The title is king. King is from the Latin caesar - sole sovereign, emperor, and also the official title of the monarch. In the Old Russian language, this Latin word sounded like Caesar - “Tssar”. Initially, this was the name of the Roman and Byzantine emperors, hence the Slavic

Khan (title) Khan (from the Turkic khagan, khakan, kagan - ruler, monarch), Turkic and Mongolian title. Originally denoted the leader of a tribe (for example, among the nomads of Iran and Afghanistan). Under the Seljuks and Khorezmshahs - a princely title, in the Mongol Empire of the 13th-14th centuries. -

Abstract on the topic:

Caesar (title)

Plan:

Introduction

• 1 The term in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e.
• 2 The term in the III-IV centuries AD. e.
  • 2.1 The powers and activities of the Caesars using examples from the mid-4th century
    • 2.1.1 Reasons for appointing Caesars
    • 2.1.2 Activities of the Caesars in the military sphere
    • 2.1.3 Activities of the Caesars in the civil sphere
  • 2.2 Caesarate as a state institution
Notes
Literature

Introduction

Caesar- one of the titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire. Descended from the cognomen of the Julius family “Caesar”, the bearer of which was a politician and commander of the Roman Republic of the 1st century. BC e. Gaius Julius Caesar.

Tetrarchs - two Augustans with two Caesars (Porphyry. Venice. St. Mark's Cathedral)

1. Term in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e.

Gaius Julius Caesar was killed in 44 BC. e. His heir, great-nephew Gaius Octavius ​​Furin, also received the name of the dictator in his will. After his victory in the civil war and the establishment of the Principate regime, he was called Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus. The two parts of this name - Caesar and Augustus - were subsequently included in the official names of all Roman emperors, eventually turning into titles. In the literary tradition, these two names generally became practically synonymous with the official titles of rulers - princeps and imperator. So, for example, in Velleius Paterculus, Augustus and Tiberius, as a rule, are called “Caesar” (51 times), Augustus is called “Augustus” 16 times, Tiberius - not once. “Emperator” in relation to the ruler appears only 3 times (in total in the text - 10 times), and the title “princeps” - 11 times. In Tacitus's text, the word "princeps" occurs 315 times, "imperator" 107 times, and "Caesar" 223 times in relation to the princeps and 58 times in relation to members of the ruling house. Suetonius uses "princeps" 48 times, "imperator" 29 times, and "Caesar" 52 times. Finally, in the text of Aurelius Victor and the Epitomes of the Caesars, the word “princeps” appears 48 times, “imperator” - 29, “Caesar” - 42, and “Augustus” - 15 times. During this period, the titles “August” and “Caesar” were practically identical to each other. The last emperor called Caesar as a relative of Julius Caesar and Augustus was Nero.

2. The term in the III-IV centuries AD. e.

In the 3rd-4th centuries, the title “Caesar” was inextricably linked with the idea of ​​co-government, when the senior ruler, to whom the title “Augustus” was assigned, shared power with the junior co-ruler (and, as a rule, heir) - “Caesar”. The joint rule of several persons was not such a new phenomenon for Rome - the tradition of collegial governance dates back to the times of the republic. During the era of the Principate, one can recall the reigns of Vespasian and Titus, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. However, co-governments became most widespread starting from the 3rd century. The period of political chaos that followed the overthrow of the Severan dynasty gave rise to the need to appoint a successor almost immediately after gaining power (the first in this list can obviously be called Macrinus, who immediately after gaining power proclaimed his son Diadumenus emperor). Throughout the 3rd century, emperors tried to somehow strengthen their position with such appointments, which, however, practically did not contribute to political stabilization.

The institution of co-government received a “rebirth” after Diocletian came to power. The differences between the two titles were most clearly defined precisely when Emperor Diocletian formed the tetrarchy system: the state was to be headed by two supreme rulers, endowed with full power - the Augusti, whose heirs and assistants were two junior co-rulers - the Caesars. The system turned out to be not very stable, and by 324 the supreme power was concentrated in the hands of one person - Constantine I the Great. He, however, did not eliminate the institution of the Caesars. On the contrary, Constantine gave this title to his four sons - Crispus, Constantine, Constantius, Constantius - and his nephew Dalmatius the Younger. Crispus was killed by his father back in 326, Dalmatius the Younger died as a result of a soldier's mutiny shortly after the death of Constantine the Great. Constantine, Constantius and Constans became Augusti in 337 and divided the empire into three parts. Constantine I died already in 340, invading the region of Constant. Constans ruled until 350, when he died during the rebellion of the usurper Magnentius. Thus, there was only one legal Augustus left in the empire - Constantius, who had full power until his death in 361.

It was during this period that the last Caesars of the 4th century were appointed. Constantius gave this title to two of his cousins ​​- Gallus and Julian - the only surviving relatives of Constantine the Great (not counting his sons). It is also known that the usurper Magnentius, having started a war with Constantius, appointed his brothers as Caesars. He sent one, Decentius, to Gaul. The sources say practically nothing about the second (Desideria).

2.1. The powers and activities of the Caesars using examples from the mid-4th century

2.1.1. Reasons for appointing Caesars

In all cases - Galla, Juliana and Decentius - the appointment was dictated by the need to protect against external threats. Thus, Constantius, being the ruler of the East, waged constant, although unsuccessful, wars with the Sassanids, and, going to war with Magnentius, made Gallus Caesar and immediately sent him to Antioch-on-Orontes to organize defense. His opponent did the same: to protect Gaul from the Alamanni, he sent his brother Decentius there. He, however, could not pacify them, and Constantius, who soon after his victory went back to the East (Gall had already been executed by that time), left Julian in Gaul, giving him the title of Caesar.

All three appointments were made in conditions of external danger and when the senior ruler was unable to be in the region and command troops. Another interesting fact is that the appointments were made not on an imperial scale, but for specific territories - for Gaul and for the East. The origins of such vesting of power within any part of the empire should obviously be sought in the third century. Before that, emperors, sharing power with someone else, shared their imperium, acting as republican consuls who had equal power, extending over the entire territory of the state (for example, Vespasian and Titus, Nerva and Trajan, etc.). During the crisis of the 3rd century, virtually independent states were formed within the empire, demonstrating their viability: the “British Empire” of Carausius and Allectus, the “Gallic Empire” of Postumus and Tetricus, the Palmyran kingdom of Odaenathus and Zenobia. And already Diocletian, sharing power with Maximian, divided it precisely territorially, taking the East for himself, and giving the West to his co-ruler. Subsequently, all divisions of power took place precisely on the territorial principle.

The Caesars - both Gall and Julian (we have too little information about Decentius) - were very limited in their capabilities, both in the military and civilian spheres.

2.1.2. Activities of the Caesars in the military sphere

Although the main function of the Caesars was to protect the provinces, they still did not have complete control over the army entrusted to them. This is primarily visible in their relationships with senior officers. Julian, for example, who immediately after his appointment had to conduct active military operations, faced, if not direct disobedience from the army elite, then at least hidden opposition. Thus, the cavalry master Marcellus, “who was nearby, did not provide assistance to Caesar, who was in danger, although he was obliged in the event of an attack on the city, even if Caesar were not there, to rush to the rescue,” and the infantry master Barbation constantly intrigued against Julian. A similar situation arose due to the fact that all these officers depended not on Caesar, but on Augustus, and Caesar could not remove them from their positions - Marcellus was nevertheless dismissed for his inaction, but not by Julian, but by Constantius. The power of the Caesars over the legions under them was also relative; they could give orders during military operations, exercising either general or direct command of the troops, but in principle all legions were subordinate to Augustus. It was he, as the owner of full supreme power, who decided where this or that legion should be located and which units should be placed under the command of Caesar. As is known, it was Constantius’ order to transfer part of the Gallic legions to the East that caused a soldier’s revolt, which resulted in the proclamation of Julian as Augustus.

The Caesars were also very limited in financial matters, which primarily influenced their relations with the army. Ammianus directly writes that “when Julian was sent to the western regions with the rank of Caesar, they wanted to infringe on him in every possible way and did not provide any opportunity to give handouts to the soldiers, and thus the soldiers could rather go to any rebellion, that same Ursul (committee of the state treasury - Wiki) gave a written order to the head of the Gallic treasury to issue, without the slightest hesitation, the sums whatever Caesar demands.” This partly alleviated the problem, but August’s strict financial control remained. Constantius even personally determined the expenses for Julian’s table!

2.1.3. Activities of the Caesars in the civil sphere

The Caesars also had limited power in the civil sphere. All senior civil officials in the territories entrusted to them were appointed by Augustus and also reported to him. Such independence led to constant tense relations with the Caesars, who were often forced to almost beg officials to do this or that action. Thus, both Gall and Julian were constantly in more or less confrontation with the praetorian prefects. The prefect of the East, Thalassius, constantly intrigued against Gallus, sending reports to Constantius, and the prefect of Gaul, Florence, allowed himself to argue quite passionately with Julian on the issue of emergency penalties. However, the final word still remained with Caesar, and he did not sign the decree, which Florence did not fail to immediately report to August. After all, the prefect was in charge of direct administration of the provinces, and when Julian begged (sic!) him to place Second Belgica under his control, this was a very unusual precedent.

One of the most important functions of the Caesars was judicial. And if Gall, while holding court, “exceeded the powers granted to him” and very thoughtlessly terrorized the nobility in the East (for which, ultimately, he paid), then Julian approached his judicial duties very carefully, trying to avoid abuse.

2.2. Caesarate as a state institution

As you can see, the power of the Caesars was very limited - both territorially and functionally; both in the military and civilian spheres. Nevertheless, the Caesars were emperors and formally were accomplices of the supreme power. Belonging to the imperial college was also emphasized by the corresponding marriages: Constantius married both Gall and Julian to his sisters - the first was given Constantine, the second - Helen. Although the Caesars were comparable in scope of power to major officials, in the eyes of society they stood much higher. Ammianus describes Julian's arrival at Vienna:

...people of all ages and statuses rushed to meet him to greet him as a desirable and brave ruler. All the people and the entire population of the surrounding places, seeing him from afar, turned to him, calling him a merciful and happiness-bringing emperor, and everyone looked with delight at the arrival of the legitimate sovereign: in his arrival they saw the healing of all troubles.

The institution of caesarate ensured work and a certain stability of government in the middle of the 4th century. With the proclamation of Julian as Augustus, this institution ceased to exist in this form, reviving only later, largely modified.

Notes

1. Egorov A. B. Problems of the title of Roman emperors // Bulletin of ancient history. - 1988. No. 2.
2. Oros. VII. 18.3; Eut. VIII. 21; Aur. Vic. XXII; etc.
3. Pabst A. Divisio Regni: Der Zerfall des Imperium Romanum in der Sicht der Zeitgenossen. - Bonn, 1986. S. 45.
4. Soz. IV. 4; Theod. III. 3; Aur. Vic. XLII etc.
5. Oros. VII. 29.15; Eutr. X. 14. 1; Thilost. IV. 2 etc.
6. Eutr. X. 12. 1; Oros. VII. 29.13; Epit. De Caes. XLII etc.
7. Sokolov B.V. One Hundred Great Wars. ROMAN-PERSIAN WARS (beginning of the 3rd - beginning of the 5th century) - bibliotekar.ru/encW/100/20.htm
8. Michael H. Dodgeon, Samuel N. C. Lieu The Roman Eastern frontier and the Persian Wars (AD 226-363): a documentary history. Routledge, 1994. P. 164 ff.
9. Amm. Marc. XVI. 4.3
10. Eunapius wrote about him: “Marcellus had the government in his hands; conceding one title and rank to Julian, he controlled the real power himself” (Eun. Hist. Exc. 10., trans. S. Destunis).
11. Amm. Marc. XVI. 7.1
12. Amm. Marc. XX. 4. 2-17
13. Amm. Marc. XXII. 3. 7.
14. Amm. Marc. XVI. 5.3
15. Amm. Marc. XIV. 1. 10
16. Amm. Marc. XVII. 3. 2-5
17. Amm. Marc. XVII. 3.6
18. Amm. Marc. XIV. eleven
19. Amm. Marc. XXV. 8.21

Literature

• Egorov A. B. Problems of the title of Roman emperors - ancientrome.ru/publik/egorov/egorov01.htm. // VDI. - 1988. - No. 2.
• Antonov O. V. On the problem of the originality of public administration of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. // Power, politics, ideology in the history of Europe: collection. scientific articles dedicated to 30th anniversary of the VIMO department of Altai State University. - Barnaul, 2005. - pp. 26-36.
• Koptev A.V. PRINCEPS ET DOMINUS: on the question of the evolution of the principate at the beginning of the late antique era - ancientrome.ru/publik/article.htm?a=1263933087. // Ancient law. - 1996. - No. 1. - P. 182-190.
• Jones A.H.M. The Later Roman Empire 284-602: A social economic and administrative survey. - Oxford, 1964. - Vol. 1.
• Pabst A. Divisio Regni: Der Zerfall des Imperium Romanum in der Sicht der Zeitgenossen. - Bonn, 1986.

Most modern people are familiar with the name Julius Caesar. It is mentioned as the name for a salad, one of the months of summer, and in movies and television. How did this conquer people so that they remember who Caesar was, even two thousand years after his death?

Origin

The future commander, politician, and writer was from the patrician Yuli family. At one time, this family played a significant role in the life of Rome. Like any ancient family, they had their own mythical version of origin. The line of their surname led to the goddess Venus.

Guy's mother was Aurelia Cotta, who came from a family of wealthy plebeians. From the name it is clear that her family was named Aurelius. The father was the eldest. He belonged to the patricians.

Intense debate continues regarding the year of the dictator's birth. Most often referred to as 100 or 101 BC. There is also no consensus on the number. As a rule, three versions are called: March 17, July 12, July 13.

To understand who Caesar is, one should look at his childhood. He grew up in a Roman area that had a rather bad reputation. He studied at home, mastering the Greek language, literature, and rhetoric. Knowledge of Greek allowed him to receive further education, since most scientific works were written in it. One of his teachers was the famous rhetorician Gniphon, who once taught Cicero.

Presumably in 85 BC. Guy had to lead the Yuli family due to the unexpected death of his father.

Personality: appearance, character, habits

Quite a lot of descriptions have been left about the appearance of Guy Julius; many sculptural portraits have been made of him, including those during his lifetime. Caesar, whose photo (reconstruction) is presented above, was, according to Suetonius, tall, with fair skin. He was well built and had dark, lively eyes.

The politician and military leader took care of himself quite carefully. He cut his nails, shaved, plucked his hair. Having a bald spot on the front of his head, he hid it in every possible way, combing his hair from the crown of his head to his forehead. According to Plutarch, Caesar's physique was very frail.

Ancient authors are unanimous that the dictator had energy. He responded quickly to changing circumstances. According to Pliny the Elder, he communicated with many people through correspondence. If desired, the dictator could simultaneously read and dictate letters to several secretaries to different addressees. At the same time, he could write something himself at that moment.

Gaius Julius practically did not drink wine and was very unpretentious in food. At the same time, he brought from his military campaigns elements of luxury, such as expensive dishes. He bought paintings, statues, beautiful slaves.

Family and personal life

Julius Caesar, whose biography is being considered, was officially married three times. Although there is also information that before these marriages he was engaged to Cossucia. His wives were:

• Cornelia is from the consul's family.
• Pompeia is the granddaughter of the dictator Sulla.
• Calpurnia is a representative of a wealthy plebeian family.

Cornelia and the commander had a daughter, whom he married to his comrade-in-arms Gnaeus Pompey. As for his relationship with Cleopatra, it took place while Gaius Julius was in Egypt. After this, Cleopatra gave birth to a child, to whom the Alexandrians gave the name Caesarion. However, Julius Caesar did not recognize him as his son and did not include him in his will.

Military and political activities

The beginning of his career was the position of Flamin of Jupiter, which Guy took in the 80s BC. To do this, he broke the engagement and married the daughter of Cornelius Cinna, who nominated him to this honorable position. But everything quickly changed when the government changed in Rome, and Guy had to leave the city.

Many examples from his life allow us to understand who Caesar is. One of them is when he was captured by pirates demanding a ransom. The politician was ransomed, but immediately after that he organized the capture of his kidnappers and executed them by crucifying them.

Who was Julius Caesar in Ancient Rome? He held the following positions:

• pontiff;
• military tribune;
• Quaestor for financial matters in Further Spain;
• caretaker of the Appian Way, which he repaired at his own expense;
• curule aedile - was involved in organizing urban construction, trade, and ceremonial events;
• head of the permanent criminal court;
• Pontifex Maximus for life;
• Governor of Further Spain.

All of these positions required large expenses. He took funds from his creditors, who provided them with understanding.

First triumvirate

After a successful governorship in Farther Spain, the politician was awaiting Triumph in Rome. However, he declined such honors for reasons of career advancement. The fact is that the time had come (due to age) when he could be elected consul to the Senate. But this required personally registering your candidacy. At the same time, a person awaiting Triumph should not appear in the city ahead of time. He had to make a choice in favor of a further career, refusing the honors due to the winner.

After studying who Caesar was, it becomes clear that his ambition was more flattered by taking a seat in the Senate in the first year when it was permissible by law. At that time it was considered very honorable.

As a result of long political combinations, the politician reconciled his two comrades-in-arms, resulting in the first triumvirate. The expression means "the union of three husbands." The year of its creation is not known for certain, since this union was secret. Historians suggest that this happened in 59 or 60 BC. It included Caesar, Pompey, Crassus. As a result of all actions, Gaius Julius managed to become consul.

Participation in the Gallic War

With his triumvirate, Julius Caesar, whose biography is presented in the article, began to disappoint the citizens of Rome. However, due to his departure to the province, all discontent was to fall on Gnaeus Pompey.

At this time, the province of Narbonese Gaul was formed on the territory of present-day France. Caesar arrived in Genava, where Geneva is now located, to negotiate with the leaders of one of the Celtic tribes. Under the onslaught of the Germans, these tribes began to settle in the territory of Guy and had to fight for the lands of the province with the Gauls and Germans. At the same time, he conducted an expedition to Britain.

After a series of victories, Caesar succeeded by 50 BC. subjugate all of Gaul to Rome. At the same time, he did not forget to follow the events in the Eternal City. Sometimes he even intervened in them through his proxies.

Establishment of dictatorship

Returning to Rome, the commander came into conflict with Gnaeus Pompey. In 49-45 BC. this led to the Civil War. Guy Caesar had many supporters throughout Italy. He attracted a significant part of the army to his side and headed to Rome. Pompey was forced to flee to Greece. The war unfolded throughout the republic. The commander and his legions alternated victories and defeats. The decisive battle was the Battle of Pharsalus, which was won by Caesar.

Gney had to flee again. This time he headed to Egypt. Julius followed him. None of the opponents expected that Pompey would be killed in Egypt. Here Gaius Julius was forced to linger. At first, the reason was that the wind was unfavorable for the ships, and then the commander decided to improve his financial situation at the expense of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Thus, he became involved in the struggle for the throne between Ptolemy the Thirteenth and Cleopatra.

He spent several months in Egypt, after which he continued his campaign to restore the territory of Rome, which began to fall apart due to the Civil War.

Caesar became dictator three times:

1. In 49 BC, for a period of 11 days, after which he resigned.
2. In 48 BC, for a period of one year, after which he continued to rule as proconsul and later consul.
3. In 46 BC. became dictator without formal justification for a period of 10 years.

All his power rested on the army, so the election of Caesar to all subsequent positions was a formality.

During his reign, Gaius Julius Caesar (photo of the sculpture can be seen above) together with his associates carried out many reforms. However, it is quite difficult to determine which of them relate directly to the time of his reign. The most famous is the reform of the Roman calendar. Citizens had to switch to the solar calendar, which was developed by the scientist from Alexandria Sosingen. So, from 45 BC. appeared today known to everyone

Death and will

Now it is clear who Julius Caesar is, whose biography ended rather tragically. In 44 BC. a conspiracy was formed against his autocracy. The dictator's opponents and supporters were afraid that he would call himself king. One of the groups was led by Marcus Junius Brutus.

At a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators realized the plan to destroy Caesar. 23 were found on his body after the murder. The citizens of Rome burned his body in the Forum.

Gaius Julius made his nephew Gaius Octavian his successor (by adopting him), who received three-quarters of the inheritance and became known as Gaius Julius Caesar.

During his reign, he pursued a policy of sacralization and clan. Apparently, the success of his actions to popularize himself exceeded his expectations. Perhaps that is why in the modern world, Gaius Julius Caesar is known both to schoolchildren and representatives of the art world.

A courageous man and seducer of women, Gaius Julius Caesar is a great Roman commander and emperor, famous for his military exploits, as well as for his character, because of which the name of the ruler became a household name. Julius is one of the most famous rulers who was in power in Ancient Rome.

The exact date of birth of this man is unknown; historians generally believe that Gaius Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC. At least, this is the date used by historians in most countries, although in France it is generally accepted that Julius was born in 101. A German historian who lived in the early 19th century was confident that Caesar was born in 102 BC, but Theodor Mommsen's assumptions are not used in modern historical literature.

Such disagreements among biographers are caused by ancient primary sources: ancient Roman scholars also disagreed about the true date of Caesar’s birth.

The Roman emperor and commander came from a noble family of patrician Julians. Legends say that this dynasty began with Aeneas, who, according to ancient Greek mythology, became famous in the Trojan War. And Aeneas’s parents are Anchises, a descendant of the Dardanian kings, and Aphrodite, the goddess of beauty and love (according to Roman mythology, Venus). The story of the divine origin of Julius was known to the Roman nobility, because this legend was successfully spread by the relatives of the ruler. Caesar himself, whenever the opportunity presented itself, liked to remember that there were Gods in his family. Scientists hypothesize that the Roman ruler comes from the Julian family, who were the ruling class at the beginning of the founding of the Roman Republic in the 5th-4th centuries BC.

Scientists also put forward various assumptions about the emperor's nickname “Caesar”. Perhaps one of the Julius dynasty was born by caesarean section. The name of the procedure comes from the word caesarea, which means “royal”. According to another opinion, someone from a Roman family was born with long and unkempt hair, which was denoted by the word “caeserius”.

The family of the future politician lived in prosperity. Caesar's father Gaius Julius served in a government position, and his mother came from the noble Cotta family.

Although the commander's family was wealthy, Caesar spent his childhood in the Roman region of Subura. This area was full of women of easy virtue, and also mostly poor people lived there. Ancient historians describe Suburu as a dirty and damp area, devoid of intelligentsia.

Caesar's parents sought to give their son an excellent education: the boy studied philosophy, poetry, oratory, and also developed physically and learned equestrianism. The learned Gaul Mark Antony Gniphon taught the young Caesar literature and etiquette. Whether the young man studied serious and exact sciences, such as mathematics and geometry, or history and jurisprudence, biographers do not know. Guy Julius Caesar received a Roman education; from childhood, the future ruler was a patriot and was not influenced by fashionable Greek culture.

Around 85 BC. Julius lost his father, so Caesar, as the only man, became the main breadwinner.

Policy

When the boy was 13 years old, the future commander was elected priest of the main God in Roman mythology, Jupiter - this title was one of the main posts of the then hierarchy. However, this fact cannot be called the pure merits of the young man, because Caesar’s sister, Julia, was married to Marius, an ancient Roman commander and politician.

But in order to become a flamen, according to the law, Julius had to get married, and the military commander Cornelius Cinna (he offered the boy the role of priest) chose Caesar’s chosen one - his own daughter Cornelia Cinilla.

In 82, Caesar had to flee Rome. The reason for this was the inauguration of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, who began a dictatorial and bloody policy. Sulla Felix asked Caesar to divorce his wife Cornelia, but the future emperor refused, which provoked the anger of the current commander. Also, Gaius Julius was expelled from Rome because he was a relative of Lucius Cornelius' opponent.

Caesar was deprived of the title of flamen, as well as his wife and his own property. Julius, dressed in poor clothes, had to escape from the Great Empire.

Friends and relatives asked Sulla to have mercy on Julius, and because of their petition, Caesar was returned to his homeland. In addition, the Roman emperor did not see the danger in the person of Julius and said that Caesar was the same as Mari.

But life under the leadership of Sulla Felix was unbearable for the Romans, so Gaius Julius Caesar went to the Roman province located in Asia Minor to learn military skills. There he became an ally of Marcus Minucius Thermus, lived in Bithynia and Cilicia, and also participated in the war against the Greek city of Metilene. Participating in the capture of the city, Caesar saved the soldier, for which he received the second most important award - the civil crown (oak wreath).

In 78 BC. Residents of Italy who disagreed with Sulla’s activities tried to organize a rebellion against the bloody dictator. The initiator was the military leader and consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Mark invited Caesar to take part in the uprising against the emperor, but Julius refused.

After the death of the Roman dictator, in 77 BC, Caesar tries to bring to justice two of Felix's henchmen: Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella and Gaius Antonius Gabrida. Julius appeared before the judges with a brilliant oratorical speech, but the Sullans managed to avoid punishment. Caesar's accusations were written down in manuscripts and circulated throughout Ancient Rome. However, Julius considered it necessary to improve his oratory skills and went to Rhodes: A teacher, rhetorician Apollonius Molon lived on the island.

On his way to Rhodes, Caesar was captured by local pirates who demanded a ransom for the future emperor. While in captivity, Julius was not afraid of the robbers, but, on the contrary, joked with them and told poems. After freeing the hostages, Julius equipped a squadron and set off to capture the pirates. Caesar was unable to bring the robbers to trial, so he decided to execute the offenders. But due to the gentleness of their character, Julius initially ordered them to be killed, and then crucified on the cross, so that the robbers would not suffer.

In 73 BC. Julius became a member of the highest college of priests, which was previously ruled by the brother of Caesar's mother, Gaius Aurelius Cotta.

In 68 BC, Caesar married Pompey, a relative of Gaius Julius Caesar's comrade-in-arms and then bitter enemy, Gnaeus Pompey. Two years later, the future emperor receives the position of Roman magistrate and is engaged in the improvement of the capital of Italy, organizing celebrations, and helping the poor. And also, having received the title of senator, he appears at political intrigues, which is how he gains popularity. Caesar participated in the Leges frumentariae ("corn laws"), under which the population purchased grain at a reduced price or received it for free, and also in 49-44 BC. Julius carried out a number of reforms

Wars

The Gallic War is the most famous event in the history of Ancient Rome and the biography of Gaius Julius Caesar.

Caesar became proconsul, by this time Italy owned the province of Narbonese Gaul (the territory of present-day France). Julius went to negotiate with the leader of the Celtic tribe in Geneva, since the Helvetii began to move due to the invasion of the Germans.

Thanks to his oratory, Caesar managed to persuade the leader of the tribe not to set foot on the territory of the Roman Empire. However, the Helvetii went to Central Gaul, where the Aedui, allies of Rome, lived. Caesar, who was pursuing the Celtic tribe, defeated their army. At the same time, Julius defeated the German Suevi, who attacked the Gallic lands located on the territory of the Rhine River. After the war, the emperor wrote an essay on the conquest of Gaul, “Notes on the Gallic War.”

In 55 BC, the Roman military commander defeated the incoming Germanic tribes, and later Caesar himself decided to visit the territory of the Germans.

Caesar was the first commander of Ancient Rome who made a military campaign on the territory of the Rhine: Julius’s detachment moved along a specially built 400-meter bridge. However, the army of the Roman commander did not stay on the territory of Germany, and he attempted to make a campaign against the possessions of Britain. There, the military leader won a series of crushing victories, but the position of the Roman army was unstable, and Caesar had to retreat. Moreover, in 54 BC. Julius is forced to return to Gaul in order to suppress the uprising: the Gauls outnumbered the Roman army, but were defeated. By 50 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar had restored territories belonging to the Roman Empire.

During military operations, Caesar showed both strategic qualities and diplomatic skill; he knew how to manipulate the Gallic leaders and instill contradictions in them.

Dictatorship

After seizing Roman power, Julius became a dictator and took advantage of his position. Caesar changed the composition of the Senate, and also transformed the social structure of the empire: the lower classes stopped being driven to Rome, because the dictator canceled subsidies and reduced bread distributions.

Also, while in office, Caesar was engaged in construction: a new building named after Caesar was erected in Rome, where the Senate meeting was held, and an idol of the patroness of love and the Julian family, the Goddess of Venus, was erected in the central square of the capital of Italy. Caesar was named emperor, and his images and sculptures adorned the temples and streets of Rome. Every word of the Roman commander was equated to law.

Personal life

In addition to Cornelia Zinilla and Pompeii Sulla, the Roman emperor had other women. Julia's third wife was Calpurnia Pizonis, who came from a noble plebeian family and was a distant relative of Caesar's mother. The girl was married to the commander in 59 BC, the reason for this marriage is explained by political goals, after the marriage of his daughter, Calpurnia's father becomes consul.

If we talk about Caesar’s sex life, the Roman dictator was loving and had relationships with women on the side.

There are also rumors that Julius Caesar was bisexual and engaged in carnal pleasures with men, for example, historians recall his youthful relationship with Nicomedes. Perhaps such stories took place only because they tried to slander Caesar.

If we talk about the famous mistresses of the politician, then one of the women on the side of the military leader was Servilia - the wife of Marcus Junius Brutus and the second bride of the consul Junius Silanus.

Caesar was condescending towards Servilia's love, so he tried to fulfill the wishes of her son Brutus, making him one of the first persons in Rome.

But the most famous woman of the Roman emperor is the Egyptian queen. At the time of the meeting with the ruler, who was 21 years old, Caesar was over fifty: a laurel wreath covered his bald head, and there were wrinkles on his face. Despite his age, the Roman emperor conquered the young beauty, the happy existence of the lovers lasted 2.5 years and ended when Caesar was killed.

It is known that Julius Caesar had two children: a daughter from his first marriage, Julia, and a son, born from Cleopatra, Ptolemy Caesarion.

Death

The Roman emperor died on March 15, 44 BC. The cause of death was a conspiracy of senators who were indignant over the dictator's four-year rule. 14 people took part in the conspiracy, but the main one is considered to be Marcus Junius Brutus, the son of Servilia, the emperor’s mistress. Caesar loved Brutus infinitely and trusted him, placing the young man in a superior position and protecting him from difficulties. However, the devoted republican Marcus Junius, for the sake of political goals, was ready to kill the one who endlessly supported him.

Some ancient historians believed that Brutus was the son of Caesar, since Servilia had a love relationship with the commander at the time of the future conspirator’s conception, but this theory cannot be confirmed by reliable sources.

According to legend, the day before the conspiracy against Caesar, his wife Calpurnia had a terrible dream, but the Roman emperor was too trusting, and also recognized himself as a fatalist - he believed in the predetermination of events.

The conspirators gathered in the building where the Senate meetings were held, near the Theater of Pompeii. No one wanted to become the sole killer of Julius, so the criminals decided that each would inflict one single blow on the dictator.

The ancient Roman historian Suetonius wrote that when Julius Caesar saw Brutus, he asked: “And you, my child?”, and in his book he writes the famous quote: “And you, Brutus?”

Caesar's death hastened the fall of the Roman Empire: the people of Italy, who valued Caesar's government, were furious that a group of Romans had killed the great emperor. To the surprise of the conspirators, the only heir was named Caesar - Guy Octavian.

The life of Julius Caesar, as well as stories about the commander, are replete with interesting facts and mysteries:

• The month of July is named after the Roman emperor;
• Caesar's contemporaries claimed that the emperor suffered from epileptic seizures;
• During gladiator fights, Caesar constantly wrote something on pieces of paper. One day the ruler was asked how he manages to do two things at once? To which he replied: “Caesar can do three things at the same time: write, watch, and listen.”. This expression has become popular; sometimes Caesar is jokingly called a person who takes on several tasks at the same time;
• In almost all photographic portraits, Gaius Julius Caesar appears before the audience wearing a laurel wreath. Indeed, in life the commander often wore this triumphal headdress, because he began to go bald early;

• About 10 films were made about the great commander, but not all are biographical in nature. For example, in the series "Rome" the ruler remembers the uprising of Spartacus, but some scholars believe that the only connection between the two commanders is that they were contemporaries;
• Phrase "I came, I saw, I conquered" belongs to Gaius Julius Caesar: the commander pronounced it after the capture of Turkey;
• Caesar used a code for secret correspondence with generals. Although the “Caesar cipher” is primitive: the letter in the word was replaced by the symbol that was to the left or to the right in the alphabet;
• The famous Caesar salad is named not after the Roman ruler, but after the cook who came up with the recipe.

Quotes

• "Victory depends on the valor of the legions."
• “When one loves, call it what you want: slavery, affection, respect... But this is not love - love is always reciprocated!”
• “Live in such a way that your friends will be bored when you die.”
• “No victory can bring as much as one defeat can take away.”
• “War gives the conquerors the right to dictate any conditions to the conquered.”

Gaius Iulius Caesar - commander, politician, writer, dictator, high priest. He came from an ancient Roman family of the ruling class and consistently sought all government positions and led a line of political opposition to the senatorial aristocracy. He was merciful, but sent a number of his main opponents to execution.

The Yuliev family originated from a noble family, which, according to legend, descended from the goddess Venus.

Julius Caesar's mother, Avrelia Kotta, was from the noble and wealthy Aurelius family. My paternal grandmother came from the ancient Roman family of Marcii. Ancus Marcius was the fourth king of Ancient Rome from 640 to 616. BC e.

Childhood and youth

We have not received exact data about the time of birth of the emperor. Today it is generally accepted that he was born in 100 BC. e., however, the German historian Theodor Mommsen believes that it was 102 BC. e., and the French historian Jerome Carcopino points to 101 BC. e. Both July 12 and July 13 are considered birthdays.

Gaius Julius spent his childhood in the poor ancient Roman region of Subura. Parents gave their son a good education, he studied Greek, poetry and oratory, learned to swim, rode horseback and developed physically. In 85 BC. e. the family lost its breadwinner and Caesar, after initiation, became the head of the family, since none of the older male relatives remained alive.

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Beginning of a career as a politician

In Asia

In the 80s BC. e. The military leader Lucius Cornelius Cinna proposed the person of Gaius Julius to replace the flamenes, priest of the god Jupiter. But for this he needed to marry according to the solemn ancient rite of confarreatio, and Lucius Cornelius chose his daughter Cornelia Cinilla as his wife for Caesar. In 76 BC. e. The couple had a daughter, Julia (Ivlia).

Today, historians are no longer sure about the inauguration ceremony of Julius. On the one hand, this would prevent him from engaging in politics, but, on the other, the appointment was a good way to strengthen the position of the Caesars.

After the betrothal of Gaius Julius and Cornelia, there was a riot in the troops and the military attacked Cinna, he was killed. The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla was established, after which Caesar, as a relative of the opponent of the new ruler, was outlawed. He disobeyed Sulla, refused to divorce his wife and left. The dictator searched for the disobedient man for a long time, but, as time passed, he pardoned him at the request of his relatives.
Caesar soon joined Marcus Minucius Thermus, governor of the Roman province of Asia Minor - Asia.

Ten years ago, his father held this position. Julius became an equites (equites) of Marcus Minucius, a patrician who fought on horseback. The first task that Therm gave to his contubernal was to negotiate with the Bithynia king Nycomed IV. As a result of successful negotiations, the ruler transfers Thermae a flotilla to take the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesvos, which did not accept the results of the First Mithridatic War (89-85 BC) and resisted the Roman people. The city was successfully captured.

For the operation on Lesbos, Gaius Julius received a civilian crown - a military award, and Marcus Minucius resigned. In 78 BC. e. Lucius Sulla dies in Italy and Caesar decides to return to his homeland.

Roman events

In 78 BC. e. The military leader Marcus Lepidus organized a revolt of the Italians (Italici) against the laws of Lucius. Caesar then did not accept the invitation to become a participant. In 77-76. BC e Gaius Julius tried to sue Sulla's supporters: the politician Cornelius Dolabella and the commander Antonius Hybrida. But he failed, despite his brilliant indictments.

After this, Julius decided to visit the island of Rhodes (Rhodus) and the school of rhetoric of Apollonius Molon, but on the way there he was captured by pirates, from where he was later rescued by Asian ambassadors for fifty talents. Wanting revenge, the former captive equipped several ships and himself took the pirates prisoner, executing them by crucifixion. In 73 BC. e. Caesar was included in the collegial governing body of the pontiffs, where his uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta had previously ruled.

In 69 BC. e. Caesar's wife Cornelia died during the birth of her second child; the baby also did not survive. At the same time, Caesar's aunt, Julia Maria, also dies. Soon Gaius Julius becomes a Roman ordinary magistrate (magistratus), which gives him the opportunity to enter the Senate. He was sent to Far Spain (Hispania Ulterior), where he took upon himself the resolution of financial issues and the execution of orders from the propraetor Antistius Vetus.

In 67 BC. e. Caesar married Pompeia Sulla, Sulla's granddaughter. In 66 BC. e. Gaius Julius becomes caretaker of the most important public road in Rome, the Appian Way (Via Appia), and finances its repair.

College of Magistrates and elections

In 66 BC. e. Gaius Julius is elected magistrate of Rome. His responsibilities include expanding construction in the city, maintaining trade and public events. In 65 BC. e. he held such memorable Roman games with gladiators that he managed to amaze his sophisticated citizens.

In 64 BC. e. Gaius Julius was the head of the judicial commission (Quaestiones perpetuae) for criminal trials, which allowed him to bring to account and punish many of Sulla's henchmen.

In 63 BC. e. Quintus Metellus Pius died, vacating the lifelong seat of Pontifex Maximus. Caesar decides to put forward his own candidacy for her. The opponents of Gaius Julius are the consul Quintus Catulus Capitolinus and the commander Publius Vatia Isauricus. After numerous bribes, Caesar wins the election by a large margin and moves to live on the Sacred Road (via Sacra) in the state housing of the pontiff.

Participation in the conspiracy

In 65 and 63 BC e. one of the political conspirators, Lucius Sergius Catilina, twice attempted a coup. Marcus Tullius Cicero, being an opponent of Caesar, tried to accuse him of participating in conspiracies, but could not provide the necessary evidence and failed. Marcus Porcius Cato, the informal leader of the Roman Senate, also testified against Caesar and ensured that Gaius Julius left the Senate persecuted by threats.

First triumvirate

Praetura

In 62 BC. BC, using the powers of praetor, Caesar wanted to transfer the reconstruction of the plan of Jupiter Capitolinus (Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus) from Quintus Catulus Capitolinus to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, but the Senate did not support this bill.

After the proposal of the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, supported by Caesar, to send Pompey with troops to Rome to pacify Catiline, the Senate removed both Quintus Caecilius and Gaius Julius from their posts, but the second was quickly restored.
In the fall, the trial of the Catiline conspirators took place. One of its participants, Lucius Iulius Vettius, who spoke out against Caesar, was arrested, as was the judge Novius Nigerus, who accepted the report.

In 62 BC. e. Caesar's wife Pompey organized a festival in their house dedicated to the Good Goddess (Bona Dea), which could only be attended by women. But one of the politicians, Publius Clodius Pulcher, came to the holiday; he dressed up as a woman and wanted to meet Pompeii. Senators found out about what happened, considered it a shame and demanded a trial. Gaius Julius did not wait for the outcome of the trial and divorced Pompeia so as not to expose his personal life to the public. Moreover, the spouses never produced any heirs.

In Farther Spain

In 61 BC. e. The trip of Gaius Julius to Far Spain as propraetor was postponed for a long time due to the presence of a large number of debts. The commander Marcus Licinius Crassus vouched for Gaius Julius and paid part of his loans.

When the new propraetor arrived at his destination, he had to deal with the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants with the Roman authorities. Caesar gathered a detachment of militia and began to fight the “bandits.” The commander with an army of twelve thousand approached the Serra da Estrela mountain range and ordered the local residents to leave there. They refused to move and Gaius Julius attacked them. The highlanders went across the Atlantic Ocean to the Berlenga Islands, killing all their pursuers.

But Caesar, after a series of thoughtful operations and strategic maneuvers, still conquers the popular resistance, after which he was awarded the honorary military title of emperor, victor.

Gaius Julius was also active in the daily affairs of the subordinate lands. He presided over court hearings, introduced tax reforms, and eradicated the practice of sacrifice.

During his period of activity in Spain, Caesar was able to pay off most of his debts thanks to rich gifts and bribes from residents of the wealthy south. At the beginning of 60 BC. e. Gaius Julius relinquishes his assigned powers ahead of schedule and returns to Rome.

Triumvirate

Rumors about the victories of the propraetor soon reached the Senate and its members considered that Caesar's return should be accompanied by a triumph (triumphus) - a ceremonial entry into the capital. But then, before the triumphant event, Gaius Julius was not allowed, by law, to enter the city. And since he also planned to take part in the upcoming elections for the post of consul, where his personal presence was required for registration, the commander abandoned his triumph and began to fight for a new position.

By bribing voters, Caesar nevertheless becomes consul, and with him the military leader Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus wins the elections.

In order to strengthen his own political position and existing power, Caesar enters into a secret conspiracy with Pompey and Crassus, uniting two influential politicians with opposing views. As a result of the conspiracy, a powerful alliance of military leaders and politicians appears, called the First Triumvirate (triumviratus - “union of three husbands”).

Consulate

In the first days of the consulate, Caesar began to submit new bills to the Senate for consideration. The first agrarian law was adopted, according to which the poor could receive plots of land from the state, which it bought from large landowners. First of all, land was given to large families. To prevent speculation, new landowners had no right to resell their plots for the next twenty years. The second bill concerned the taxation of farmers in the province of Asia; their contributions were reduced by one third. The third law dealt with bribes and extortion; it was adopted unanimously, unlike the first two.

To strengthen the connection with Pompey, Gaius Julius married his daughter Julia to him. Caesar himself decides to marry for the third time, this time his wife is Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus.

Proconsul

Gallic War

When Gaius Julius, after the expiration of his term, resigned as consul, he continued to conquer lands for Rome. During the Gallic War (Bellum Gallicum), Caesar, displaying extraordinary diplomacy and strategy, skillfully took advantage of the disagreements of the Gallic leaders. In 55 BC. e. He defeated the Germans who crossed the Rhine (Rhein), after which in ten days he built a bridge 400 meters long and attacked them himself, the first in the history of Rome. He was the first of the Roman commanders to invade Great Britain, where he carried out several brilliant military operations, after which he was forced to leave the island.

In 56 BC. e. A regular meeting of the triumvirs took place in Lucca, at which it was decided to continue and develop political support for each other.

By 50 BC. e. Gaius Julius suppressed all the uprisings, completely subjugating his former territories to Rome.

Civil War

In 53 BC. e. Crassus dies and the triumvirate ceases to exist. A struggle began between Pompey and Julius. Pompey became the head of the republican government, and the Senate did not extend the powers of Gaius Julius in Gaul. Then Caesar decides to revolt. Having gathered soldiers, with whom he was extremely popular, he crosses the border river Rubicone and, seeing no resistance, captures some cities. Frightened Pompey and his close senators flee the capital. Caesar invites the rest of the Senate to rule the country together.

In Rome, Caesar is appointed dictator. Pompey's attempts to prevent Gaius Julius failed, the fugitive himself was killed in Egypt, but Caesar did not accept the enemy's head as a gift; he mourned his death. While in Egypt, Caesar helps Queen Cleopatra, conquers Alexandria, and in North Africa annexes Numidia to Rome.

Murder

The return of Gaius Julius to the capital is accompanied by a magnificent triumph. He does not skimp on awards for his soldiers and commanders, arranges feasts for the citizens of the city, organizes games and mass spectacles. Over the next ten years, he is proclaimed "emperor" and "father of the fatherland." He issues many laws, including laws on citizenship, on the structure of the state, against luxury, on unemployment, on the issuance of free bread, changes the time system and others.

Caesar was idolized and given great honor by erecting his statues and painting his portraits. He had the best security, he was personally involved in the appointment of people to government positions and their removal.

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