Each social group has its own social structure, which is based on three “pillars”: status-role relations, professional qualification characteristics and gender and age composition.
We often cannot understand where negative emotions and conflict situations in a group come from. It turns out that their sources can be found if we consider the scheme of human role behavior proposed by the American psychologist Allport. It all starts with the need to fulfill a social role. For example, they want to appoint a person to the position of manager. Waiting criteria may vary V different groups: some are waiting for a democratic or even liberal leader (especially V creative and scientific groups), others - more strict And authoritarian (in production groups). Next, the role is transferred to the person, and the factor of his personality and individuality becomes very important. A person must somehow understand what they want from him and what demands are made on him. Without understanding your role and basic functions, it is very difficult to cope with your role. Often they do not pay attention to this, and when a conflict arises, it turns out that the person did not even understand what is expected of him. Some people consciously take on this or that role, understanding in advance that they will not do what is expected of them, but hope that “maybe it will pass.”
After a person understands the role, he must accept it or reject it as not corresponding to his individual psychological characteristics. /i
Role Acceptance is accompanied by a process of learning new functions, developing certain positions, styles of behavior and communication. Understanding and accepting a new role is a very difficult matter, requiring tension of mental and moral strength, internal restructuring, and awareness of one’s new position. We need to give it time
to take on this complex matter forever and not to confuse him until the process of getting into the role is over. This applies not only to business relationships, but also to personal ones.
The next stage in the role behavior system is playing a role- has two sides: behavior of the person playing the role And assessment of others. The latter is produced both by man himself V form of self-esteem, and by other people occupying different status positions in relation to the person being assessed, as they say: from above (by the boss), from the side (by employees) and from below (by subordinates). When special expert questionnaires are compiled, these three types of assessment are usually used. It often happens that self-esteem and assessments by other people are very different, so it is recommended to have feedback all the time, that is, to be interested, especially to the manager, in what O They think “above, side and below,” and adjust their behavior accordingly.
The second “whale” in the social structure of the group is professional qualification characteristics. IN These include the education, profession and skill level of group members. This important component speaks about the intellectual and professional potential of the group.
The third "whale" - gender and age composition groups. For a leader, understanding the characteristics of this component is very important from a psychological point of view, because each age period has its own psychological characteristics that a leader cannot fail to take into account. In addition, when forming a group, the prospects for its development in terms of age composition should be considered. And period of professional activity.
Features of female and male psychology also leave an imprint on the nature of intragroup relationships. Women's groups are more emotional, situational, and role conflicts arise in them more often. Male groups are tougher, more rational, but also rigid, that is, they are inert, pragmatic, and tend to have business and prestigious conflicts. Therefore, the combination of men and women in a group is a favorable factor for the development of the group and a good psychological climate.
So far we've been talking O social structure of the group, which is formed officially. But in any group,
Regardless of our desire and the desire of the leadership, something invisible at first glance develops. internal socio-psychological structure.
IN a group gathers people, each of whom has individuality, has his own temperament And character, a certain mindset and intellect, a world of one’s values and interests. And so these individuals get to know each other, enter into communication, and gradually form a group interpersonal relationships that are built on people's perception and understanding of each other.
Psychologists A.A. Bodalev, V.N. Panfers were specially studied under experimental conditions, which makes the strongest impression when meeting them. It turned out that the first thing that catches the eye and is remembered by a person is the hairstyle, which can change the face beyond recognition.
After hairstyle, we pay attention to a person’s eyes, which, as we know, are the mirror of the soul. Eyes can be kind, cold, radiant, cunning, evil, prickly. They seem to set the other person in a certain mood: trusting, wary, aggressive. And, of course, we are very attracted to a person’s smile, especially if it is kind and friendly, and not angry and tense. It is not for nothing that the famous American communication expert Dale Carnegie proclaimed as the first commandment of good communication: if you want to please a person, smile, learn to smile, do special exercises in front of the mirror.
In general, facial expression is formed by facial expressions, which for some people are very dynamic, varied, A others are poor, which gives the impression of gloominess, inhospitability, and secrecy.
Each person is also distinguished by a certain manner of behavior, gestures, gait, and body movements.
And then we look closely at personal qualities. Who is he? What is it? Can you trust this person? And here, as a rule, established social stereotypes, attitudes and standards of perception, everyday ideas formed by each person, and, of course, the level of psychological culture in terms of the ability to perceive and evaluate another are used.
Psychologists distinguish three types of attitudes towards the perception of another person: positive, negative and adequate. With a positive attitude, we overestimate positive qualities and give a person a large advance, which manifests itself in unconscious gullibility. A negative attitude leads to the fact that mainly the negative qualities of another person are perceived, which is expressed V mistrust, suspicion.
Cheat sheet on social psychology Cheldyshova Nadezhda Borisovna
42. Small group structure
42. Small group structure
The structure of a group is understood as the totality of connections that develop between individuals in it.
In social psychology there are various approaches to understanding the structure of a small group.
Sociometric structure of a small group – is a set of connections and relationships between its members, based on mutual preferences and rejections, known from the results of a sociometric test D. Moreno. The sociometric structure of the group is built on emotional relationships of likes and dislikes, the phenomena of interpersonal attractiveness and popularity.
Main characteristics of the sociometric structure of a small group:
1) characteristics of the sociometric status of group members - the position they occupy in the system of interpersonal choices and rejections;
2) characteristics of mutual, emotional preferences and rejections of group members;
3) the presence of microgroups whose members are connected by mutual elections, and the nature of the relations between them;
4) sociometric cohesion of the group - the ratio of the number of mutual choices and rejections to the number of maximum possible ones.
The structure of interpersonal choices and rejections in a group, presented graphically, is called group sociogram.
Communicative structure of a small group – this is a set of connections between its members in systems of information flows circulating in the group.
Main characteristics of the group’s communicative structure:
1) the position occupied by group members in the communication system (access to receiving and transmitting information);
2) frequency and stability of communication connections in the group;
3) type of communication connections between group members:
a) centralized - all communications are carried out through one subject, who plays a key role in organizing the exchange of information and interaction (frontal, radial, hierarchical);
b) decentralized - characterized by communicative equality of all participants (circular, chain, complete).
Role structure of a small group – it is a set of connections and relationships between individuals, depending on the distribution of group roles between them.
When analyzing the interaction process in a group, the following are highlighted:
1) roles related to problem solving:
a) initiator - offers new ideas and approaches to the problems and goals of the group;
b) developer – is engaged in the development of ideas and proposals;
c) coordinator – coordinates the activities of group members;
d) controller - controls the direction of the group towards its goals;
e) evaluator - evaluates the work of the group according to existing standards for completing the assigned task;
f) driver - stimulates the group;
2) roles related to providing support to other group members:
a) inspirer - supports the endeavors of others;
b) harmonizer - serves as a mediator and peacemaker in conflict situations;
c) dispatcher – promotes and regulates communication processes;
d) standardizer - normalizes the processes occurring in the group;
e) follower - passively follows the group.
Analysis of the role structure of a small group shows what roles each participant in group interaction plays.
The structure of social power and influence in a small group is a set of connections between individuals, which is based on the direction and intensity of their mutual influence.
Components of the structure of social power:
1) the roles of those in power - expressed in directive influence on the status and behavior of subordinates;
2) the roles of subordinates - are expressed in obedience and depend on the roles of the rulers.
The main characteristic of the structure of social power and influence of a formal group is the officially established system of connections that underlies the leadership of the group; the informal group is the phenomenon of leadership.
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From the book Persuasion [Confident performance in any situation] by Tracy BrianTOPIC: GROUP PSYCHOLOGY.
Target:
Plan:
Text:
Classification of roles.
Classification of groups. Group structure.
Classification of groups.
1. Primary and secondary groups. Primary are contact groups in which interaction is carried out “face to face” and its members are united by emotional closeness (family, friends). Secondary groups are characterized by impersonal interaction of its members, which is determined by official organizational relations. Members of such a group are united in order to obtain any economic, political or other benefits (trade union, political party).
2. Formal and informal. This division is based on the nature of the group structure. By structure we mean the relatively constant combination of interpersonal relationships that exists within it. A formal group is characterized by ensuring that certain official tasks are accomplished. The connections that make up the formal structure are impersonal. The informal structure is determined by internal factors and is a consequence of the personal desire of individuals for certain contacts and is more flexible than the formal one.
Group classification:
1. By size:
1) big
3) microgroups (dyads, triads)
2. By social status:
1) formal
2) informal
3. According to the directness of relationships:
1) real (contact)
2) conditional
4. By level of development:
1) low level of development (associations, diffuse groups, corporations)
2) high level of development (team)
5. By importance:
1) reference
2) membership groups
Group functions.
1. Socialization - in a group an individual masters a number of necessary social skills.
2. Instrumental - the implementation of joint activities in a group that are not possible alone.
3. Expressive – meeting people’s needs for approval, respect, trust, receiving satisfaction from communicating with psychologically close people.
4. Supportive - in difficult situations, people strive to unite to receive psychological support.
One of the important factors determining the properties of a group is its size and number. The group begins with a dyad (a combination of two individuals). A dyad is a specific human formation: interpersonal connections are very strong and belonging to a dyad causes a higher degree of satisfaction among its members; although the dyad is characterized by special fragility, because any other group can exist if one of its members is deprived, which cannot be said about the dyad. A group consisting of three individuals is a triad. The triad is also characterized by specificity, because each of its members can act in two directions: contribute to the strengthening of this group or strive to separate it.
A small group is a group that consists of a small number of individuals (from 2 to 10) who have a common goal and differentiated role responsibilities. This goal stems from the common interests of group members who are satisfied with their interactions, which are carried out on the basis of relatively frequent direct contact (face to face).
A group consisting of 30-40 people or more is a large group. It is characterized by the instability of informal contacts, and several informal subgroups may arise within such a group.
Factors influencing group structure.
1. Group goals
2. Degree of autonomy of the group
3. Socio-demographic, social and psychological characteristics of group members
4. Magnitude
Types and structure of a small group.
Informal small group
According to the time of existence, there are temporary groups, within which the association of individuals is limited in time (participants in a group discussion or neighbors in a compartment on a train), and stable, the relative constancy of whose existence is determined by their purpose and long-term goals of functioning (family, work and educational groups).
Depending on the degree of arbitrariness of an individual’s decision on whether to join a particular group, participate in its life activities, or leave it, groups are divided into open And closed.
From a practical point of view, of particular interest are groups of socio-psychological training and psychocorrectional groups - temporary groups specially created to develop the skills of effective communication, mutual understanding and solving psychological problems under the guidance of a psychologist-trainer (Rudestam K., 1997).
A systematic approach to the study of the psychology of small groups and teams involves analyzing the diversity of connections and relationships in small groups, which should be considered simultaneously both as subjects of joint activity and as subjects of communication and interpersonal relationships (“Joint Activity”, 1988).
The structure of a small group is a set of connections that develop between individuals in it. Since the main areas of activity of individuals in a small group are joint activity and communication, when studying small groups, the structure of connections and relationships generated by joint activity (functional, organizational, economic, managerial) and the structure of connections generated by communication and psychological relationships are most often distinguished (communicative structure , structure of emotional relationships, role and informal status structure).
When studying formal groups and organizations, following E. Mayo, it is customary to distinguish formal And informal structure groups. To study the informal structure of a small group, the sociometry method proposed by D. Moreno is most often used.
The main characteristics of informal small group structures identified using sociometry are:
· sociometric status of group members, i.e. the position they occupy in the system of interpersonal preferences and deviations;
· characteristics of mutual preferences and deviations;
· the presence of microgroups whose members are connected by relationships of mutual preferences, and the nature of the relationships between them;
· the relative number of mutual preferences (the so-called sociometric cohesion of the group).
Communicative structure of a small group is a set of connections between individuals. In this structure, of particular importance are:
· the position that individuals occupy in the communication system (access to receiving and transmitting information circulating in the group, the amount of information important for the life of the group);
· direction and intensity of communications in the group.
In groups with centralized communication structures, communications are carried out through one individual occupying a central position. This helps improve group control and solve simple problems faster. In groups with decentralized communication structures, individuals' opportunities to participate in communications are more evenly distributed.
Role structure of a small group is a set of relationships between individuals. In this structure, the distribution of group roles is of particular importance, i.e. typical modes of behavior prescribed, expected and implemented by participants in the group process. Thus, when analyzing group problem solving, the roles of “idea generator”, “critic”, “motivator”, etc. are highlighted. When analyzing the activities of psychocorrectional groups, the roles of “unifier”, “scapegoat”, “sectarian”, etc. are highlighted. In the most general form, when analyzing the process of interaction in a group, roles associated with solving problems and roles associated with providing support to other group members are distinguished. Analysis of the role structure of a small group allows us to determine which role functions and to what extent are implemented by the participants in group interaction.
Social power structure and influence in a small group is a set of connections between individuals, characterized by the direction and intensity of their mutual influence. Depending on the method of exercising influence, various types of social power are distinguished: reward, coercion, legitimate, expert and referent (D. French, B. Raven). The main characteristics of the structure of social power and influence are the systems of connections that underlie the leadership of a group as officially established social influence (if we are talking about a formally organized group) and as unofficial (informal) influence, which is based on the phenomenon of leadership.
Roles related to problem solving and providing support within the group:
| Problem solving | Providing support | |
| Initiator | Mastermind | |
| Suggests new ideas and approaches to group problems and goals. Offers ways to overcome difficulties and solve problems. | Supports the initiatives of others and shows understanding of other people's ideas and opinions. | |
| Developer | Harmonizer | |
| Elaborates in detail ideas and proposals put forward by other group members. | Serves as a mediator in situations where disagreements arise between group members, and thus maintains harmony in the group. | |
| Coordinator | Conciliator | |
| Combines ideas and suggestions and tries to coordinate the activities of other group members. | Gives up his opinion on something in order to bring the opinions of others into line, and thus maintains harmony in the group. | |
| Controller | Dispatcher | |
| Directs the group towards its goals, sums up what has already happened in it, and identifies deviations from the intended course. | Creates opportunities for communication, encouraging and helping other group members to do so, and regulates communication processes. | |
| Appraiser | Standardizer | |
| Critically evaluates the work of the group and the suggestions of others, comparing them with existing standards of performance of the assigned task. | Formulates or applies standards to evaluate group processes. | |
| Driver | Slave | |
| Stimulates the group and pushes its members to take action, to make new decisions and to do more than what has already been done. | Passively follows the group. Acts as a spectator and listener in group discussions and decision making. |
Small Group Leadership
Small Group Leadership- this is the phenomenon of the influence or influence of an individual on the opinions, assessments, attitudes and behavior of the group as a whole or its individual members. Main signs of leadership are:
· higher activity and initiative of the individual when solving joint problems as a group;
· greater awareness of the problem being solved, the group members and the situation as a whole;
· greater ability to influence other group members;
· greater compliance of behavior with social attitudes, values and norms accepted in this group;
· greater expression of personal qualities that are standard for this group.
Basic leader functions- organization of joint life activities in its various spheres, development and maintenance of group norms, external representation of the group in relationships with other groups, taking responsibility for the results of group activities, establishing and maintaining favorable socio-psychological relationships in the group.
In accordance with the identification of two main spheres of life of a small group - business, associated with the implementation of joint activities and solving group problems, and emotional, associated with the process of communication and development of psychological relationships between group members - two main types of leadership are distinguished - leadership in the business sphere ( “instrumental leadership”) and leadership in the emotional sphere (“expressive leadership”). These two types of leadership can be personified in one person, but more often they are distributed among different members of the group. Depending on the degree of expression of focus on one or another sphere of the group’s life, we can distinguish types of leaders focused on:
· to solve group problems;
· communication and relationships in the group;
· universal leaders.
Within each sphere of group life, more differentiated types of leaders can be distinguished: leader-organizer, leader-specialist, leader-motivator, leader-generator of emotional mood, etc.
The phenomenon of leadership is determined by the interaction of a number of variables, the main of which are the psychological characteristics of the personality of the leader himself, the socio-psychological characteristics of the members of a small group, the nature of the tasks being solved and the characteristics of the situation in which the group finds itself.
Currently, there are serious objections to the existence of a universal set of psychological qualities that make a person a leader. In particular, R. Stogdill, having conducted a comprehensive review of research in the field of leadership, notes that the study of personal qualities of leaders gives contradictory results. The personal qualities of effective leaders most often mentioned by researchers include: intelligence, desire for knowledge, dominance, self-confidence, emotional balance, stress resistance, creativity, desire to achieve, enterprise, reliability, responsibility, independence, sociability.
However, as research shows, the relationship between the degree of expression of individual qualities and the effectiveness of leadership is ambiguous; in different situations, effective leaders display different qualities. R. Stogdill concluded that there is no such set of personal qualities that are present in all effective leaders, and that the structure of a leader’s personal qualities must be correlated with the personal qualities of group members, the content of group activities and the specific tasks being solved.
Representatives of the behavioral approach to leadership research believe that a person who possesses the desired form of behavior becomes a leader. Within the framework of this approach, numerous studies of leadership styles have been carried out and their classifications have been developed.
The most famous are the classifications of leadership styles by K. Lewin, who described autocratic, democratic and liberal leadership styles, and R. Likert, who distinguished the task-oriented leadership style and the people-oriented leadership style. The results of empirical studies indicate that there is no clear connection between the characteristics of leadership style and its effectiveness.
Proponents of the situational approach (F. Fiedler, T. Mitchell, R. House, P. Hersey, C. Blanchard) came to the conclusion that the effectiveness of leadership is determined by the correspondence of the qualities of the leader and the characteristics of his behavior in the situation (by the nature of the problem being solved, the degree of favorableness of the relationship leader with group members, the amount of real power that the leader has in the group, etc.). F. Fiedler discovered an interesting pattern: a task-oriented leadership style is more often effective in the most and least favorable situations, and a person-oriented style is more often effective in moderately favorable conditions.
The small group development model proposed by B. Tuckman is based on identifying two main spheres of group life: business, associated with solving a group problem, and interpersonal, associated with the development of a group structure.
1) orientation to the problem and search for the optimal way to solve it;
2) emotional reactions to the demands of the task, opposition of group members to demands placed on them in connection with solving the task and contrary to their own intentions;
3) open exchange of information in order to achieve a deeper understanding of each other's intentions and search for alternatives;
TOPIC: GROUP PSYCHOLOGY.
Target: to form a basic understanding of small and large social groups, processes of intergroup and intragroup interaction.
Plan:
1. Psychology of groups. The concept of a group.
2. Classification of groups. Group structure.
3. Types and structure of a small group.
4. Psychology of large social groups.
5. Psychology of intra- and intergroup conflicts.
Text:
Psychology of groups. Group concept
All definitions of personality emphasize its belonging to society, its inclusion in one or another system of social relations. Any person is subject to influence from society at the macro and micro levels. The macro level is the broad social environment, up to the level of the entire world social system. The micro level is the immediate environment of the individual - family, friends, colleagues, neighbors, etc.
As a member of a group, a person performs one or another social role, which is interpreted as a normative system of actions expected from an individual in accordance with his social position, i.e. the role is determined by a person’s specific place in the structure of social connections and does not depend on his individual psychological properties.
Classification of roles.
1. Assigned (due to the differentiation of people by gender - gender roles).
2. Achieved (performed in a particular professional area).
3. Specific (relationships based on specific, clearly limited goals).
4. Diffuse (does not have a particular special focus).
So, a group is a collection of individuals interacting with each other to achieve common goals and aware of their belonging to this collection.
The structure of a small group is a set of connections that develop between individuals in it.
The presence in a group of a functional structure, that is, the distribution among its members of the functions necessary to achieve the goal of joint activity (including the functions of leadership and execution) is a distinctive feature of organized groups, in contrast to spontaneously formed groups, in which interaction between people is spontaneous, disordered character.
In social psychology, it is customary to distinguish between formal and informal group structure. The formal (or official) structure of a group is a set of connections and relationships between individuals, determined by formal regulations (job descriptions, official structure of the organization, formal status of individuals). An informal (or unofficial) structure is a structure of connections, communications and influence that actually develops in an organization.
In socio-psychological studies of small groups, the sociometric, communicative and role structure of the group, as well as the structure of power and influence, are most often identified and analyzed.
The sociometric structure of a small troupe is a set of connections between its members, characterized by mutual preferences and rejections according to the results of a sociometric test proposed by D. Moreno.
The sociometric structure of a group is based on emotional relationships of sympathy and antipathy, the phenomena of interpersonal attractiveness and popularity.
The main characteristics of the sociometric structure of a small group are the characteristics of the sociometric status of group members, that is, the position they occupy in the system of interpersonal choices and rejections; characteristics of mutual emotional preferences and rejections of group members; the presence of microgroups whose members are connected by mutual elections, and the nature of the relations between them. An essential characteristic of a group obtained from the results of a sociometric survey is the number of mutual choices and rejections in relation to the maximum possible number (the so-called sociometric cohesion of the group).
The communicative structure of a small group is a set of connections between its members, characterized by the processes of receiving and transmitting information circulating in the group.
The main characteristics of the communicative structure of a group are: the position occupied by group members in the communication system (access to receiving and transmitting information), the frequency and stability of communication links in the group, the type of communication links between group members (centralized or decentralized “communication networks”).
The role structure of a small group is a set of connections and relationships between individuals, characterized by the distribution of group roles between them, i.e. typical modes of behavior prescribed, expected and implemented by participants in the group process.
Thus, when analyzing group problem solving, the roles of “idea generator”, “expert”, “critic”, “organizer”, “motivator” are highlighted. When analyzing the activities of psychocorrectional groups, the roles of “unifier”, “scapegoat”, “sectarian”, “innocent victim” are highlighted. In the most general form, when analyzing the process of interaction in a group, roles associated with solving problems and roles associated with providing support to other group members are distinguished.
Problem solving:
Initiator. Suggests new ideas and approaches to group problems and goals. Offers ways to overcome difficulties and solve problems.
Developer. Elaborates in detail ideas and proposals put forward by other group members.
Coordinator. Combines ideas and suggestions and tries to coordinate the activities of other group members.
Controller. Directs the group towards its goals, sums up what has already happened in it, and identifies deviations from the intended course.
Appraiser. Critically evaluates the work of the group and the suggestions of others, comparing them with existing standards for completing the assigned task.
Driver. Stimulates the group and pushes its members to take action, to make new decisions and to do more than what has already been done.
Providing support:
Inspirer. Supports the initiatives of others, expresses understanding of other people's ideas and opinions.
Harmonizer. Serves as a mediator in situations where disagreements arise between group members and thus maintains harmony in the group.
Conciliator. Gives up his opinion on something in order to bring the opinions of others into line, and thus maintains harmony in the group.
Dispatcher. Creates opportunities for communication, encouraging and helping other group members to do so, and regulates communication processes.
Standardizer. Formulates or applies standards to evaluate group processes.
Slave. Passively follows the group. Acts as a spectator and listener in group discussions and decision making.
Group- a community of people limited in size, separated from the social whole on the basis of certain characteristics.
The existence of a large number of different social groups has led to the development of various typologies of groups.
The main criteria for identifying such typologies can be:
Number of people in the group;
Social status;
Level of development, etc.
Thus, according to social status, groups are divided into formal and informal, by the directness of relationships - on real and nominal, by importance - by reference groups and membership groups. The most commonly used typologies are distinguished by the number of people and the level of development. These two criteria are also significant for teaching activities.
According to the level of development, groups are distinguished: unorganized or weakly organized, with a low cohesion index, as well as groups with a high level of development:
- diffuse group- a community in which there is no cohesion as a value-oriented unity, there is no organized joint activity capable of mediating the relationships of its participants. Most often, a diffuse group is a small short-term association of people on a random basis. Diffuse groups are at a very low level of development and quickly disintegrate;
- association- a group in which there is no joint activity, organization and management that unites it, and value orientations that mediate interpersonal relationships manifest themselves in conditions of group communication. An association is an official group that has a common, officially set goal, an official structure, but there is no joint achievement of socially significant goals in such a group: everyone achieves these goals on their own;
- corporation- an organized group characterized by isolation, maximum centralization and authoritarian leadership, opposing itself to other social communities on the basis of its narrow personal interests;
- team- a group of people united by common goals and objectives, who have achieved a high level of development in the process of socially valuable joint activity. The following characteristics of a team are highlighted: a high level of group development, socially positive activity, high cohesion of group members, self-referentiality of the group, mediation of interpersonal relationships by joint activities.
By number of people
allocate large groups, small groups and micro groups. The composition of microgroups includes two or three people (dyads, triads, respectively). Large group - This is a social community, the members of which, without direct contact with each other, are connected indirectly by psychological mechanisms of group communication. A small group is understood as a small group in composition, whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes (G.M. Andreeva). In a small group, participants know each other personally.Psychological characteristics of the group
Group norms(from lat. norma- guiding principle, exact prescription, sample) - these are certain rules that are developed by the group, accepted by it and to which the behavior of its members must obey in order for their joint activities to be possible.
Norms thus perform a regulatory function in relation to this activity. Group norms are related to values, since any rules can be formulated only on the basis of acceptance or rejection of some socially significant phenomena.
Group norms include generally valid norms, And specific(developed by this particular group). Group norms contribute to increasing the resilience and stability of the group. Sometimes group norms play a conservative role in a certain sense.
Social psychology also studies such an important problem as the measure of acceptance of norms by each member of the group. If a person does not comply with group norms, then mechanisms are activated through which the group “returns” its member to the path of compliance with norms. All procedures by which an individual's behavior is brought to a group norm are called group sanctions. The sanction system is designed to ensure compliance with norms.
Sanctions may be:
Positive and negative;
Formal and informal;
Direct and indirect.
Sanctions exist at all levels of social life and in all groups. They regulate the behavior of individuals with varying levels of severity and force.
Group pressure - actions that encourage a person to behave in a certain way and in accordance with the expectations (system of expectations, requirements regarding the norms for the individual to fulfill social roles) of others. This phenomenon received the name of the phenomenon in social psychology conformity (or conformist behavior).
Conformity(from lat. conformis- similar, conformable) - a person’s compliance to real or imagined group pressure, manifested in a change in his behavior and attitudes in accordance with the position of the majority that was not initially shared by him.
There are:
A) external conformity when the opinion of the group is accepted by the individual only externally, but in fact he continues to resist it;
b) internal (genuine conformism) - the individual truly accepts the opinion of the majority.
The weak influence of group pressure is defined as nonconformism. Nonconformism has nothing to do with negativism(conformity is the opposite). Negativism manifests itself in a person’s desire to necessarily act contrary to the rules, and in this sense it depends on group norms. A nonconformist, on the other hand, has his own, independent view of the phenomena of the surrounding world and trusts his opinion, while he also treats the opinions of other people with respect, but he will act in accordance with his ideas about reality.
Group dynamics -This is a set of dynamic processes that simultaneously occur in a group during some period of its existence.
Leadership and management are viewed in social psychology as group processes related to social power in the group. Power carries with it the right and the ability to dispose of something, someone, to subordinate it to the will of one person. The leader and manager have a leading influence on the affairs of the group.
1. Most studies on management problems leader And headis understood as a person who has a leading influence on the group, p In other words, a leader is in a system of informal relations, and a manager is in a system of formal relations.
2. In the socio-psychological sense leadership and management- these are mechanisms of group integration that unite the actions of a group around an individual who performs the function of a leader or manager.
In social psychology, there are the following differences between a leader and a manager:
Firstly, the leader regulates interpersonal relationships, and the manager regulates formal ones;
Secondly, the leader is a representative of his group, its member (an element of the microenvironment). The leader enters the macroenvironment (an element of the macroenvironment) and represents his group at a higher level of social relations;
Thirdly, unlike leadership, leadership is a spontaneous process; no one can guarantee planned leadership, since group processes are not always predictable. Leadership is a purposeful and planned process, therefore leadership acts as a more stable phenomenon than leadership;
Fourthly, the manager, in the process of influencing subordinates, has significantly more sanctions than the leader. If a leader can only use informal sanctions, then a leader has the ability to use both formal and informal sanctions;
Fifthly, decision-making by the leader is carried out directly, and by the leader indirectly. After all, the leader owns only the information that exists within a given group, and the leader uses a large amount of both internal and external information.
When considering the phenomena of leadership and management, the role of authority should be noted. A leader is always authoritative, otherwise he will not be a leader. The leader may have authority, or may not have it at all.
Authority - this is a completely special type of influence on people. It is expressed in a person’s ability, without resorting to coercion, to direct the actions and thoughts of other people. All charismatic personalities were, of course, authoritative.
In psychology, true and false types of authorities are most often distinguished:
False authority arises in conditions of manipulative activity of the “leader”, when he achieves power over people through tricks, hypocrisy, and social games ( E. Bern), i.e. actions with ulterior motives. In most cases, false authority allows a person to influence the course of a case and achieve recognition from other people, but in general the attitude towards such a person will be somewhat wary, because obvious manipulations are extremely difficult to hide.
One of the most traditional issues of leadership and management is the question of leadership styles. Back in the 30s of the twentieth century, K. Levin identified three leadership styles: authoritarian (directive), democratic (collegial) and permissive (anarchic).
Leadership style- This a typical leader's system of methods of influencing group members.
