ALL-RUSSIAN STUDENT ABSTRACT COMPETITION “KRUGOZOR”

TRANSITION OF PROPER NAMES OF NOUNS INTO DENIALS

1. The interesting science of onomastics………………………………………….....3

2. Transition of proper names into common nouns…………………...………7

2.1 Proper names – parents of common nouns……………….……7

2.2 Transition of proper names into common nouns in cooking... .......9

2.3 Transition of proper names into common nouns in units of measurement and measuring instruments………………………..…………………12

2.4 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of chemical elements of the periodic table…………………………......13

2.5 Transition of proper names into common nouns in botany…….....16

2.6 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of weapons…………………………………………………………………………………...18

2.7 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of clothes…………………………………………………………………………………..19

2.8 Transition of proper names into common nouns in the attributes of school life……………………………………………………………..21

3. Proper names and character of a person……………………………..22

4. Conclusion……………………………..……………………………..26

5. List of references……………………………………………………..28

1. Interesting science of onomastics

Let's try to answer the question: “How many geographical objects and place names are there on planet Earth?” It's difficult. And it is not surprising, since their number cannot be counted: after all, there are a huge number of cities on our planet, and even more villages and hamlets that have names. In populated areas there are squares, streets, alleys, which also have their own name. Numerous rivers, lakes, mountains, ravines, forests, and groves are also not nameless. No, it’s impossible to count all the geographical names! It’s easier to take some small country with a sparse population, for example Sweden, and try to count the geographical names on its territory. Scientists did just that. It turned out that Sweden alone has 12 million place names!

How many first and last names are there in the world? If we consider that more than five billion people now live on Earth and some of the names are repeated in each country, it is easy to calculate that there will be approximately 4 billion names in total.

Is it good or bad when in one country there are many identical names for cities, streets, and people? On the one hand, it seems good: you need to remember less names, but on the other hand, it’s bad, since in this case it will be difficult to find the desired object. After all, bearers of names are separate, different objects that have nothing in common with each other.

“Let us imagine for a moment that all geographical names have disappeared from our planet - cities, villages, rivers, seas, mountains, countries, streets. All postal work immediately stopped. Fire trucks and ambulances rush around in vain searches - there are no addresses. Transport is paralyzed: no one knows where they are going, where to change trains, and where to get off; cargo goes to Novgorod instead of Moscow. The world economy has collapsed, humanity has been thrown back to a primitive state. And all because of such a little thing as names,” writes in the book “Introduction to Toponymy.”

It is impossible to remove the names, because they are firmly connected with the life of modern society. The most that can be done is to replace one name with another.

For example, the city of St. Petersburg, named after its founder Peter the Great, was called Petrograd during the October Socialist Revolution. It was subsequently renamed the city of Leningrad, named after the famous organizer and leader of the October Revolution. In the mid-90s of the 20th century, the city returned to its former name with the addition of the particle st., i.e. it began to be called St. Petersburg. For example, the city of Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad, after the Great Patriotic War the city began to be called Volgograd.

Cases of repeated changes in the names of large geographical features are rare. Just as it is undesirable to unjustifiably change the names of geographical objects, it is also undesirable (with rare exceptions) to change the names and surnames of persons. It's not hard to imagine the confusion that massive name changes can lead to.

Proper names have long attracted the attention of scientists. Their origin, history, various transformations, distribution, purpose are studied by historians, literary critics, psychologists, ethnographers, geographers, but most of all by linguists.

In linguistics, there is a special section - onomastics (Greek, onomastike - “the art of giving names”; onomastikos - “relating to a name”), which deals with the study of proper names. The totality of all proper names is also called onomastics. These include personal names, patronymics, surnames, nicknames of people, names of animals, names of cities, rivers, seas, natural disasters, celestial bodies, etc.

Proper names related to people are called anthroponyms, and the science that studies them is called anthroponymy (from the gr. anthropos - “man” and entanglement - “name”). Geographical names - toponyms - are dealt with by toponymy (Greek topos - “place, area” and entanglement - “name”).

Toponyms and anthroponyms are primarily nouns that serve as names of individual objects, isolated from a number of homogeneous ones. Such nouns are called proper names: Petya, Sidorov, Vera Alexandrovna, Jules Verne, Tolstoy; Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, Black Sea, Karakum; in contrast to common nouns, which are generalized names of homogeneous objects: pioneer, carpenter, teacher, writer; city, sea, lake, mountain, desert.

Questions of onomastics are of interest to many scientists both in Russia and in foreign countries. Many books have been written about proper names, and yet not all general and specific questions related to proper names have satisfactory answers. For example, the origin of the word is still unknown Moscow, it is not possible to establish whether it belongs to a particular language.

Scientists involved in the study of proper names share their achievements in the field of toponymy and anthroponymy at conferences and congresses. Proper names, like common nouns, exist to be used to name something, to designate something. The difference between a proper name and a common noun also lies in the fact that a common noun serves as the name of both a specific object and the whole class to which this object belongs. A proper name, in contrast to a common noun, is usually given to one object and is, as it were, its property, its belonging.

Relevance of work on this topic: By learning the etymology of names, we study more deeply the history and culture of our people and the peoples of other countries.

Target: trace the difference between proper and common nouns, how proper names are related to common nouns; expand theoretical knowledge on onomastics;

Tasks: study special literature on the problem under study, systematize it; generalize the conditions for the transition of proper names into common nouns.

2. Transition of proper names into common nouns

What is the difference between proper and common nouns? How are proper words related to common nouns? How does a proper name differ from a common noun? What are the conditions for the transition of proper names into common nouns?

The correct answer to the question posed largely depends on understanding the essence of proper names and their specificity. Let's try to understand these issues.

Proper names, like common nouns, exist to be used to name something, to designate something. The difference between a proper name and a common noun also lies in the fact that a common noun serves as the name of both a specific object and the whole class to which this object belongs. For example, birch- the name of the birch that grows near our house, on your street and all the birches of any park, grove, forest. A proper name, in contrast to a common noun, is usually given to one object and is, as it were, its property, its belonging. Yes, in a sentence Astrakhan, Saratov- cities on the Volga, not on the Don or Kama the proper names of specific cities and rivers on the territory of Russia are given. Therefore, proper names have a closer connection with the object than common nouns.

2.1. Proper names - parents of common nouns

Words are transformed, moving from a proper name to a common noun.

For example, here is the word hooligan. They call it a person who violates public order. But this word comes from a proper name. It came to us from the English capital, near which in the 18th century there was an inn that belonged to the Irishman Hooligan, a rather scandalous man who, like his entire family, caused trouble not only for the guests, but also for the neighbors. After his name, hooligans began to be called mischievous people who violated the norms of behavior in society.

Now they are ordinary common nouns denoting various objects, and their counterparts remain proper names. Among them: Berlin- a type of four-seater carriage, named after the city of Berlin, where they stopped making it at the beginning of the 19th century. The carriage is no longer there, but its name is in the explanatory dictionaries; Damascus- steel obtained by forge welding of numerous thin steel strips or wires with different carbon content woven into a bundle. This type of welding Damascus (Damascus steel) is named after the Syrian city of Damascus, where it was produced in large quantities in the Middle Ages; open hearth- a furnace in which steel is produced. Otherwise - open hearth furnace. Named after the French metallurgist Martin; shrew- an angry, grumpy woman. Named after Megaera, who personified anger and vengeance, one of the Erinyes (in Greek mythology, the goddesses of vengeance); she was depicted as a disgusting old woman with snakes instead of hair, a long tongue, with a torch and a whip in her hand.

Most toponyms and anthroponyms, before moving into the category of common nouns, acquire a certain suffix, with the help of which a new word is formed.

For example, harlequin(after the character of the Italian “comedy of masks”, playing the role of a witty servant and wearing a suit of silk multi-colored triangles and a black mask) is called a jester, a clown, and a small pantomime in which a harlequin and other characters participate is called harlequinade. Now the word harlequinade means buffoonery, buffoonery. Suffix -hell- helped form this word in French, from which it passed into Russian.

In school, for a long time, those who sit in the last desk, in “Kamchatka” (named after the Kamchatka Peninsula in Eastern Siberia), are called Kamchatka workers. In pre-revolutionary schools, the worst students were put there. We can read about the Kamchatka people in “Essays on Bursa”. When forming a word Kamchatnik suffix used -Nick.

Thus, many proper names, themselves born from common nouns, served as the basis for the formation of new common nouns with a new meaning, with a new sphere of use.

2.2. Transition of proper names into common nouns in cooking

The Irish writer Charles Leaver was the first to make liverwurst and named it after his own name, just as the ones he introduced into use were named after the English Lord Sandwich. sandwiches- two slices of bread folded together with some kind of snack between them. The English Earl of Sandwich was so addicted to gambling that he didn’t even want to leave to eat. He ordered slices of bread to be served with cold meat, which was named after the count. This is how the sandwich appeared in 1762. The Germans came up with a new name for it - “sandwich” (butter + bread) and put various sausages on the butter. And the French added pates with sauces as fillings and invented hot sandwiches. The Dutch put all sorts of fillings inside a long bun. In Europe, such a multi-layer sandwich is called “Dutch”, i.e. Dutch. And some sandwiches have already begun to be made according to strict recipes. For example, a “club” sandwich consists of three pieces of bread and two different snacks between them. So the “sandwich” (as the British still call it) became the most widespread and popular food. The opportunity to quickly have a meal in the city without going to restaurants turned out to be tempting for many people, and this demand was perfectly guessed and solved by McDonald's, founded on April 15, 1955 in the United States of America. We can say that every nation came up with its own type of sandwich, and the McDonald's company united them all, and even invented its signature Bic-Mac sandwich - the “Big Mac”. It means a multi-layered structure with meat, salad, and mayonnaise. The company quickly became a leader in public catering in many countries around the world.

The dish is named after the Russian Count Stroganov, who introduced the meat dish of small pieces of meat in sauce. Beef Stroganoff.

Another important person whose name turned out to be associated with cooking is Charlotte (1744–1818), wife of the English King George III and grandmother of the famous Queen Victoria. Charlotte, or rather Sophia-Charlotte, was the daughter of the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. At the age of 17, she married the King of Great Britain and bore him 15 children. Only two of them died in childhood, and two of the survivors later became kings of Great Britain. Charlotte, as befits a royal wife, was a patron of the arts and botany. On her initiative, the Royal Botanical Garden was founded. Encouraging her subjects to grow healthy fruits - apples, she personally made a sweet pie from apples filled with butter cream. In the dictionary, such a pie is also respectfully called “Charlotte”, but in our time it has come to be called charlotte.

Common variety of plums "greengage" also bears the stamp of the royal name. It is named after Queen Claude of France. Claude was considered the richest bride in Europe. From her mother she inherited the region of Brittany in northern France, and her father, the French king Louis XII, added the newly conquered Milan to the hereditary counties in the Loire Valley. For quite a long time, Charles of Austria, who later became King Charles V of Spain, sought the favor (not so much of the young bride as of her parents). However, the strict parent decided differently, and 15-year-old Claude married Francis of Valois. A year later, under the name of Francis I, he became the king of France, and Claude, accordingly, became the queen. Historians say that their marriage was not very happy. It is difficult to judge from afar, especially since ideas about happiness in those days were definitely somewhat different from ours. Claude died very young, at 25, and Francis I outlived her by almost a quarter of a century. He ordered the sweet green plum to be named in honor of his wife, which is how the name “Reine Claude” (Queen Claude) appeared. The plum came to France from the Apennine Peninsula during one of the Italian wars. The royal order was carried out, but the name of the variety took root not by the will of the king, but because Claude was known as a righteous and merciful ruler. Thanks to the efforts of French gardeners, Rencloud plums have become even sweeter and tastier. The variety spread throughout Europe, carrying with it the memory of the early deceased French queen.

Word cognac denotes a strong alcoholic drink, brandy, produced in the Cognac region of France; subsequently, any brandy in our country began to be called cognac.

Let's try to figure out why the type of cereal is called rolled oats.

Transferring the quality of Hercules to people like him, Hercules (Hercules) we will call a person of athletic build; Hercules We also call flattened oatmeal. When this name was given to cereals, it was meant that children who would eat it would become as strong as Hercules.

French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur proposed a method of preserving food by heating it to a temperature not exceeding 100°, which kills most bacteria and molds contained in food products. A very useful method! Now they use it everywhere and call it pasteurization.

Hot sauce Kabul made from soybeans and various spices, it got its name from Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan.

Named after the region of Provence in France Provençalem spicy sauce made from egg yolks with vegetable oil, vinegar and spices.

Cake napoleon named after Emperor Napoleon, who loved this type of cake; ice cream(ice cream with various additives - chocolate, nuts, berries), named after the city of Plombir in France. Montpensier And landrin - two types of candy. The first is named after the French counts of Montpensier, and the second is named after the owner of the Landrin candy factory.

Among the cups, glasses, glasses there are wine glasses and lafitniks.

The most valuable and best type of crystal is called baccarat- named after the French city of Baccarat, where a crystal factory was built in 1766.

Wine glass- This is a large wide glass used for soft drinks. It is named after the city of Fougères in France, where glass was made for it.

2.3. Transition of proper names into common nouns in units of measurement and measuring instruments

Remarkable advances in physics and related sciences have led to the need to create new units that could not have existed before. These units also needed to be given a name. And they were named after famous scientists: ampere- by name, watt- named D. Watt, volt- A. Voltas, joule- D. Prescott Joule, hertz- G. Hertz, pendant- Sh. Coulomb, pascal- B. Pascal, x-ray- V. X-ray, newton - I. Newton, ohm- S. Oma Let us remember the measuring instruments formed from proper names. Easily remembered ammeter(device for measuring electric current), voltmeter(a device for measuring voltage between two points in an electrical circuit), voltameter(a device for measuring the strength of electric current by its chemical effect), ohmmeter(a device for directly measuring resistance expressed in ohms),

The names of other measuring instruments do not contain the element -meter. These are proper names that have passed into the category of common nouns without changes: firstly, Breguet(pocket watch made in the workshop of the Frenchman Breguet). This clock chimed the minutes and even showed the dates of the month. Remember, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”: The ringing of the Breguet tells them that a new ballet has begun. Secondly, these are the names for thermometers. You are very familiar with one of the thermometers. His name is Celsius. It has a scale of 100 degrees from the melting point of ice to the boiling point. Named after the inventor, the 18th century Swedish astronomer A. Celsius (denoted by the Latin letter C). Another thermometer is less known. It has a scale of 80° from the melting point of ice to the boiling point of water. He was named reaumur named after the 18th century French physicist. The third thermometer is named Fahrenheit named after the 18th century German physicist Fahrenheit, who first made a mercury thermometer. It has a scale on which the melting point of ice is indicated at 32 degrees, and the boiling point of water at 212 degrees. This thermometer is still used in England and the USA.

R. Diesel, a German engineer, directed his efforts elsewhere - in 1897 he invented an internal combustion engine called a diesel engine, which soon became widespread.

2.4. Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of chemical elements of the periodic table

When the great Russian scientist was 35 years old, he had already discovered one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law of chemical elements and formulated it as follows: “The properties of simple bodies, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, are periodically dependent ... on the value of the atomic weights of the elements " Based on this law, he created the periodic system of chemical elements and predicted the existence and properties of several elements, later discovered by other scientists. These elements filled the cells that were empty in his table.

In the periodic table of elements, the first places are occupied by hydrogen and helium. As for the last places, 50 years ago the table ended with the 98th element - Californian. And when D. I. Mendeleev compiled his table, there were only 63 elements in it. This was in 1869.

Now the table contains 107 elements and it is unknown how many new ones will be discovered and what they will be named.

Here we come to the names of chemical elements. Every new chemical element, discovered by scientists or artificially created by them, needs to be given a name that distinguishes it from already known elements. This name must be such that it can be used to form a symbol that is different from the other symbols that fill the table in a strictly defined order. It would be very good if the name of the element did not cause difficulties in its pronunciation and spelling. Of course, it would not hurt to perpetuate the memory of those scientists who left a noticeable mark on world science in the name of the element.

The discoverers and creators of new chemical elements took this into account: the last elements of the table are named after world-famous scientists: Einstein, Fermi, the creator of the periodic table himself, Joliot Curie, Rutherford, Kurchatov and Niels Bohr.

The periodic table can tell not only about the chemical elements, their properties, their place in the periodic table, but also about the countries, cities, and people that are “hidden” in it.

Of the 107 elements, more than a third of the names (43) are formed either directly from proper names, or from such common nouns, which themselves are formed from proper names. These are the names:

formed from

from toponyms:

Americium

Germanium

educated

from anthroponyms

Kurchatovy

Mendelevium

Plutonium

Promethium

Einsteinium

Let's re-read the words of the first column carefully and determine which chemical elements are named after the country. Yes it is americium, germanium, europium, californium, scandium, francium, which can be easily correlated with the toponyms America, Germany, Europe, California, Scandinavia, France.

If about the origin of names europium, francium and others were easy to guess, then perhaps some of you noticed that among the given names of chemical elements derived from the name of the country, there is no indium. This is no coincidence.

In honor of A. Einstein, the great physicist, the father of the theory of relativity, element No. 99 was named - einsteinium, first discovered in a thermonuclear explosion. The chemical and physical-mechanical properties of this element have not yet been sufficiently studied.

The hundredth element, discovered in 1952 also in the products of a thermonuclear explosion, was named fermium in honor of the greatest Italian physicist E. Fermi.

In early 1955, element 101 was discovered. It was discovered by five researchers at the University of California Radiation Laboratory and named after the creator of the periodic table of chemical elements. mendelevium.

The name of the element Nobelium is derived from the name of the inventor of dynamite and the founder of the International (Nobel) Prize Foundation, A Nobel. This element was at one time on the periodic table.

Element 104 was first synthesized at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna in 1964. It was received by a group of scientists led by an academician. The creators of the element suggested calling it Kurchatoviy- in honor of the outstanding Russian physicist.

2.5. Transition of proper names into common nouns in botany

Seeing a flying butterfly on the first warm days, we say: “Real spring. The butterflies are already flying!” The next day, a butterfly flew by again, different from yesterday. But we will also say about her: “What a beautiful butterfly!” And although butterflies are different, we (unlike entomologists) often do not know the name of each of their varieties, so in speech we use the common name - butterfly.

Here's a butterfly named Psyche. But once upon a time Psyche (in Greek mythology) was a royal daughter and was famous for her extraordinary beauty. The Greeks often depicted Psyche as a butterfly or a girl with butterfly wings. The butterfly that was named psyche, also stands out for its beauty. You can see it in illustrated special magazines, albums or in museums where collections of butterflies are exhibited.

A large beetle up to 15 centimeters long, living in South America, is called Hercules(named after the mythical Hercules, the strongest of the Greek heroes).

The names of mythological characters are ground beetles and various worms. Imagine a ground beetle that bravely rushes at its prey, even though it is much larger than it. This ground beetle was named Procrustes named after the robber Procrustes. Named after the goddess of beauty Aphrodite Aphrodite(sea worm). Another species of sea worm is named Nereid(named after one of the sea nymphs - the Nereids, daughters of Nereus), a tailed amphibian from the salamander family, similar to a lizard, is named triton(named after the sea deity Triton, depicted as an old man or a young man with a fish tail instead of legs).

No less famous small fish - sardines (sardines). They owe their name to the island of Sardinia in the Mediterranean Sea.

The flora of the earth is so rich and diverse that scientists are still finding more and more new plants. However, they not only find, but also develop new varieties. Where do you get the words to name them? Proper names are once again coming to the aid of scientists. It’s good that the language has a lot of words in stock that can be used to name a new object. Breeders have developed a new variety of wheat in the Kuban, and they did the same at the Stavropol Experimental Station, at the Mironovskaya State Breeding Station, located in Ukraine, and at the Novourenskaya station in the Ulyanovsk region. Naturally, these wheat varieties are named: Kubanka, Stavropol, Ukrainian, Ulyanovsk. They are named according to approximately the same principle. Vyatka(winter rye variety), Crimea(winter wheat variety), Kutuzovka(corn variety), Moscow(spring wheat variety), omka(winter rye variety) and other varieties of cereals.

And some plants get their names from the name of the place from which they were taken. The orange was exported from China (Dutch appelsien means "Chinese apple"), coffee - from the country of Caffa, located in Africa; peaches- from Persia.

The names of flowers also contain a lot of interesting things. Here is a flower with double colored inflorescences - Ivan-da-Marya, or maryannik In forest clearings, meadows, on the banks of rivers and rivulets, in the steppe you can also find flowers with the following names: Avdotka, Akulinka, Matryonka, Andreevka, Timofeevka, Ivan-tea. All these are popular names for herbs. We will not find these names in modern dictionaries of the Russian literary language, with the exception, perhaps, of the last two. But if you turn to dictionaries of various dialects of the Russian language, you can find such names of plants and flowers in them. For example, in Shansky’s “Etymological Dictionary” there are plant names: Akulinka, Annushka, Annushka's tears, Vanyusha curly or Vanya curly and others. Why are these plants called that? What relation do they have to the unknown to us Akulina, Avdotya, Annushka, Matryona, Ivan or Timofey? As for the name Ivan-da-Marya, then, if you believe the fairy tale, it arose like this. Fate separated brother Vanya from sister Mashenka in childhood. When they grew up and met, they fell in love, and Ivan married Marya. Having learned about their relationship, in order not to be separated, they turned into a flower with double color, which has since been called Ivan-da-Marya.

Trees with large evergreen leathery leaves and large white fragrant flowers are magnolia. It was named after the Frenchman Pierre Magnol, who lived in the 17th century.

2.6. Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of weapons

There are many pistol systems, as well as other types of firearms. However, if you look closely at their names, we will notice: firearms are mainly called after the inventor.

Some creators of weapons try to prove the advantages of their product, glorify it, and with it themselves.

The Belgian designer L. Nagan invented a revolver with a rotating drum and named it after himself - revolver. The Americans J. Browning and S. Colt did the same. The first one named a gun after himself browning, and the second, the owner of a large factory for the production of handguns, named the revolver he invented after himself Colt. German designers brothers Pavel and Wilhelm Mauser created Mausers(pistol and repeating rifle), which were manufactured in their factories.

A rapid-fire automatic weapon - a machine gun - was invented in 1883 and called maxim named after the inventor, American engineer Hoyrem Maxim.

100 years ago, the Russian army was armed with a rifle created by Russian designers together with the American designer, Colonel Berdan. This rifle was called Berdanka. Now it can only be seen in the museum.

During the Great Patriotic War, we had barrelless rocket artillery systems in our arsenal. The soldiers gave them an affectionate name Katyusha, which is associated with the name of M. Isakovsky’s song “Katyusha,” popular in the pre-war years. In army vernacular Katyusha They also jokingly called flint, i.e., a steel plate for making fire by striking flint.

Not only pistols, shotguns, machine guns, machine guns, but also shells and even bullets are called by proper names.

Word shrapnel. This is what they call an artillery shell. It is filled with spherical bullets and has a special remote tube, with the help of which the projectile explodes at a given point in the trajectory. This projectile was created in 1803 by the English inventor G. Shrapnel and thereby went down in history.

2.7. Transition of proper names into common nouns in the names of clothes

In the comedies of the French comedian Beaumarchais “The Barber of Seville” and “The Marriage of Figaro”, some characters wore clothes whose cut was to the taste of the audience. And they began to sew such clothes for themselves. This is how it appeared almaviva- a wide men's cloak of a special cut (it was worn by Count Almaviva from The Barber of Seville) and figaro- a type of short, loose women's blouse worn over a dress (Figaro wore it).

In Eugene Onegin, Tatyana Larina appeared on stage in a dress with a tight-fitting bodice and a gathered wide skirt. This dress was called Tatyanka.“She was completely different from Pushkin’s Tatiana, except for her tatyana and her shoulder-length curls,” we read in V. Kaverin’s story “Two Captains.”

The comic character of Italian folk comedies, Pantalone, was dressed in lace-trimmed panties, called trousers.

Now let's turn our attention to men's outerwear. Many people know the words French, riding breeches, raglan. Their names retain the names not of the characters in the plays, but of the people who were the first to wear these clothes and thereby left a memory of themselves. The French jacket is a military jacket at the waist, with four large patch pockets and a tab at the back. This jacket was worn by the English Field Marshal John French. And breeches, wide at the hips and tight at the knees, were worn by the French general Gaston Galiffe, one of the executioners of the Paris Commune.

General Raglan was the first in the history of tailoring to wear a coat in which the sleeve and shoulder were one piece. The cut itself and the coat of this style were called raglan.

And here is the cloak mac. It is made of waterproof rubberized fabric. The name of the raincoat commemorates the Scottish chemist Charles Mackintosh, who invented a method for making waterproof fabrics.

More recently, many people liked a men's knitted sweatshirt, similar to the one worn by the famous writer E. Hemingway. She was named Hemingway.

Some men's clothing names have geographic origins. These include: Hungarian- a jacket with a high waist, cords at the seams and cross cords for fastening. Such jackets were worn in Hungary. Doesn't look like her Siberian- a short caftan at the waist, with gatherings, without a slit at the back and with a stand-up collar (such clothing was common in Siberia); Moldavian- a jacket, such as women wear in Moldova.

Not so long ago, a raincoat was in fashion, originally made in the Italian city of Bologna from nylon fabric with a one-sided waterproof coating. This cloak was called Bologna.

Marengo, the fabric is black with white threads, named after the village of Marengo in Northern Italy. Now the word Marengo used to denote a black color with a gray tint. They say: the fabric is marengo color.

Cashmere And madapolam, or madepols named after the region of Kashmir and the city of Madapolam in India; crepe de Chine, faide Chine, Chinese And Nanka named after the French name for China - Shin, after the city of Nanjing and the Russian name for China; marroquin- in the country of Morocco in northwest Africa.

America represented Boston, is a fine cloth named after the city of Boston in the USA.

2.8. Transition of proper names into common nouns

in attributes wstake life

Here is Whatman paper. Otherwise she is called Whatman paper It is used for drawing and painting. It got its name from the owner of the English paper mill Whatman. A parchment, parchment, or parchment paper, thick paper that is impervious to fat and moisture and is used for packaging, as well as glassine - thin durable paper for making natural tracing paper - named after the city of Pergamon in Asia Minor, where in the 2nd century BC. e. Leather processing for writing became widespread. The skin of animals (especially calves) processed in a special way was used not only for writing (before the spread of paper), but also for making drums and for other purposes.

3. Proper names and character of a person.

Word hooligan in Russia it became common after the outbreak of the First World War. And during the years of the revolution and the Civil War, when all the shackles, including moral ones, were weakened as much as possible, it already seemed almost like an original Russian word. However, the origin of this word is English. G. Belykh and L. Panteleev in their famous book about street children “Republic of SHKID”, explaining its appearance, refer to the legend according to which the Hooligan family lived in England in the 19th century. These Hooligans owned an inn on the Dover Highway, and noblemen and merchants from the Continent often stayed with them. The owners robbed and killed them. But the “terrible secret of the inn” was revealed, and the royal court sentenced the murderers’ family to death. And from that time on, murderers, thieves and arsonists were called hooligans. The form “hooligan” quickly became established in the Russian language. The explanation is interesting, but there are other versions. According to one of them, the Irishman Patrick Hooligan, who lived near London at the end of the 18th century and owned an inn there, was such a brawler, so annoying to his guests and neighbors that he soon became “famous” for his disgusting, obnoxious behavior. He was repeatedly reported in London police reports, and his name became a household name.

And here is the version contained in the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the 18th century, the Irishman Hulley lived in London, who organized a number of gangs that were particularly violent. They began to be called hooligans, that is, members of the Hulli gang.

Be that as it may, the English word quickly took root on Russian soil. And today, any dictionary will explain that a hooligan is someone who clearly and grossly violates public order and expresses disrespect for others.

The works of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin are eternally relevant for Russian life. And it is impossible to accurately translate them into other languages. It is required to accompany the translation with voluminous explanations.

This eccentric intrigue and huge expenses of the royal favorite at the expense of the state treasury was what Shchedrin had in mind in the first place when he coined the word “pompadour.” In addition, the title of the famous marquise was consonant with the Russian word “tyrant,” which censorship would hardly have missed in the description of senior government officials. So try to translate Shchedrin’s “pompadour,” for example, into English! And there already is such a word (as in almost all European languages) - it means a hairstyle, introduced into use by the same active madam. A sort of cola that Madame de Pompadour began to whip on her head when she discovered that her hair was thinning. And he's turning gray! Instead of putting on a wig or dyeing her hair (although this method was not used by French fashionistas at that time), the marquise whipped up her hair and put her gray hair on public display, immediately introducing the fashion for gray strands in women's hairstyles.

Now let's get acquainted with some heroes of Western European classical literature, whose character and behavior were reflected in their names, which became, as it were, the calling cards of these heroes. In order to find out the meaning of a word, you need to consult a dictionary. But some words may not be in the dictionary. What should I do? In this case, you need to turn to the original source, that is, read the work in which the character is constantly “registered”. After reading and understanding the system of images of this work, you will not only know what content is put into the word, not only use it correctly, but also skillfully use the character’s own name in the meaning of a common noun.

Of the many plays by the English playwright W. Shakespeare, “Othello” and “The Tragic History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark” are especially popular. From the first play, the names Othello and Iago became popular, from the second - Hamlet.

In a word Othello we call a jealous person because the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, the Venetian Moor Othello, was painfully jealous and out of jealousy strangled his wife Desdemona; in a word Iago we call him a scoundrel-slanderer, because the officer Iago, taking advantage of Othello’s gullibility, slandered Desdemona, which led to her death; Hamlet- a person who always doubts everything (remember Hamlet’s monologue, which begins with the words: “To be or not to be? - that is the question...”).

Don Juan from the comedy of the French playwright Jean Moliere “Don Juan” and Don Quixote from the novel “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha” by the Spanish writer Miguel Cervantes de Saavedra are not similar to each other. The first is a person who spent his life in love adventures. Fans of such adventures are called Don Juans. The second is a disinterested, funny dreamer, wasting his strength in the fight against imaginary obstacles, not taking into account that this struggle is useless, and causing only ridicule from everyone. Such visionary dreamers, far from real life, are called quixotic. Rocinante - the name of Don Quixote's old, emaciated horse - also became a household name: Rocinante They jokingly call it an exhausted old nag.

Anecdotal stories about the German Baron Munchausen and his incredible travels and adventures have been known for a long time. He collected them and published them in Oxford in 1785, translated into English under the title “Stories of Baron Munchausen about his wonderful travels and campaign in Russia.” A person who shamelessly lies and brags, like Munchausen, is called Munchausen.

Russian classical literature is also rich in characters, whose names and surnames began to be used as common nouns. Remember the characters in the comedy “The Minor”: Prostakovs, Mitrofanushka, Skotinin, Vralman.

Who do we call Mitrofan? Mitrofan or mitrofanushka the name of the stupid young dropout. The ignorant German, a former coachman who becomes Mitrofan's teacher, is perfectly suited to the telling surname Vralman, which unambiguously characterizes its owner. Vralman means “braggart, liar, liar.”

In the comedy "Woe from Wit" there are a number of surnames that have become household names. The meanings of these surnames are well known to you. Let us remind you: Famusov- an arrogant careerist bureaucrat who panders to those above him; rocktooth- a rude soldier who recognizes nothing but service.

Molchalin- an obsequious, hypocritical person, afraid to express his opinion, and an unprincipled careerist; repeaters- a chatterbox who does not have his own thoughts and repeats other people's words.

Researchers have calculated that of all the proper names of Gogol’s characters, at least eleven have become household names. These are Manilov, Korobochka, Nozdrev, Plyushkin, Sobakevich, Khlestakov, Chichikov. Less known are Derzhimorda, Neuvazhay-Koryto, Poprishchin and Tryapichkin.

4. Conclusion

The names of inventors, scientists, and discoverers remain in the names of the laws, units of measurement, technologies and instruments they discovered, or in geographical names. But there are names that are closer to the individual, people, and not science. These names, as a rule, are either forgotten or unexpectedly remain in the language, as if separated from their bearers. Sometimes they turn into the names of companies or cars, devices, after which people stop recognizing the person’s name. This is not necessary, the main thing is that they have served their purpose and still remain with us. I would like to name a few of these names.

Louis Pasteur is a name widely known in science, particularly in medicine. But this is the only known case when the surname of a French scientist, the creator of microbiology as a science, was transformed into the verb “pasteurize.” After all, they don’t say “X-ray”, but simply call a device that operates on the basis of a scientist’s discovery an X-ray. By the way, Konrad Roentgen is the world’s first Nobel Prize laureate, awarded to him in 1901 for a discovery that “changed the life of mankind.” And when we go “for an x-ray,” we remember that initially it was still a person. Before Louis Pasteur, a well-known method of preserving food was sterilization. Every housewife today knows that pasteurizing products at a temperature not exceeding 100°C means killing microorganisms in them without harming the product itself. But few housewives will associate this excellent method of preserving food with the name of Pasteur. This is how the surname takes on a second life.

In 1759, the French Minister of Finance Etienne de Silhouette, after resigning, began cutting out portraits from paper named after him. Later, the word “silhouette” entered the language in a broader sense. Denoting an unclear outline of a person, figure or object.

Scotsman D. Mackintosh glorified his name by being the first person to make a waterproof raincoat. This was a salvation from constant rain and even fog for Scotland and England. And although most people wearing Macintoshes around the world do not know that this is the name of the inventor, they are still grateful to him.

List of used literature

1., From proper names to common nouns./ , . – M.: Education, 1999.

2. Blau M . From Doberman to bully. From proper names to common nouns. /M. Blau. – AST. Astrel, 2003.

3., Bobrov's dictionary/ , . - M.: Proserpina, 1998.

4. To the origins of the word. Stories about the science of etymology./ . – M.: Education, 2001.

5. Nikonov in toponymy./. – M.: Education, 1998.

Proper names that have become common nouns Language is the greatest wealth of every nation. But here’s how interesting it turns out: using this wealth, we don’t always know exactly (or even don’t know at all) the source of origin of certain words, we don’t know how they got into our language and what they originally meant. By the way, linguistics is very interesting. Particularly impressive are words whose origin is associated with very real historical figures who did not leave the public indifferent, and therefore their names became household names. Words-eponyms, as etymologists call them, are found often, but we don’t think about their existence. 1. Mackintosh (cloak) - received this name in honor of the Scottish technologist Charles Mackintosh, who invented a way to make fabric waterproof. In 1823, Charles, while conducting another experiment, smeared the sleeve of his jacket with a rubber solution and after some time noticed that the sleeve of the jacket did not get wet. He patented this invention and founded Charles Macintosh and Co. for the production of waterproof products - macs. 2. Cardigan - named after General James Thomas Brudnell, the seventh head of the county of Cardigan, who is credited with inventing this item of clothing for the purpose of insulating a uniform. 3. Whatman - high quality white thick paper got its name in honor of the English paper manufacturer James Whatman, who in the mid-1750s introduced a new paper form that made it possible to produce sheets of paper without traces of the grid. 4. Breeches - the name of the trousers is given after the French general Gaston Breeches (1830–1909), who introduced them for cavalrymen. Later, riding breeches were borrowed by other armies, and even later they entered men's and women's fashion. 5. Guppy - English priest and scientist Robert John Lemcher Guppy, who in 1886 made a report to members of the Royal Society, in which he spoke about fish that do not spawn, but give birth to live young. After this he was laughed at. 6. Sweatshirt - this popular type of clothing was named after the great Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, although the writer himself wore a shirt of a slightly different cut. 7. Guillotine - the execution weapon is named after the French doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, who, although he did not invent it, in 1789 first proposed cutting off heads using this mechanism, which was considered “more humane.” 8. Tapestry - the word arose in France in the 17th century, when the royal Gobelin manufactory opened there, the products of which were very popular, and in some countries everything that was done using the technique of trellis weaving was called a tapestry. 9. Olivier - the famous salad received its name in honor of its creator, chef Lucien Olivier, who ran the Hermitage restaurant of Parisian cuisine in Moscow in the early 60s of the 19th century. 10. Begonia - named after the French nobleman Michel Begon (1638-1710), intendant of the French colonies in the Caribbean, who organized a scientific expedition to the Antilles to collect plants. 11. Maecenas - the name comes from the name of the Roman Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, who was a patron of the arts under Emperor Augustus. 12. Saxophone - the instrument is named after Adolphe Sax (1814–1894), the Belgian inventor of musical instruments. Sax died in poverty because there was no jazz then. 13. Sandwich - named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718–1792), a London minister and gambler who, according to legend, invented it while playing cribbage. The game had already lasted for several hours, and the minister had not found time to eat. John Montague asked to be served between two slices of bread. His fellow players liked this way of eating while playing and they also ordered sandwich bread. 14. Silhouette - Etienne de Silhouette (1709–1767), as controller general of finance in France under Louis XV, imposed taxes on external signs of wealth (doors and windows, farms, luxury goods, servants, profits). He stayed in his post for only 8 months. His name is associated with “cheap painting” - instead of an expensive portrait, it is cheaper and faster to outline a person’s shadow. 15. Mausoleum - a funerary structure named after the magnificent tomb of the Carian king Mausolus in the city of Halicarnassus in the territory of modern Turkey. 16. Attic - the word comes from the name of the 17th century French architect Attic, who invented cheap attic spaces. 17. Jacuzzi - Italian Candido Jacuzzi invented the Jacuzzi (jacuzzi is an incorrect “American” pronunciation of this Italian surname, which, however, is firmly rooted in many languages ​​of the world). 18. Hooligan is the surname of an Irish family that was distinguished by a very violent disposition. The main one was young Partick the Hooligan, whose name kept popping up in police reports and newspaper chronicles. 19. Charlatan - the word charlatan, according to legend, comes from the name of the French doctor Charles Latain. He carried out meaningless operations, promising a complete recovery, and, having received the money, went into hiding. And the unfortunate patients only got worse. 20. Boycott - named after the British manager in Ireland, Charles Boycott (1832–1897), whose land the Irish refused to cultivate and began a campaign to isolate Boycott from local society.

Very interesting origin stories have words associated with real historical figures, for example, scientists, writers, or entrepreneurs who did not leave the public of their time indifferent. It is for this reason that their names have become household names. Words-eponyms, and that’s what they are called in etymology, are found often, we just don’t know or don’t think about their existence.

Boycott- British manager in Ireland Charles Boycott (1832–1897). The Irish refused to cultivate his land and began a campaign to isolate Boycott from local society.

Cardigan- this piece of clothing was named in honor of General James Thomas Brudnell, the seventh head of the county of Cardigan. It is he who is credited with the invention of this item of clothing, intended to insulate a uniform.

Chauvinism- Nicolas Chauvin, a French soldier who expressed his love for France and Napoleon Bonaparte in particular in his speeches. Extremely pretentious.

Whatman- This is high quality white thick paper. It got its name from the English paper manufacturer James Whatman, who in the mid-1750s introduced a new paper form that made it possible to produce sheets of paper without traces of the grid.

Breeches- the name of this cut of trousers is given by the name of the French general Gaston Galifet (1830–1909), who introduced them for cavalrymen. Then breeches were borrowed by other armies, and even later they entered the daily wardrobe of men and women.

Guppy- Robert John Lemcher Guppy, an English priest and scientist, gave a report to members of the Royal Society in 1886, in which he spoke about fish that do not spawn, but give birth to live young. And, by the way, he was laughed at.

Sweatshirt- this popular type of clothing is named after the great Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy, although the writer himself wore a shirt of a different cut.

Guillotine- French doctor Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, although he did not invent this means of execution, in 1789 he first proposed cutting off heads using this mechanism. This was considered “more humane.”

Tapestry- the word originated in France in the 17th century, after the royal Gobelin manufactory opened. Their products were very popular, and in some countries everything made using the tapestry weaving technique was called a tapestry.

Olivier- everyone’s favorite salad got its name in honor of its creator, chef Lucien Olivier, who ran the Hermitage restaurant of Parisian cuisine in Moscow in the early 60s of the 19th century. True, the original recipe is completely different from the modern, familiar version.
Olivier took:
meat of two boiled hazel grouse,
one boiled veal tongue,
added about 100 grams of black pressed caviar,
200 grams of fresh salad,
25 boiled crayfish or 1 can of lobster,
half a jar of very small pickled cucumbers (pickles),
half a jar of Kabul soybeans is a kind of soybean paste sauce produced at that time (similar to the “Yuzhny” and “Moskovsky” sauces later produced in the USSR, which also contained soy hydrolysate),
two chopped fresh cucumbers,
100 grams of capers (a prickly vegetable whose flower buds are pickled),
finely chopped five hard-boiled eggs.
This delicacy was seasoned with Provencal sauce, which was supposed to be prepared with “French vinegar, two fresh egg yolks and a pound (400 grams) of Provençal olive oil.”

Begonia- named after the French nobleman Michel Begon (1638-1710). He was the intendant of the French colonies in the Caribbean and organized a scientific expedition to the Antilles to collect plants.

Masochism- Austrian writer Leopold von Sacher-Masoch (1836–1895) described in his novels “The Divorced Woman” and “Venus in Fur” how despotic women mocked weak men. That’s where the term came from.

Maecenas- the name comes from the name of the Roman Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, who patronized the arts under Emperor Augustus.

Lovelace- Sir Robert Lovelace is a character in Samuel Richardson's novel Clarissa, written in 1748. According to the plot of this work, a handsome aristocrat insidiously seduces the 16-year-old main character.

Saxophone- the instrument is named after the Belgian inventor of musical instruments, Adolphe Sax (1814–1894).

Sandwich- John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718–1792), an English minister and avid gambler, is said to have invented this sandwich while playing cribbage. The game had already lasted for several hours, and the minister could not be distracted to eat. John Montague asked to be served meat sandwiched between two slices of bread. His fellow players really liked this way of eating, because he didn’t have to take time off from the game, and they also ordered sandwich bread.

Silhouette- Etienne de Silhouette (1709–1767) was the Comptroller General of Finance in France under Louis XV and imposed taxes on the outward signs of wealth (doors and windows, farms, luxury goods, servants, profits). In retaliation, his name was associated with the so-called “cheap painting” ", when instead of an expensive portrait you can simply outline a person’s shadow - cheaper and faster.

Mausoleum- this type of burial structure is named after the magnificent tomb of the Carian king Mausolus in the city of Halicarnassus in the territory of modern Turkey.

The word "bully" was once the surname of an Irish family who lived in the London borough of Southwark. Its members were distinguished by their violent disposition: they were rowdy, took part in pogroms and robberies. The Hooligan Gang is mentioned in police reports from 1894 and newspaper accounts of late 19th century London. Some sources mention the leader of the gang, a young Irishman, Patrick Hooligan: he worked as a bouncer, and in his free time, together with his brothers, he robbed and beat people on the streets.

Hooligan Photo: Yuri Melnikov

At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, the image of Hooligans acquired humorous shades: in England, a funny song was written about an Irish family; in the USA, a representative of the family became the hero of newspaper comics, which were published in the New York Journal from 1900 to 1932, and then a film. The image of the “happy hooligan” became the most popular work of the artist Frederick Burr Opper.

In 1904, the phrase “hooligan acts” was used in his story by Arthur Conan Doyle (“The Six Napoleons”). The Hooligan Family is long gone, but the word has firmly entered the lexicon of many languages ​​around the world.[

Pizza Margherita

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Her Majesty Margaret of Savoy, wife of King Umberto I of Italy, took an active part in the cultural life of Italy and strongly supported charitable institutions - especially the Red Cross. With her help, exhibitions were opened and new names were announced. But her own name soon began to sound in an unexpected context. The story passed down from mouth to mouth is as follows.

In 1889, King Umberto and his wife, while relaxing at their summer residence near Naples, suddenly expressed a desire to try what the people were eating. And the most common food of the poor was pizza. The court chef knew the secrets of more refined cuisine, but here he was powerless - he had to urgently bring in an outside magician.

It turned out to be the owner of the best pizzeria in Naples, Raffaello Esposito. He came to the royal couple with three pizzas: two traditional and a third made especially for the occasion - with red cherry tomatoes, green basil and white mozzarella, which corresponded to the colors of the Italian flag. The Queen liked this pizza the most and was named after Her Majesty.

Brutus

An ironic nickname for treacherous friends. Often used as part of the expression: “And you, Brutus!” Derived from the name of the Roman senator Marcus Junius Brutus Caepio, who, being a close associate and friend of Caesar, took part in a conspiracy against him and participated in the murder. When the attack began, Caesar tried to resist, but when he saw Brutus, according to legend, he said: “And you, Brutus!”, fell silent and no longer resisted. This plot became famous thanks to Shakespeare and his tragedy “Julius Caesar” - the name Brutus began to be perceived as synonymous with betrayal and deceit of loved ones.

Uncle Sam

The image of Uncle Sam is associated with both the US government and the United States as a whole. He is portrayed either as a kind, cheerful fellow, or as an evil old man - depending on his attitude towards America.

The prototype of this image, according to legend, was the meat supplier Samuel Wilson, who brought beef to American soldiers at the base during the Anglo-American War of 1812-1815. He signed barrels of meat U.S., meaning United States. Once, when an Irish watchman was asked what these letters meant, he deciphered it by the name of the supplier: Uncle Sam. The soldiers really liked this answer and first became an army joke, and then, thanks to newspapers, it spread both in the United States and around the world.

The image of Uncle Sam depicted on a propaganda poster is especially famous. “I need you in the U.S. Army,” says the angry man, pointing his finger at the onlooker. The image was created by artist James Montgomery Flagg in 1917 and was used to recruit recruits during the First and Second World Wars. Subsequently, the author admitted that he drew Uncle Sam from himself. In 1961, the US Congress passed a resolution officially recognizing Samuel Wilson as the inspiration for Uncle Sam.

Grog

This drink, like its name, appeared in the 18th century thanks to the British admiral Edward Vernon, whom sailors behind his back called Old Grog (Old Grog) because of his cloak made of thick material - grogram. In those days, the daily ration of sailors of the British Royal Navy included a portion of undiluted rum - half a pint, which is a little less than 300 ml. Rum was used as a preventative against scurvy and other diseases, and also served as an alternative to water supplies that quickly spoiled at sea.

Edward-Vernon

However, Admiral Vernon considered the legal half-pint to be too large a portion, especially since the British were losing the war with the Spaniards. In 1740, Old Grog decided to put an end to drunkenness and brawls on board and ordered the sailors to be served half-diluted rum with the addition of heated or cold water and squeezed lemon juice. The drink was nicknamed “grog”, or “rum on three waters”. At first, the sailors were unhappy with the changes, but it soon became clear that grog helps prevent scurvy, which was scientifically proven by Scottish doctor James Lind in 1947. Soon after, Edward Vernon's drink officially became part of the diet of all sailors in the British Royal Navy.

Chauvinism

The word "chauvinism" comes from the name of the Napoleonic soldier Nicolas Chauvin, who served Napoleon and France especially zealously and had a habit of expressing his patriotism in pathetic, popular speeches. He became the hero of the 1821 play “The Soldier-Tiller”, the 1831 vaudeville “The Tricolor Cockade” and engravings by the draftsman Charlet. And in the 1840s, the word “chauvinism” was already firmly established as a common noun. In 1945, geographer, traveler and playwright Jacques Arago, the author of the article “Chauvinism,” wrote about him this way: “Nicholas Chauvin, the one to whom the French language owes the appearance of the word in the title of this article, was born in Rochefort. At the age of 18 he became a soldier and has participated in every campaign since then. He was wounded 17 times, and wounded only in the chest and never in the back; three amputated fingers, a broken arm, a terrible scar on his forehead, a saber presented as a reward for courage, a red order ribbon, a 200-franc pension - this is what this old warrior earned during his long life... It would be difficult to find a more noble patron for chauvinism "

The private's surname comes from the word "bald" (Calvinus) and is common in France, nowadays it has become synonymous with nationalism, while the comic component has been almost forgotten.

Guppy

A small viviparous fish from South America is named after the British Robert John Lechmere Guppy. This man lived an amazing life: at the age of 18 he left England and went on a sea voyage. However, the ship on which he sailed was shipwrecked off the coast of New Zealand. After this, the young man spent two years among the Maori and did not waste time: he made a map of the area. He then moved to Trinidad and Tobago, where he studied wildlife and paleontology, published several scientific papers and became president of the local scientific society, although he had no formal education. The Briton was extremely interested in the small fish that lived in the fresh waters of Trinidad. In 1866, a naturalist sent one of these individuals to London for cataloging and scientific description. The then curator of zoology at the British Museum, Karl Gunther, named the fish Girardinus guppii in honor of its discoverer. And although it soon became clear that Robert Guppy was not the discoverer of fish and they had already been described a little earlier by the German ichthyologist Wilhelm Peters, the name “guppy” had already taken hold and became international.

In 1886, Robert Guppy returned to England to report to members of the Royal Society. He also spoke about amazing fish, which, according to the residents of Trinidad, do not spawn, but give birth to live young. This caused ridicule from the scientific community - they considered Guppy a naive amateur who bought into the invention of the Trinidadians. But soon guppy fish were brought to England, and scientists could no longer deny the obvious.

Saxophone

The name of the Belgian music master Adolphe Sax is immortalized in the musical instrument saxophone. He invented it in the mid-19th century in Paris, converting it from a clarinet. But Sax did not come up with the name “saxophone” himself: at the Brussels Industrial Exhibition in 1841, he presented his development under the name “mouthpiece ophicleide.” The instrument was called a saxophone by a friend of the inventor, the French composer Hector Berlioz, in an article dedicated to the invention, and the word immediately became popular.

Sachs' competitors gave him no rest and, before he had time to patent the instrument and his name, they were already suing him, accusing him of fraud and falsification. The judges made an absurd decision: “a musical instrument called “saxophone” does not exist and cannot exist,” and five months later Sachs managed to prove the opposite and received a patent in August 1846. However, attacks on the talented inventor of musical instruments did not stop: competitors, provoking trials and accusations of plagiarism, brought Adolphe Sax to ruin. Having lived to the age of 80, the author of saxophones and saxhorns died in poverty long before the invention of jazz.

Masochism

The word “masochism” was formed on behalf of the Austrian writer Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, who in his novels described oppressive women and weak men who take pleasure in humiliation and punishment (“The Divorced Woman,” “Venus in Fur”). The term was coined and proposed to be used in the emerging science of sexology by the German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing in 1866. By the way, an interesting fact: Sacher-Masoch comes from Lvov, which during the writer’s lifetime was Lemberg and belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 2008, two attractions appeared in Lviv in honor of the writer: “Masoch Cafe” and a monument.

Leopold von Sacher-Masoch

The cafe recreates the atmosphere of the masochistic works of Sacher-Masoch: the dominant color is red and objects of violence - chains, handcuffs, whips, etc. The monument to the writer, installed at the entrance to this establishment, has “piquant” details: a magnifying glass is mounted on the chest of the statue, which you can see changing erotic pictures. And hidden inside is a “secret”: if you put your hand in the pocket of the monument, you can touch his manhood... and rub it “for good luck.”

Sandwich

A sandwich with two slices of bread and a filling inside was named after the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montagu (1718-1792). According to one version, which is more reminiscent of an anecdote than a true story, the count was an avid gambler and during one of the long games in 1762 he asked the cook to fry a couple of pieces of bread and put roast beef between them - so he could hold a sandwich and play cards without getting them dirty. However, given the high position of John Montagu, who was an English diplomat and First Lord of the Admiralty, another legend seems more convincing.

In the 1770s, James Cook's expedition around the world took place, and it was the Earl of Sandwich who was involved in preparing this voyage. He probably had no time to be distracted by food, and hesimple and convenient fast food - sandwich. By the way, James Cook highly appreciated Montagu's contribution to the organization of the circumnavigation of the world, giving his name to three open geographical objects at once: the South Sandwich Islands, the main island of this archipelago - Montagu, as well as the Hawaiian Islands, which Cook initially dubbed the Sandwich Islands (this name was used until the middle of the 20th century).

Boycott

The word "boycott" owes its appearance to the British Charles Boycott, who worked as a steward for Lord Erne, a landowner in the west of Ireland. In 1880, workers refused to harvest the crops and went on strike under the leadership of the local trade union, the Land League of Ireland. Residents of County Mayo, where Boycott worked, sought fair rents, the right to remain on the land and the right to buy land freely. When the manager tried to stop their protests, the Irish began to ignore the Englishman in every possible way: they stopped greeting him, sat down from him in church, and local sellers refused to serve him in stores. The British press gave wide coverage to the campaign against Boycott, and although he soon left Ireland, his name had already become a household name, spread throughout the world and lived its own separate life. By the way, that harvest cost the government dearly: it was necessary to spend ten times more on protecting the fields and the workers sent than the cost of the harvest itself.

Stroganov

Among the generous people who donated their names are Russian heroes. Thus, in the word “beef Stroganoff” you can hear the name of Count Alexander Stroganov. The invention of this dish of beef and tomato-sour cream sauce belongs not to the count himself, but to his French cook - hence the word formation in the French manner: bœuf Stroganoff, that is, “beef Stroganoff style.” According to one legend, the cook came up with the dish personally for the count when he was old and had difficulty chewing food due to lack of teeth.

Alexander Grigorievich Stroganov

According to another, beef Stroganoff was invented in Odessa for those who dined at Stroganov’s. In the middle of the 19th century, the count became the Novorossiysk and Bessarabian governor-general, after which he received the title of honorary citizen of Odessa. Being such an important person, he organized an “open table”: any educated person in a decent suit could come to his dinners. At the order of the count, the cook came up with a convenient and quick way to prepare meat, which, due to the fine cutting into pieces, was easy to divide into portions.

Carpaccio

Vittore Carpaccio was an Early Renaissance painter who lived and worked in the most independent of Italian cities - Venice. His cycle of paintings dedicated to the life of Saint Ursula is considered the most successful. In it, the master immortalized his hometown: gondolas, high arcades of bridges, majestic palazzos, squares filled with a motley crowd...

More than four centuries later, in 1950, a large exhibition of the artist was held in Venice. At this very time, in the famous Venetian "Harry's Bar" a new dish was served for the first time: beef fillet, seasoned with a mixture of olive oil and lemon juice, accompanied by Parmesan, arugula and cherry tomatoes. The recipe was invented by the owner of the establishment, Giuseppe Cipriani, especially for Countess Amalia Nani Mocenigo, who was forbidden by doctors to eat cooked meat. Remembering the many shades of red that Vittore Carpaccio used in his palette, Giuseppe decided to name the new dish in his honor. And so they were reunited - the artist and the beef fillet.

Attic

The son of carpenter François Mansart did not receive a systematic education, but his love for architecture and talent allowed him to become one of the greatest masters of the French Baroque. His professional reputation was undermined, oddly enough, by the desire for perfection: if Mansar was not satisfied with what had been done, he could demolish what had already been built and start doing it again, which is why he was accused of wastefulness and neglect of the interests of the customer. Thus, he lost the order to rebuild the Louvre and the royal tomb in Saint-Denis, and Louis XIV entrusted the construction of the famous palace at Versailles to his rival Louis Levo. Nevertheless, the name Mansar has been on everyone’s lips for four centuries.

Architect Francois Mansart

In most of his projects, the architect used the traditional French steep roof with a break, equipping it with windows for the first time in history. In this way, a double effect was achieved: decorative and practical. The rooms built under the rafters were transformed from dark closets into quite habitable apartments. Having a residential attic (as the French called the premises) became not only fashionable, but also profitable: taxes were not taken from homeowners from the attic, which was not considered a full floor.

Nicotine

The French diplomat Jean Villeman Nicot was ambassador to Portugal from 1559 to 1561, where he had a mission to promote the marriage of Princess Margaret of Valois and the infant King Sebastian of Portugal. He did not succeed in his task, but he brought tobacco to his homeland and introduced the fashion of sniffing it at court. The novelty pleased the Queen Mother Catherine de Medici and the Grand Master of the Order of Malta, Jean Parisot de la Valette. Soon the fashion spread throughout Paris, and the plant was named Nicotiana.

Subsequently, tobacco was repeatedly studied. The substances obtained by distillation were used for skin diseases, asthma and epilepsy. Nicotine itself was discovered in 1828 by German chemists Christian Posselot and Karl Reimann. The alkaloid was named after the enthusiastic ambassador who got the whole of Paris hooked on tobacco in the 16th century.

Cardigan

James Thomas Bradnell, aka the 7th Earl of Cardigan, was famous for his impeccable taste and was known as a fashionista. He did not lose these properties in military service, where he led a cavalry brigade that took part in the Battle of Balaklava in 1854. Believing that you need to look elegant even in battle, Lord Cardigan purchased a new uniform for the 11th Hussars at his own expense. And in case of frost, he came up with a jacket without a collar or lapels, in a large knit, with buttons down to the very bottom, which was to be worn under a uniform. The innovation, which grateful warriors named after the commander, quickly gained fans in civilian life.

Later, the excitement died down, but a century later the fashion for cardigans was revived - now they have become a sign of belonging to bohemia. Their position was especially strengthened by Marilyn Monroe's photo shoot, where she poses on the beach in a rough knit cardigan over her naked body. And now these cozy clothes have not lost their relevance and are in almost everyone’s wardrobe.

Shrapnel

From a certain point on, the affairs of Lieutenant of the Royal Artillery of the British Army Henry Shrapnel quickly went uphill: in 1803 he was promoted to major, the next to lieutenant colonel, and ten years later he was assigned a salary of £1,200 by the British government. A little later, he was awarded the rank of general. This was preceded by some event.

In 1784, Henry invented a new type of projectile. The grenade was a strong, hollow sphere containing lead shot and a charge of gunpowder. What distinguished it from other similar ones was the presence of a hole in the body for the ignition tube. When fired, the gunpowder in the tube ignited. When it burned out during the flight, the fire transferred to the powder charge located in the grenade itself. An explosion occurred and the body shattered into fragments, which, along with the bullets, struck the enemy. Of interest was the ignition tube, the length of which could be changed immediately before the shot, thereby adjusting the range of the projectile. The invention quickly demonstrated its effectiveness - it won’t kill, it will maim - and was named shrapnel in honor of the inventor.

There is a huge variety of phenomena in the world. For each of them there is a name in the language. If it names a whole group of objects, then such a word is. When there is a need to name one object from a number of similar ones, then the language has its own names for this.

nouns

Common nouns are those nouns that immediately designate a whole class of objects united by some common characteristics. For example:

• Each water stream can be called in one word - river.
• Any plant with a trunk and branches is a tree.
• All animals that are gray in color, large in size, and have a trunk instead of a nose are called elephants.
• A giraffe is any animal with a long neck, small horns and tall stature.

Proper names are nouns that distinguish one object from the entire class of similar phenomena. For example:

• The dog's name is Druzhok.
• My cat's name is Murka.
• This river is the Volga.
• The deepest lake is Baikal.

Once we know what a proper name is, we can complete the following task.

Practical task No. 1

Which nouns are proper nouns?

Moscow; city; Earth; planet; Bug; dog; Vlad; boy; radio station; "Lighthouse".

Capital letters in proper names

As can be seen from the first task, proper names, unlike common nouns, are written with a capital letter. Sometimes it happens that the same word is written either with a small letter or with a capital letter:

• bird eagle, city Orel, ship "Eagle";
• strong love, girl Love;
• early spring, “Spring” lotion;
• riverine willow, restaurant "Iva".

If you know what a proper name is, then it’s easy to understand the reason for this phenomenon: words denoting individual objects are written with a capital letter in order to separate them from others of the same kind.

Quotation marks for proper names

To know how to correctly use quotation marks in proper names, you need to learn the following: proper names denoting phenomena in the world created by human hands are isolated. In this case, the markers are quotation marks:

• newspaper "New World";
• DIY magazine;
• Amta factory;
• Hotel Astoria;
• ship "Swift".

Transition of words from common nouns to proper ones and vice versa

It cannot be said that the distinction between the categories of proper names and common nouns is unshakable. Sometimes common nouns become proper names. We talked about the rules for writing them above. What proper names can you give? Examples of transition from the category of common nouns:

• cream "Spring";
• perfume "Jasmine";
• cinema "Zarya";
• magazine "Worker".

Proper names also easily become generalized names for homogeneous phenomena. Below are proper names that can already be called common nouns:

• These are young philanderers to me!
• We mark in Newtons, but we don’t know the formulas;
• You are all Pushkins until you write a dictation.

Practical task No. 2

Which sentences contain proper nouns?

1. We decided to meet at the Ocean.

2. In the summer I swam in a real ocean.

3. Anton decided to give his beloved perfume “Rose”.

4. The rose was cut in the morning.

5. We are all Socrates in our kitchen.

6. This idea was first put forward by Socrates.

Classification of proper names

It would seem easy to understand what a proper name is, but you still need to repeat the main thing - proper names are assigned to one object from a whole series. It is advisable to classify the following series of phenomena:

People's names, surnames, patronymics, animal names are animate nouns, and geographical names and designations of everything created by man are inanimate. This is how proper names are characterized from the point of view of the category of animation.

Proper names in the plural

It is necessary to dwell on one point, which is determined by the semantics of the studied features of proper names that they are rarely used in the plural. You can use them to refer to several objects if they have the same proper name:

The surname can be used in plural. in two cases. Firstly, if it denotes a family, people who are related:

• It was customary for the Ivanovs to gather for dinner with the whole family.
• The Karenins lived in St. Petersburg.
• The Zhurbin dynasty all had a hundred years of work experience at the metallurgical plant.

Secondly, if namesakes are named:

• Hundreds of Ivanovs can be found in the registry.
• They are my full namesakes: the Grigoriev Alexandras.

- inconsistent definitions

One of the Unified State Examination tasks in the Russian language requires knowledge of what a proper name is. Graduates are required to establish correspondences between sentences and those included in them. One of these is a violation in the construction of a sentence with an inconsistent application. The fact is that the proper name, which is an inconsistent application, does not change according to cases with the main word. Examples of such sentences with grammatical errors are given below:

• Lermontov was not delighted with his poem “Demona” (poem “Demon”).
• Dostoevsky described the spiritual crisis of his time in the novel The Brothers Karamazov (in the novel The Brothers Karamazov).
• A lot is said and written about the film “Taras Bulba” (About the film “Taras Bulba”).

If a proper name acts as an addition, that is, in the absence of a defined word, then it can change its form:

• Lermontov was not delighted with his “Demon”.
• Dostoevsky described the spiritual crisis of his time in The Brothers Karamazov.
• A lot is said and written about Taras Bulba.

Practical task No. 3

Which sentences have errors?

1. We stood for a long time in front of the painting “Barge Haulers on the Volga.”

2. In “A Hero of His Time,” Lermontov sought to reveal the problems of his era.

3. The “Pechorin Journal” reveals the vices of a secular person.

4). The story “Maksim Maksimych” reveals the image of a wonderful person.

5. In his opera “The Snow Maiden,” Rimsky-Korsakov sang love as the highest ideal of humanity.