy metals, but also harmful pesticides with hydrocarbons. Plants, in turn, take in everything that the soil gives them. Metal, settling in the soil, harms not only the soil itself, but also plants, and as a result, humans.
Near the main road there is a lot of soot, which penetrates the surface layers of the soil and settles on the leaves of plants. Root crops, fruits, berries and other fertile crops cannot be grown in such a plot. The minimum distance from the road is 50 m.
Soil filled with heavy metals is bad soil; heavy metals are toxic. You will never see ants, ground beetles or earthworms on it, but there will be a large concentration of sucking insects. Plants often suffer from fungal diseases, dry out and are not resistant to pests.
The most dangerous are mobile compounds of heavy metals, which are easily formed in acidic soil. It has been proven that plants grown in acidic or light sandy soil contain more metals than those grown in neutral or calcareous soil. Moreover, sandy soil with an acidic reaction is especially dangerous; it accumulates easily and is just as easily washed out, ending up in groundwater. A garden plot, where the lion's share is clay, is also easily susceptible to the accumulation of heavy metals, while self-cleaning occurs long and slowly. The safest and most stable soil is chernozem, enriched with lime and humus.
What to do if there are heavy metals in the soil? There are several ways to solve the problem.
1. An unsuccessful plot can be sold.
2. Liming is a good way to reduce the concentration of heavy metals in the soil. There are different ones. The simplest one: throw a handful of soil into a container with vinegar; if foam appears, then the soil is alkaline. Or dig a little into the soil, if you find a white layer in it, then acidity is present. The question is how much. After liming, check regularly for acidity; you may need to repeat the procedure. Lime with dolomite flour, blast furnace slag, peat ash, limestone.
If a lot of heavy metals have already accumulated in the ground, then it will be useful to remove the top layer of soil (20-30 cm) and replace it with black soil.
3. Constant feeding with organic fertilizers (manure, compost). The more humus in the soil, the less heavy metals it contains, and toxicity decreases. Poor, infertile soil is not able to protect plants. Do not oversaturate with mineral fertilizers, especially nitrogen. Mineral fertilizers quickly decompose organic matter.
4. Surface loosening. After loosening, be sure to apply peat or compost. When loosening, it is useful to add vermiculite, which will become a barrier between plants and toxic substances in the soil.
5. Washing the soil only with good drainage. Otherwise, heavy metals will spread throughout the area with water. Fill with clean water so that a layer of soil of 30-50 cm is washed for vegetable crops and up to 120 cm for fruit bushes and trees. Flushing is carried out in the spring, when there is enough moisture in the soil after winter.
6. Remove the top layer of soil, make good drainage from expanded clay or pebbles, and fill the top with black soil.
7. Grow plants in containers or a greenhouse where the soil can be easily replaced. Observe, do not grow the plant in one place for a long time.
8. If the garden plot is near the road, then there is a high probability that there is lead in the soil, which comes out with car exhaust gases. Extract lead by planting peas between plants; do not harvest. In the fall, dig up the peas and burn them along with the fruits. The soil will be improved by plants with a powerful, deep root system, which will transfer phosphorus, potassium and calcium from the deep layer to the upper layer.
9. Vegetables and fruits grown in heavy soil should always be subjected to heat treatment or at least washed under running water, thus removing atmospheric dust.
10. In polluted areas or areas near the road, a solid fence is installed; the chain-link mesh will not act as a barrier against road dust. Be sure to plant deciduous trees behind the fence (). As an option, multi-tiered plantings, which will play the role of protectors from atmospheric dust and soot, will be excellent protection.
The presence of heavy metals in the soil is not a death sentence; the main thing is to identify and neutralize them in a timely manner.
Standardization of heavy metal content
in soil and plants is extremely complex due to the impossibility of fully taking into account all environmental factors. Thus, changing only the agrochemical properties of the soil (medium reaction, humus content, degree of saturation with bases, granulometric composition) can reduce or increase the content of heavy metals in plants several times. There are conflicting data even about the background content of some metals. The results given by researchers sometimes differ by 5-10 times.
Many scales have been proposed
environmental regulation of heavy metals. In some cases, the highest content of metals observed in ordinary anthropogenic soils is taken as the maximum permissible concentration; in others, the content that is the limit for phytotoxicity is taken. In most cases, MPCs have been proposed for heavy metals that are several times higher than the upper limit.
To characterize technogenic pollution
for heavy metals, a concentration coefficient is used equal to the ratio of the concentration of the element in contaminated soil to its background concentration. When polluted by several heavy metals, the degree of pollution is assessed by the value of the total concentration index (Zc). The scale of soil contamination with heavy metals proposed by IMGRE is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Scheme for assessing soils for agricultural use according to the degree of contamination with chemicals (Goskomhydromet of the USSR, No. 02-10 51-233 dated 12/10/90)
| Soil category by degree of contamination | Zc | Pollution relative to MPC | Possible uses of soils | Necessary activities |
| Acceptable | <16,0 | Exceeds background, but not higher than MPC | Use for any crops | Reducing the impact of soil pollution sources. Reduced availability of toxicants for plants. |
| Moderately dangerous | 16,1- 32,0 | Exceeds the MPC for limiting general sanitary and water migration indicators of harmfulness, but is lower than the MPC for the translocation indicator | Use for any crops subject to quality control of crop products | Activities similar to category 1. If there are substances with a limiting migration water indicator, the content of these substances in surface and ground waters is monitored. |
| Highly dangerous | 32,1- 128 | Exceeds the MPC with a limiting translocation hazard indicator | Use for industrial crops without obtaining food and feed from them. Avoid chemical-concentrating plants | Activities similar to categories 1. Mandatory control over the content of toxicants in plants used as food and feed. Limiting the use of green mass for livestock feed, especially concentrator plants. |
| Extremely dangerous | > 128 | Exceeds MPC in all respects | Exclude from agricultural use | Reducing pollution levels and sequestration of toxicants in the atmosphere, soil and waters. |
Officially approved MPCs
Table 2 shows the officially approved maximum concentration limits and permissible levels of their content according to hazard indicators. In accordance with the scheme adopted by medical hygienists, the regulation of heavy metals in soils is divided into translocation (transition of the element into plants), migratory water (transition into water), and general sanitary (effect on the self-purifying ability of soils and soil microbiocenosis).
Table 2. Maximum permissible concentrations (MAC) of chemicals in soils and permissible levels of their content in terms of harmfulness (as of 01/01/1991. State Committee for Nature Protection of the USSR, No. 02-2333 dated 12/10/90).
| Name of substances | MPC, mg/kg soil, taking into account background | Harmfulness indicators | ||
| Translocation | Water | General sanitary | ||
| Water-soluble forms | ||||
| Fluorine | 10,0 | 10,0 | 10,0 | 10,0 |
| Movable forms | ||||
| Copper | 3,0 | 3,5 | 72,0 | 3,0 |
| Nickel | 4,0 | 6,7 | 14,0 | 4,0 |
| Zinc | 23,0 | 23,0 | 200,0 | 37,0 |
| Cobalt | 5,0 | 25,0 | >1000 | 5,0 |
| Fluorine | 2,8 | 2,8 | - | - |
| Chromium | 6,0 | - | - | 6,0 |
| Gross content | ||||
| Antimony | 4,5 | 4,5 | 4,5 | 50,0 |
| Manganese | 1500,0 | 3500,0 | 1500,0 | 1500,0 |
| Vanadium | 150,0 | 170,0 | 350,0 | 150,0 |
| Lead ** | 30,0 | 35,0 | 260,0 | 30,0 |
| Arsenic** | 2,0 | 2,0 | 15,0 | 10,0 |
| Mercury | 2,1 | 2,1 | 33,3 | 5,0 |
| Lead+mercury | 20+1 | 20+1 | 30+2 | 30+2 |
| Copper* | 55 | - | - | - |
| Nickel* | 85 | - | - | - |
| Zinc* | 100 | - | - | - |
* - gross content - approximate.
** - contradiction; for arsenic, the average background content is 6 mg/kg, the background content of lead usually also exceeds the MPC standards.
Officially approved by the UEC
The ADCs developed in 1995 for the gross content of 6 heavy metals and arsenic make it possible to obtain a more complete description of soil contamination with heavy metals, since they take into account the level of environmental reaction and the granulometric composition of the soil.
Table 3. Approximate permissible concentrations (ATC) of heavy metals and arsenic in soils with different physicochemical properties (gross content, mg/kg) (addition No. 1 to the list of MPC and APC No. 6229-91).
| Element | Soil group | ODC taking into account the background | Aggregate state of the place in soils | Hazard classes | Peculiarities actions on the body |
| Nickel | Sandy and sandy loam | 20 | Solid: in the form of salts, in sorbed form, as part of minerals | 2 | Low toxicity for warm-blooded animals and humans. Has a mutagenic effect |
| <5,5 | 40 | ||||
| Close to neutral (loamy and clayey), рНKCl >5.5 | 80 | ||||
| Copper | Sandy and sandy loam | 33 | 2 | Increases cellular permeability, inhibits glutathione reductase, disrupts metabolism by interacting with -SH, -NH2 and COOH- groups | |
| Acidic (loamy and clayey), pH KCl<5,5 | 66 | ||||
| Close to neutral (loamy and clayey), pH KCl>5.5 | 132 | ||||
| Zinc | Sandy and sandy loam | 55 | Solid: in the form of salts, organo-mineral compounds, in sorbed form, as part of minerals | 1 | Deficiency or excess causes developmental deviations. Poisoning due to violation of technology for applying zinc-containing pesticides |
| Acidic (loamy and clayey), pH KCl<5,5 | 110 | ||||
| Close to neutral (loamy and clayey), pH KCl>5.5 | 220 | ||||
| Arsenic | Sandy and sandy loam | 2 | Solid: in the form of salts, organo-mineral compounds, in sorbed form, as part of minerals | 1 | Poisonous, inhibiting various enzymes, negative effect on metabolism. Possibly carcinogenic |
| Acidic (loamy and clayey), pH KCl<5,5 | 5 | ||||
| Close to neutral (loamy and clayey), pH KCl>5.5 | 10 | ||||
| Cadmium | Sandy and sandy loam | 0,5 | Solid: in the form of salts, organo-mineral compounds, in sorbed form, as part of minerals | 1 | It is highly toxic, blocks sulfhydryl groups of enzymes, disrupts the metabolism of iron and calcium, and disrupts DNA synthesis. |
| Acidic (loamy and clayey), pH KCl<5,5 | 1,0 | ||||
| Close to neutral (loamy and clayey), pH KCl>5.5 | 2,0 | ||||
| Lead | Sandy and sandy loam | 32 | Solid: in the form of salts, organo-mineral compounds, in sorbed form, as part of minerals | 1 | Versatile negative action. Blocks -SH groups of proteins, inhibits enzymes, causes poisoning and damage to the nervous system. |
| Acidic (loamy and clayey), pH KCl<5,5 | 65 | ||||
| Close to neutral (loamy and clayey), pH KCl>5.5 | 130 |
It follows from the materials that the requirements are mainly imposed on bulk forms of heavy metals. Among the mobile ones are only copper, nickel, zinc, chromium and cobalt. Therefore, the currently developed standards no longer satisfy all requirements.
is a capacity factor, reflecting primarily the potential danger of contamination of plant products, infiltration and surface waters. Characterizes the general contamination of the soil, but does not reflect the degree of availability of elements for the plant. To characterize the state of soil nutrition of plants, only their mobile forms are used.
Definition of movable forms
They are determined using various extractants. The total amount of the mobile form of the metal is using an acidic extract (for example, 1N HCL). The most mobile part of the mobile reserves of heavy metals in the soil goes into the ammonium acetate buffer. The concentration of metals in a water extract shows the degree of mobility of elements in the soil, being the most dangerous and “aggressive” fraction.
Standards for movable forms
Several indicative normative scales have been proposed. Below is an example of one of the scales of maximum permissible mobile forms of heavy metals.
Table 4. Maximum permissible content of the mobile form of heavy metals in soil, mg/kg extractant 1N. HCl (H. Chuljian et al., 1988).
| Element | Content | Element | Content | Element | Content |
| Hg | 0,1 | Sb | 15 | Pb | 60 |
| Cd | 1,0 | As | 15 | Zn | 60 |
| Co | 12 | Ni | 36 | V | 80 |
| Cr | 15 | Cu | 50 | Mn | 600 |
| SITE NAVIGATION: | |||||||
| FAQ? | into the soil | into gel | result | technical data | prices | ||
Compounds of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) in increased quantities have carcinogenic properties. Cr(VI) compounds are more dangerous.
It enters natural waters as a result of the processes of destruction and dissolution of rocks and minerals occurring in nature (sphalerite, zincite, goslarite, smithsonite, calamine), as well as with wastewater from ore processing factories and electroplating shops, production of parchment paper, mineral paints, viscose fiber and etc.
In water it exists mainly in ionic form or in the form of its mineral and organic complexes. Sometimes found in insoluble forms: as hydroxide, carbonate, sulfide, etc.
In river waters, the concentration of zinc usually ranges from 3 to 120 μg/dm 3, in sea waters - from 1.5 to 10 μg/dm 3. The content in ore waters and especially in mine waters with low pH values can be significant.
Zinc is one of the active microelements that influence the growth and normal development of organisms. At the same time, many zinc compounds are toxic, primarily its sulfate and chloride.
The maximum permissible concentration in Zn 2+ is 1 mg/dm 3 (the limiting indicator of harm is organoleptic), the maximum permissible concentration for Zn 2+ is 0.01 mg/dm 3 (the limiting indicator of harm is toxicological).
Heavy metals already occupy the second place in terms of danger, inferior to pesticides and significantly ahead of such well-known pollutants as carbon dioxide and sulfur, and in the forecast they should become the most dangerous, more dangerous than nuclear power plant waste and solid waste. Pollution with heavy metals is associated with their widespread use in industrial production, coupled with weak purification systems, as a result of which heavy metals enter the environment, including the soil, polluting and poisoning it.
Heavy metals are priority pollutants, monitoring of which is mandatory in all environments. In various scientific and applied works, authors interpret the meaning of the concept “heavy metals” differently. In some cases, elements classified as brittle (for example, bismuth) or metalloids (for example, arsenic) fall under the definition of heavy metals.
Soil is the main medium into which heavy metals enter, including from the atmosphere and the aquatic environment. It also serves as a source of secondary pollution of surface air and waters that flow from it into the World Ocean. From the soil, heavy metals are absorbed by plants, which then become food for more highly organized animals.
3.3. Lead toxicity
Currently, lead ranks first among the causes of industrial poisoning. This is due to its widespread use in various industries. Workers who mine lead ore, in lead smelters, in the production of batteries, during soldering, in printing houses, in the production of crystal glass or ceramic products, leaded gasoline, lead paints, etc. are exposed to lead. Lead pollution of atmospheric air, soil and water in the vicinity of such industries, as well as near major highways, poses a threat of lead exposure to the population living in these areas, and, above all, children, who are more sensitive to the effects of heavy metals.
It should be noted with regret that in Russia there is no state policy on legal, regulatory and economic regulation of the impact of lead on the environment and public health, on reducing emissions (discharges, waste) of lead and its compounds into the environment, and on completely stopping the production of lead-containing gasoline.
Due to extremely unsatisfactory educational work to explain to the population the degree of danger of the effects of heavy metals on the human body, in Russia the number of contingents with professional contact with lead is not decreasing, but is gradually increasing. Cases of chronic lead intoxication have been recorded in 14 industries in Russia. The leading industries are the electrical engineering industry (battery production), instrument making, printing and non-ferrous metallurgy, in which intoxication is caused by exceeding the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of lead in the air of the working area by 20 or more times.
A significant source of lead is automobile exhaust fumes, as half of Russia still uses leaded gasoline. However, metallurgical plants, in particular copper smelters, remain the main source of environmental pollution. And there are leaders here. On the territory of the Sverdlovsk region there are 3 of the largest sources of lead emissions in the country: in the cities of Krasnouralsk, Kirovograd and Revda.
The chimneys of the Krasnouralsk copper smelter, built during the years of Stalinist industrialization and using equipment from 1932, annually spew 150-170 tons of lead into the city of 34,000, covering everything with lead dust.
The concentration of lead in the soil of Krasnouralsk varies from 42.9 to 790.8 mg/kg with a maximum permissible concentration of MPC = 130 μ/kg. Water samples in the water supply of a neighboring village. Oktyabrsky, fed by an underground water source, exceeded the maximum permissible concentration by up to two times.
Lead pollution of the environment affects human health. Exposure to lead disrupts the female and male reproductive systems. For women of pregnant and childbearing age, elevated levels of lead in the blood pose a particular danger, since under the influence of lead menstrual function is disrupted, premature births, miscarriages and fetal death are more common due to the penetration of lead through the placental barrier. Newborn babies have a high mortality rate.
Lead poisoning is extremely dangerous for young children - it affects the development of the brain and nervous system. Testing of 165 Krasnouralsk children aged 4 years and older revealed a significant delay in mental development in 75.7%, and mental retardation, including mental retardation, was found in 6.8% of the children examined.
Preschool-age children are most susceptible to the harmful effects of lead because their nervous systems are still developing. Even at low doses, lead poisoning causes a decrease in intellectual development, attention and ability to concentrate, a lag in reading, and leads to the development of aggression, hyperactivity and other problems in the child’s behavior. These developmental abnormalities can be long-lasting and irreversible. Low birth weight, stunting and hearing loss also result from lead poisoning. High doses of intoxication lead to mental retardation, coma, convulsions and death.
A white paper published by Russian experts reports that lead pollution covers the entire country and is one of numerous environmental disasters in the former Soviet Union that have come to light in recent years. Most of the territory of Russia experiences a load from lead deposition that exceeds the critical load for the normal functioning of the ecosystem. In dozens of cities, lead concentrations in the air and soil exceed the values corresponding to the maximum permissible concentrations.
The highest level of air pollution with lead, exceeding the maximum permissible concentration, was observed in the cities of Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Tobolsk, Tyumen, Karabash, Vladimir, Vladivostok.
The maximum loads of lead deposition, leading to the degradation of terrestrial ecosystems, are observed in the Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, Tula, Rostov and Leningrad regions.
Stationary sources are responsible for the discharge of more than 50 tons of lead in the form of various compounds into water bodies. At the same time, 7 battery factories discharge 35 tons of lead annually through the sewer system. An analysis of the distribution of lead discharges into water bodies in Russia shows that the Leningrad, Yaroslavl, Perm, Samara, Penza and Oryol regions are leaders in this type of load.
The country needs urgent measures to reduce lead pollution, but for now Russia's economic crisis is overshadowing environmental problems. In a long-running industrial depression, Russia lacks the means to clean up past pollution, but if the economy begins to recover and factories return to work, pollution could only worsen.
10 most polluted cities of the former USSR
(Metals are listed in descending order of priority level for a given city)
| 1. Rudnaya Pristan (Primorie region) | lead, zinc, copper, manganese+vanadium, manganese. |
| 2. Belovo (Kemerovo region) | zinc, lead, copper, nickel. |
| 3. Revda (Sverdlovsk region) | copper, zinc, lead. |
| 4. Magnitogorsk | nickel, zinc, lead. |
| 5. Glubokoe (Belarus) | copper, lead, zinc. |
| 6. Ust-Kamenogorsk (Kazakhstan) | zinc, copper, nickel. |
| 7. Dalnegorsk (Primorsky Territory) | lead, zinc. |
| 8. Monchegorsk (Murmansk region) | nickel. |
| 9. Alaverdi (Armenia) | copper, nickel, lead. |
| 10. Konstantinovka (Ukraine) | lead, mercury. |
4. Soil hygiene. Waste disposal.
The soil in cities and other populated areas and their surroundings has long been different from natural, biologically valuable soil, which plays an important role in maintaining ecological balance. The soil in cities is subject to the same harmful effects as the urban air and hydrosphere, so significant degradation occurs everywhere. Soil hygiene is not given enough attention, although its importance as one of the main components of the biosphere (air, water, soil) and a biological environmental factor is even more significant than water, since the quantity of the latter (primarily the quality of groundwater) is determined by the condition of the soil, and it is impossible to separate these factors from each other. The soil has the ability of biological self-purification: in the soil, the breakdown of waste that enters it and its mineralization occurs; Ultimately, the soil compensates for the lost minerals at their expense.
