Greek revolt 1821. Greek revolt

Greek revolutionaries (1821)

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Celebrates its Independence Day on March 25 every year.

Background

Greece, transformed into a Turkish province in the 15th century, constantly strived for independence. From the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, it ruled almost all of Greece, with the exception of the Ionian Islands, Crete and certain areas of the Peloponnese. In the 17th century, the Ottomans conquered the entire Peloponnese and Crete. But in the 18th and 19th centuries, a wave of revolutions swept across Europe. The power of Turkey was weakening, and a national upsurge began in Greece, which met with the support of Western European countries. Already in the 17th century, the Greeks looked to Russia, their fellow believer, as a support in their future struggle with the Turks; these hopes met with sympathy in the Russian ruling spheres. When the Russian squadron appeared in the Mediterranean in 1770, an uprising swept across the Morea, but it was easily suppressed by the Turks.

The wars between Russia and the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 18th century had no practical significance for the Greeks. The French Revolution gave a significant impetus to the liberation movement; The Greek poet of the late 18th century Rigas wrote freedom-loving, warlike songs. Rigas was handed over to the Turks by the Austrian authorities and, by order of the Belgrade Pasha, was executed in 1798. The poet's martyrdom enhanced the meaning and influence of his songs. Throughout Greece and wherever the Greeks lived, secret societies, heteria (friendships), began to form, with the goal of liberating Greece from Turkish rule.

In 1814, Greek patriots Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanuel Xanthos and Athanasios Tsakalof created the secret organization Filiki Eteria (Greek. Φιλική Εταιρεία - Friendly society). In 1818, the center of the organization was moved to Constantinople. With the support of the wealthy Greek communities in Britain and the United States, with the help of sympathizers in Western Europe and secret help from Russia, they planned an uprising.

The revolt against Ottoman rule was launched by a group of conspirators led by Alexander Ypsilanti, largely composed of Russian officers of Greek origin. John Kapodistrias was offered to lead the liberation movement, but he, holding important diplomatic posts in the Russian administration, for a long time considered it impossible for himself to participate in an uprising that was not officially supported by Russia.

Ypsilanti Rising

When a new ruler was appointed in Wallachia in 1821, there was a riot there; the Arnauts sent by Turkey to pacify joined the rebels; at the same time, Ali Pasha Yaninsky refused to obey the Turkish Sultan.

This moment was considered convenient for starting the uprising. The Russian general, an ethnic Greek, Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, leaving his service without permission, arrived in Moldova and in March called on the Greeks to overthrow the yoke. Up to 6 thousand insurgents gathered to see him.

Giannakis Kolokotronis with a hundred fighters made his way to the Danube, crossed it and fought through Bulgaria and Northern Greece to the Peloponnese Peninsula, arriving in time to help his relative Theodoros Kolokotronis, who was besieging the Turks in Tripolis (Siege of Tripolitsa).

The defeats inflicted by the Turks on the heteriots at Dragomani and the monastery of Sekku, the official announcement by Russia that it had nothing to do with the movement of the revolutionary heteriots, put an end to the movement of the Greeks. In Constantinople, the Patriarch of Constantinople Gregory V, who was suspected of having relations with heterias, was hanged at the gates of his home in full bishop's vestments, and three metropolitans were executed with him. However, this spread the flames of the uprising throughout Greece and greatly inflamed Russia against Turkey, which broke off diplomatic relations with it.

All these events were poorly received by Western Europe. The British and French governments suspected that the revolt was a Russian plot to take over Greece and even perhaps Constantinople. However, the rebel leaders clashed with each other and were unable to establish regular administration of the liberated territories. All this led to internecine struggle. A civil war began in Greece (late 1823 - May 1824 and 1824-1825).

Revolt in Greece itself

Events of 1821

The uprising broke out in the southern Peloponnese (Morea), in the city of Areopolis on March 25 (April 6), 1821. Within 3 months, the uprising covered the entire Peloponnese, part of mainland Greece, the island of Crete, Cyprus and some other islands of the Aegean Sea. The rebels captured significant territory. The Turks hid in fortresses, and the few Turkish garrisons of Attica took refuge in Athens in the Acropolis, where they were besieged by the Greeks.

The islands of Hydra, Insara and La Spezia also took part in the uprising; A Greek fleet of 80 ships appeared on the Archipelago. A stubborn struggle began, in which women also took part (for example, Babolina, who donated her enormous fortune to equip ships and detachments, participated in many battles and even commanded a ship at Nauplia).

The struggle of scattered Greek detachments with the organized Turkish army was very difficult. The Greeks, armed with ancient guns and without artillery, were strong only in the mountains, but could not fight in the open field. Although all the Greeks were united by a feeling of common hatred of the Turks, this did not prevent the manifestations of envy and enmity between individual tribes, clans and their leaders; It was also harmful that their squads largely consisted of cruel and undisciplined klefts. However, in the same year Corinth was occupied by the monk Gregoras; from there the revolt spread to the Isthmus of Corinth, Aetolia, Attica, Acarnania and Livadia; In Epirus and Thessaly, Odysseus led the uprising.

Finally, Türkiye took military action. Khurshid Pasha, who pacified Ali Pasha of Yaninsky, sent Kahvi Bey against the Greek insurgents, who attacked the Greek camp at Valdets, but was defeated. The first success encouraged the insurgents, and temporary agreement was established between them; They were visited by: Dmitry Ypsilanti, Alexander's brother, and Prince Cantacuzene. After the battle of Valdez, the Greeks turned their attention to the fortified places in which the Turks settled. And here success was on the side of the Greeks: Prince Cantacuzene took possession of Monembisia, Dmitry Ypsilanti - Navarino; Tripolitsa was taken by storm; the leader of the Armatols, Marco Botsaris, successfully fought in western Greece with Khurshid Pasha near Mesolung; Negris won a victory in Solon, and Odysseus defeated the Turks in Thessaly in September.

But in Macedonia the actions of the Greeks were unsuccessful. The Pasha of Thessaloniki captured and plundered the Kassandra peninsula, Omer-Vrione took the fortress and city of Arta from the Greeks. The Turkish fleet ravaged the city of Galaxidi, while the Greek fleet plundered the shores of Asia Minor and massacred the Turks; these cruelties aroused the indignation of the Europeans and the embitterment of the Turks against them.

On October 5, 1821, the main city of Morea, Tripolitsa, was taken by the Greeks. The Greek victory ended in a massacre of Turks and Jews: at least 8,000 - 10,000 men, women and children were killed.

Thus ended the year 1821; The Greeks felt the need to unite and fight according to a common plan.

On May 20, 1821, the Assembly opened in Caltezone ( Caltezon Assembly) chairman ( πρόεδρος της συνέλευσης ) by which Petros Mavromichalis was elected. The Assembly elected Peloponnesian Council (Πελοποννησιακή Γερουσία ), headed by the chairman of the council ( Πρόεδρος της Γερουσίας ) - Bishop Theodoret of Vresthenia and deputy chairman (αντιπρόεδρος) - Asmakis Fotilas.

On November 4, 1821, it opened in Missolongion Assembly of Western Greece (Συνέλευση της Δυτικής Χέρσου Ελλάδος ) which included 30 deputies ( πληρεξούσιος ), Chairman of the Assembly ( πρόεδρος της συνέλευσης ) Alexandros Mavrokordatos was elected. The Assembly also elected the Council of Western Greece ( Γερουσία της Δυτικής Χέρσου Ελλάδος ).

On November 18, 1821, the Assembly opened in Amfissa ( Salonian Assembly - Συνέλευση ) who elected the Areopagus of Eastern Greece ( Άρειος Πάγος της Ανατολικής Χέρσου Ελλάδας ).

Events of 1822

On January 22, 1822, the 1st National Assembly (67 deputies) in Piada (near Epidaurus) proclaimed the Greek State, independent of the Ottoman Empire, and adopted a constitution - the Provisional Government of Greece ( Προσωρινό Πολίτευμα της Ελλάδος ), the legislative body of which was the Legislative Corps ( Βουλευτικον Σωμα ) chaired by Dmitry Ypsilanti, the executive body is the Executive Corps ( Εκτελεστικον Σωμα ) under the chairmanship of Mavrocordato. But disagreements continued; Ypsilanti resigned the position; Odysseus, Kolokotroni and Mavromichali did not recognize their subordination.

Meanwhile, young philhellenes from all over Europe flocked to the Morea. The Turkish troops, having pacified Ali Pasha of Yaninsky, turned against the Greeks; Khurshid Pasha acted against Thessaly, the fleet threatened Navarino, but was repulsed by Norman. Ypsilanti and Nikitas assumed leadership in eastern Greece, and Mavrocordato in western Greece.

Military operations also began in Macedonia, where the Pasha of Thessaloniki scattered crowds of armed Christians at Nioste and killed up to 5 thousand civilians.

The affairs of the Greeks in the west were also unsuccessful; On July 4, the Greeks were completely defeated near Peta and Souliota, abandoning their hometown and hiding in the mountains and islands; Mavrocordato and Botsaris locked themselves in Mesolungi. Dram-Ali with 30 thousand broke through Thermopylae, and Yusuf Pasha headed to Corinth and occupied it and Acropolis.

In the spring, the Turkish fleet pacified the islands of Candia, Samos and Chios, but during its stay near Chios it was attacked by Greek fire ships, which burned two Turkish ships.

The failures and cruelties suffered by the Turks forced the Greek leaders to forget their strife and disagreements; they acted together against Khurshid Pasha, and the latter retreated to Larissa; in December the Greeks captured Nauplia. The year 1822, thanks to the coordination of the actions of the Greek leaders, ended successfully.

Events of 1823

In 1823, Mavrocordato again decided to create a strong government; he convened a second National Assembly of the Greeks, and in April a law was promulgated establishing a Greek government, the seat of which was chosen at Tropolitsa. Conduriotti was elected president of the legislative council and Mavromichali the executive; Mavrocordato received command over the ground forces, and Orlandi over the naval forces; Odysseus acted in eastern Greece, and Botsaris in western Greece. The main concern of the Greek government was raising money for war and internal organization; new taxes were established; many donations came from well-wishers of Greece from Europe and America.

This year, Kissamos on the island of Candia was occupied by the Greeks; Seraskir Pasha was defeated by Odysseus; Marco Botsaris defeated the pasha of Scutari, attacking his camp at Karpinissa at night; Marco Botsaris himself was killed in this battle, but his brother Constantine pursued the pasha to Scutari and headed to Mesolungi. Many Europeans joined the ranks of the defenders of Greece, including the famous English poet Lord Byron, who died here in early 1824. Greece's struggle for independence became popular throughout Europe.

Meanwhile, disagreements arose again among the Greek leaders; Kolokotroni rebelled against Mavrocordato, Odysseus ruled arbitrarily in eastern Greece, but President Conduriotti knew how to force his orders to be carried out; he managed to conclude a loan in England and put the military unit in order.

Events of 1824

In 1824, Turkey made peace with Persia and requested assistance from the Khedive of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, who had just carried out major reforms of the Egyptian army along European lines. The Sultan of Turkey promised to make big concessions in Syria if Ali helped suppress the Greek uprising. As a result, Muhammad Ali sent a fleet of troops and his adopted son Ibrahim. Dervish Pasha of Viddin was sent by the Sultan to the Peloponnese, Pasha of Negropontos was ordered to pacify the eastern regions of Greece, and Omer-Vrione - the western ones, but all Turkish troops were pushed back by the Greeks.

The Egyptian fleet at this time occupied Candia and Klesos, the Turkish - Insara, but Miavilis again took this island from the Turks and drove the fleet to Mytilene. The Egyptian fleet, joining with the Turkish, fought with the Greek at Naxos; Greek fire ships caused great damage to Turkish ships sailing to Constantinople; Ibrahim Pasha took refuge in Rhodes.

Events of 1825

In European countries, especially in England and France, and of course in Russia, there was growing sympathy for the Greek patriots among the educated elite and a desire to further weaken the Ottoman Empire among politicians.

Meanwhile, discord continued among the Greek leaders. Taking advantage of them, Ibrahim Pasha in February 1825 landed 12 thousand in Greece, between Coron and Modon, and besieged Navarin. Despite the brave defense of Mavrocordato and the successful attacks of Miavlis on the Egyptian fleet, Navarin surrendered, followed shortly thereafter by Tropolitsa and Kalamata.

Conduriotti and Mavrocordato took all measures to establish harmony among the Greeks; Kolokotroni was appointed commander-in-chief; he defended Nauplia, but could not prevent Ibrahim Pasha from occupying the entire Peloponnese. The Egyptian and Turkish fleets appeared before the Mesolungs; Reshid Pasha won a victory at Solon and besieged Mesolungi from land. But this fortress survived, thanks to the help provided to it from the sea by Constantine Botsaris and Miavlis. At this time, the Greek detachment of Guras made its way from Livadia to Solona and distracted Reshid Pasha from Mesolung, and Nikitas defeated the Turkish detachment on the Isthmus of Corinth.

Events of 1826

In April 1826, Ibrahim Pasha, after great efforts, captured Mesolungi. On April 22, the garrison tried to break through, but only a few succeeded, while the rest, led by Nolos Botsaris, blew themselves up; the population of the city (up to 4 thousand) was partly killed, partly enslaved. Ibrahim Pasha returned to Tropolitsa and began to rule the Peloponnese, showing great cruelty; Turkish troops penetrated into eastern and western Greece.

Reshid Pasha besieged Athens and, after the death of Guras, killed by a disgruntled Greek, took possession of Athens; but Acropolis continued to defend itself, and Colonel Voutier managed to get there with troops and supplies.

The actions of the Turks in western Greece were also successful, and Kolokotroni fought an unsuccessful fight with Ibrahim Pasha in Arcadia; only in Morea there were several more cities and islands. Greece turned into a desert; thousands of people died of hunger. The misfortunes of the Greeks, their heroic efforts and cruel suffering began to arouse the liveliest participation throughout Europe, while the trade of all European states suffered major losses. Volunteers and money flowed in abundance to Greece from England, France and Germany; The governments of the European powers also could not look indifferently at the strengthening of the Turks, and in July 1826 an agreement was signed in London between Russia, France and England to end the struggle between Greece and Turkey. The Bavarian Colonel Heidecker, the English General Church and Lord Cochrane, who arrived in Greece, tried in vain to reconcile the warring Greek parties and worked to transform the Greek naval and ground forces. The Greeks at this time tried to liberate Acropolis, besieged by the Turks.

Events of 1827

In 1827, the third National Assembly of the Greeks met and adopted the Civil Constitution of Hellas, the legislative body of which was the Council, the executive power was exercised by the Ruler. John Kapodistrias was elected ruler, with the consent of the three great powers. Lord Cochrane took command of the fleet, and General Church of the ground forces. But their joint efforts to liberate Akropolis were unsuccessful, and this fortress, as well as the ports of Piraeus and Faleros, surrendered to the Turks.

Events of 1828

Meanwhile, the actions of the Greek troops continued to be unsuccessful due to the disobedience of the newly formed Greek regular troops. After the Battle of Navarino, the French expeditionary force of General Maison arrived in Greece; Navarin, Coron, Modon and Patras were occupied by French troops; Egyptian troops left Greece, and in October 1828 the Morea and the Cyclades islands were free from the Turks.

Events of 1829

In 1829, direct popular elections were held to the Fourth National Assembly of the Greeks, which created the Senate as an advisory body.

The Allied Powers invited Turkey to take part in conferences and reconciliation with Greece, but the Turks refused, and in March 1829 the Allied Powers established borders between Greece and Turkey.

Meanwhile, in northern and eastern Greece the war was still going on: Dmitry Ypsilanti defeated Mahmud Pasha at Lamantiko and captured Solona, ​​Lepant and all of Livadia; General Church occupied Vonnitsa, the Greeks besieged Anatoliko and Mesolungi.

Türkiye was defeated in the war with Russia. According to the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829, Türkiye recognized the autonomy of Greece.

Actions during the war of 1821-1829 at sea

The geographical conditions of Greece have always created natural sailors from its coastal population. But with the fall of the Byzantine Empire, Greek shipping, due to political conditions, degenerated into coastal trade and piracy. Only since the appearance of the Russian fleet off the coast of Greece (the war between Russia and Turkey in 1769-1774) did Greek navigation receive an organization approaching the military: providing assistance to Russia with their ships, joining them to Russian squadrons and detachments, the Greeks carried out reconnaissance and transport services, They themselves joined Russian ships as officers and sailors, served as pilots, received patents to sail their corsair ships under the Russian flag, and even commanded individual detachments.

This was the case in the subsequent Russian-Turkish wars, and especially in 1787-1791, when, due to the cancellation, due to the outbreak of the war with Sweden, the previously proposed departure of the Baltic Fleet to the Mediterranean Sea, military operations were carried out almost exclusively by Greek corsairs under the Russian flag. This military school produced brave sailors from the Greeks, at the same time tempering the naturally warlike spirit of the coastal and especially island populations in the tireless struggle for liberation. This was facilitated by the increasingly developing Greek piracy, which attracted the attention of foreign powers interested in trade with the Levant.

The Greek uprising of 1821 brought forward a number of outstanding sailors who, with insignificant forces, carried out desperate attacks on Turkish ships and squadrons. The period from 1827 to 1832 (the year of the formation of the Greek Kingdom) was marked by individual actions of organized Greek naval forces, already recognized by the powers as a belligerent; in 1828, a squadron was formed under the command of Rear Admiral (antinavarhos) Sakhturi of 8 brigs and galleots and several gunboats; its appointment was coordinated with the actions of the Allied powers. The squadron was supposed to intercept food and Turkish smuggling to the island of Crete, blockade the fortresses of Coron, Modon and Navarin and assist in the blockade of the bays of Patrasskago and Lepantskago. Individual actions of Greek detachments took place at different points of the Archipelago, especially near the island of Chios, and during meetings with Turkish ships on the high seas. Of the Greek sailors of this era, in addition to Sakhturi, Admiral Miaoulis, Konaris, Captain Sakhani and others especially stood out. Later, in 1831, when the discord that arose in Greece itself was pacified, the Russian fleet had to face the hostile actions of Miaoulis, who became the head of the rebellious (Idriot) detachment, and the matter ended with the defeat of the rebels in the bay of the island of Poros. However, the military operations of the Greek fleet, too small in composition and under the control of foreign powers (Russia, England, France), were predominantly guerrilla in nature, could not develop into independent operations and therefore had only an indirect impact on the war with Turkey.

For about four centuries, Greek soil was under the iron heel of Turkish invaders. The Turkish pashas and beys took away from the Greeks a significant part of the products of their labor and subjected the people to countless insults and humiliations. But freedom-loving Greece did not stop fighting foreign oppression.

The high mountains served as a shelter for partisans who fought against the conquerors. The Turks and their minions called the Greek partisans “klefts,” that is, thieves. However, for the people, the Klefts were not criminals, but valiant patriots, brave fighters against Turkish bondage.

From the end of the 17th century. the struggle of the Greek people for their liberation took on a wider scope. Trade developed in Greece, ties between individual cities and localities strengthened, and capitalist relations emerged. Greek entrepreneurs and merchants - wealthy owners of large trading ships - began their activities in coastal cities and islands. These ships, loaded with grain, skins, cloth, dried fruits, and resin, sailed between the ports of the Mediterranean and Black Seas and brought considerable profits to their owners. But as soon as the merchant got rich, a whole pack of greedy Turkish officials attacked him, trying to extract more money from the merchant. If the merchant resisted these harassments, he could go to prison and even lose his head.

Many Greeks, fleeing the tyranny of the Turkish pashas, ​​moved abroad. Here they were engaged in trade and craft, and received education. But no matter what country fate brought the Greeks to, they never stopped thinking about the suffering of their homeland and looking for ways to rid it of cruel oppression.

In 1814, in Odessa, a group of Greek patriots created the secret society “Filiki Eteria” (“Union of Friends”) to fight for the liberation of Greece. Soon, wherever the Greeks lived - in large European cities and in small villages of Attica, Epirus, Morea, on the islands of the Aegean Sea and in the Kleft camps on the Pindus steeps - cells of etherists arose. In February - March 1821, an uprising prepared by this patriotic society broke out simultaneously in two places.

At the end of February of the same year, an armed detachment from Russia crossed the Prut River, along which the Russian-Turkish border then passed. It was led by Alexander Ypsilanti, a general in the Russian service, Greek by birth. When news of the first successes of this group reached Greek soil, the authorities were unable to keep the people from revolting. It began at the end of March 1821 in Moray. Detachments of klefts descended from the mountains. They were led by the fearless Kolokotronis, whose relatives were killed by the Turks. They were joined by thousands of peasants armed with clubs and scythes. They destroyed the estates of Turkish beys. The population of the islands also rose up to fight. By the end of 1821, a significant part of Greece was in the hands of the rebels. In January 1822, the National Assembly in Epidaurus (Morea) declared Greece an independent state. A national government was created.

The Turkish Sultan and his ministers decided that the rebels could only be spoken to in the language of bullets and gallows. A wave of Greek pogroms swept across the Turkish Empire. In Constantinople, the Turks hanged the 84-year-old Greek Patriarch Gregory U. They committed a terrible massacre on the island of Chios, where they did not spare even infants and set fire to monasteries in which defenseless people were hiding. Of the island's 100,000 population, only about 2,000 people survived.

Large Turkish forces launched an attack on the liberated areas by sea and by land. But near every village, at every mountain pass, the hated oppressors were met with bullets. Flying partisan detachments attacked military units and convoys day and night. Under these continuous attacks, the enemy army melted away. The Turkish fleet also failed. Small, but fast and agile Greek boats blocked the path of the multi-gun Turkish ships. One brave sailor in his fireship made his way into the parking lot of the enemy fleet on a moonless June night in 1822 and set fire to the flagship while a feast was being held on it on the occasion of a Muslim holiday. Panicked, the Turks hastened to shelter other ships in the Dardanelles.

The heroic struggle of the Greek people for their independence aroused sympathy throughout the world. She was warmly welcomed by the leading people of many countries and among them great poets - Pushkin, Byron, Beranger. They collected money for the Greeks, and volunteers rushed to help them. One of them was Byron. An ardent desire to help the Greek people sounded in the poems of the Russian Decembrist poet V. Kuchelbecker:

Friends! The sons of Hellas are waiting for us.

Who will give us wings? Let's fly!

Hide yourself mountains, rivers, cities, -

They are waiting for us - come to them quickly!

In 1824-1825 The Sultan sent a well-trained and armed Egyptian army to suppress the uprising. Greece at this time was weakened by internal strife. The people bore all the hardships of the war against the Turks on their shoulders, and rich shipowners and landowners were at the head of the government. Having taken the place of the former Turkish masters, they wanted to preserve and increase their wealth and lands, and leave the common people disenfranchised and poor. At the same time, within the ruling camp, the struggle for power continued between individual groups, which ultimately led to a civil war.

Meanwhile, Egyptian troops were already advancing across Greek soil. The commander of the Egyptian army was ready to leave Greece without Greeks, just to suppress the uprising. His troops burned and trampled crops, destroyed cities and villages, and forcibly transported Greek peasants to Egypt. With unparalleled heroism, ordinary peasants, sailors, and artisans continued to defend every inch of their native land.

One of the most heroic episodes of the people's war was the defense of Missolonghi. In May 1825, the Turks besieged this city. The Sultan warned the commander of the Turkish army that if Missolonghi did not fall, then the commander’s head would fall.

To the proposal to send envoys who knew languages ​​to discuss the terms of Missolonghi’s surrender, the besieged responded: “We are ignorant people, we don’t know foreign languages ​​and we only know how to fight.” Soon Egyptian troops arrived to help the Turks. The city found itself in an iron ring of siege. Food supply has also come to an end. Even mice and rats were eaten. In the cold winter, residents froze in houses without roofs, torn off by bombs and shells. The weakened hands of the warriors could barely hold their weapons. But no one talked about surrender. The heroic defense continued for almost a year. On an April night in 1826, when forces were running out, the city's inhabitants, including women and children, headed to the Turkish trenches to break through to the mountains. However, out of 16 thousand people, a little more than a thousand managed to escape. Those who did not fall in the battles were brutally killed by Turkish soldiers who burst into the city.

But the fall of Missolonghi did not break the will of the Greeks to fight. Kolokotronis, who led the Greek forces in Morea, gave a fitting response to the Turkish commander’s offer to surrender: “Even if you cut down all the branches of our trees, even if you burn all our houses and trees, if only piles of stones remain, we still will not bow to you.” knees. No matter how many trees you cut down and burn, you will not take the earth with you. And the land that raised them will remain ours, and trees will grow on it again. And if there is only one Greek left, he will still fight.”

Progressive people in Russia, England, France and other countries increasingly demanded an end to the violence and atrocities of the Turkish military. Greek patriots turned to the Russian government asking for military assistance. Sympathy for Russia was widespread among the Greek people. Tsar Nicholas I had a negative attitude towards the liberation war of the Greeks, considering them “rebels”. But he still decided to intervene in Greek affairs and use the heroic struggle of the rebellious people to strengthen his influence in the Balkans and weaken Russia's longtime enemy - the Sultan's Turkey. The governments of England and France, fearing that Russia alone would prevail over Turkey and that it would receive all the benefits from the victory, joined Russia.

On October 20, 1827, a united Russian-English-French squadron attacked the Turkish fleet in Navarino Bay. After a short battle, about 100 Turkish warships were reduced to splinters and smoking wreckage. Russian sailors, inspired by the desire to help the Greek people, fought with selfless courage.

However, even after the destruction of his fleet, the Sultan refused to stop hostilities in Greece. Then Russia declared war on Turkey in April 1828. In the hot summer of this year, Russian infantrymen, climbing steep mountain paths, broke through the chain of the Balkan mountains. When the Russian army pitched its tents near Adrianople, just 200 km from the Turkish capital, Constantinople, the Sultan sent commissioners to the Russian camp asking for peace.

According to the Peace of Adrianople with Russia (1829), the Turkish government recognized autonomy (self-government), and soon the independence of Greece (1830). It was not in vain that tens of thousands of the best sons of the Greek people and many Russian soldiers shed their blood - the chains of centuries-old slavery were broken.

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The main national holiday in Greece is established in memory of the heroes of the liberation war of 1821-1829. against Turkish occupation. The holiday coincides with the Orthodox holiday, but is now celebrated in Greece on March 25 according to the Gregorian calendar.

29 May 1453 capital of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. The fall of the Second Rome marked the beginning of four hundred years of Ottoman rule in Greece. However, many Greeks fled to the mountains and founded new settlements there. Regions of the Peloponnese also remained free, in particular the Mani Peninsula, from where the Greek liberation movement subsequently began.

In the 17th–18th centuries, for access to the Black Sea and the return of the Caucasian Black Sea region, captured by the Horde in the 13th century. The victories of the Russian army encouraged the Orthodox Balkan peoples enslaved by the Turks. The Greeks looked at Russia, their fellow believer, as a future liberator, and these hopes found sympathy in the Russian ruling circles.

When the Russian squadron appeared in the Mediterranean in 1770, the first Greek uprising broke out, but it was easily suppressed by the Turks. Nevertheless, from then on, providing assistance to Russia with their ships, joining them to Russian squadrons, the Greeks carried out reconnaissance and transport services and entered service in the Russian fleet.

Russian Greeks also became more active (there were many of them in the south of Russia). In 1814, Greek patriots Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanuel Xanthos and Athanasios Tsakalof created a secret organization in Odessa to prepare a new uprising, “Filiki Eteria,” and in 1818 its center was moved to Constantinople. The organization was replenished by Greeks from Russia, Moldova and Wallachia. In April 1820, a Russian general of Greek origin, Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, who was an adjutant, participated in, and lost his right hand in the Battle of Dresden, was elected its leader. Under his leadership, preparations for the uprising began; military detachments and a corps of young volunteers called the “Sacred Corps” were created from Russian Greeks.

In 1821, anti-Turkish unrest broke out in Wallachia; the Greeks considered this circumstance convenient for starting their uprising. General Ypsilanti, leaving Russian service, arrived in Moldova. On March 6, he, along with several other Greek officers of the Russian army, crossed the Prut River and called on the Greeks and the peoples of the Danube principalities to overthrow the yoke. Up to 6 thousand rebels gathered to see him. However, the forces were unequal, this detachment was defeated by the Turks, before they could reach Greece, Ypsilanti was captured by the Austrians. The Turks' revenge was cruel: the Patriarch of Constantinople Gregory V, whom the Turks suspected of supporting the uprising, was hanged at the gates of his house in his bishop's vestments, and three metropolitans were also executed. This prompted Russia to break off diplomatic relations with Turkey.

However, this unsuccessful performance spread the sparks of the uprising throughout Greece. In the southern Peloponnese, on March 25 (old style), 1821, on the day of the Annunciation, in the monastery of Agia Lavra near Kalavryta, Metropolitan Herman of Patara called for revolution with the motto “Freedom or Death” and blessed the banner of the uprising with a blue cross on a white field, which later became the first state

Within three months, the uprising also covered part of continental Greece, Crete, Cyprus and other islands of the Aegean Sea. The struggle of scattered and poorly armed Greek troops with the regular Turkish army was difficult and sacrificial. Disagreements among the leaders of the uprising also interfered. Among them were Dmitry Ypsilanti (Alexander’s brother) and Prince Alexander Matveevich Kantakouzene (in Russian service he had the ranks of titular councilor and chamber cadet). Cantacuzene captured Monembisia, D. Ypsilanti - Navarino, but over the following years military operations proceeded with varying success. The Turks burned the Agia Lavra Monastery as the “cradle” of the uprising, many monks fought with weapons in their hands and were killed.

Count John Kapodistrias (killed 1831)

The Greek struggle for independence became popular throughout Europe, from where volunteers and money were sent to Greece. Count John Kapodistrias was offered to lead the liberation movement, but he, holding a high position in the Russian administration, for a long time considered it impossible for himself to participate in the uprising, since Russia did not officially support it, since Alexander I feared a new war with Turkey. During this time, Russia's policy changed and became decisive in the Greek liberation war. In 1827, when the third National Assembly of the Greeks met and adopted the Civil Constitution of Hellas, Count Kapodistrias became the ruler of Greece with the consent of three powers: Russia, France and England. Thus, a Russian citizen, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia (1816–1822), was elected the first ruler of independent Greece.

Also in 1827, a convention supporting Greek independence, rejected by Turkey, was adopted in London. In October 1827, the united British, French and Russian squadrons, under the overall command of the English Vice Admiral E. Codrington, entered Greek waters to battle the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino on the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese.

But the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Navarino did not humble Turkey; another Russian-Turkish war began (1828-1829), as a result of which, in September 1829, defeated Turkey was forced to recognize the autonomy of Greece. On February 3, 1830, the London Protocol was adopted, which established the independence of the Greek state under the name of the Kingdom of Greece. It included Western Hellas, Eastern Hellas, Attica, Peloponnese and the Cyclades. In 1832, the V National Assembly of Greeks met and adopted the Constitution of the Kingdom of Greece.

During the years of the Greek liberation war, the parties participating in it suffered the following losses: Greece - 50 thousand soldiers, Ottoman Empire - 15 thousand, Russia - 10 thousand, Egypt - 5 thousand, France - 100 people, England - 10 people.

The day of the start of the liberation uprising, March 25, was declared a national holiday in Greece by decree of March 15, 1838, and its first official celebration took place in the same year.

In independent Greece, a power struggle immediately began between the influential families of Kapodistrias and Mavromichali, as a result of which in 1831 the first president of the country, John Kapodistrias, was killed. The Allied powers again had to intervene in Greek affairs. It was decided to establish a monarchy in Greece. In 1832, the throne was offered to Prince Otto, the son of the Bavarian king Ludwig I, a famous Hellenist, and was approved by the people's assembly. But Otto’s reign was inept and unsuccessful, remaining essentially a Catholic foreigner, he did not gain popularity among the people. As a result of the anti-Catholic and anti-Bavarian uprising in Greece in 1843, a Constitution was adopted, which determined that only an Orthodox Christian could be Otto’s successor, the heir to the Greek throne. In 1862, a new uprising broke out, which forced Otto to abdicate the throne and leave Greece.

Introduction

Greek War of Independence, sometimes also called Greek revolution(Greek Ελληνική Επανάσταση του 1821) - the armed struggle of the Greek people for independence from the Ottoman Empire, which began in 1821 and ended in 1832 with the Treaty of Constantinople, which established Greece as an independent state. The Greeks were the first of the peoples conquered by the Ottoman Empire to gain independence. It is with these events that the history of modern Greece begins.

1. Background

The Ottoman Empire ruled almost all of Greece, with the exception of the Ionian Islands, Crete and parts of the Peloponnese, from the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 17th century, the Ottomans conquered the Peloponnese and Crete. But in the 18th and 19th centuries, a wave of revolutions swept across Europe. The power of Turkey was decreasing, Greek nationalism began to assert itself and increasingly gained support from Western European countries.

In 1814, Greek patriots N. Nikolaos Skoufas, E. Xanthos and A. Tsakalof Athanasios formed the secret organization Filiki Eteria (Greek: Φιλική Εταιρεία - Friendly Society) in Odessa. In 1818, the center of the organization was moved to Constantinople. With the support of wealthy Greek communities located in Britain and the United States, with the help of sympathizers in Western Europe and secret help from Russia, they planned an uprising against Turkey.

The revolt against Ottoman rule was launched by a group of conspirators led by Ypsilanti, which consisted largely of Russian officers of Greek origin. John Kapodistrias was offered to lead the liberation movement, but he, holding important diplomatic posts in the Russian administration, for a long time considered it impossible for himself to participate in an uprising that was not officially supported by Russia.

2. Ypsilanti Rising

The uprising began on March 6, 1821, when Alexander Ypsilanti, accompanied by several other Greek officials of the Russian army, crossed the Prut River in Romania and entered what is now Moldavia with his small force. He was soon defeated by the Turkish army.

The uprising broke out in the Southern Peloponnese (Morea) on March 25 ( See article Herman (Metropolitan of Old Patras)). Within 3 months, the uprising covered the entire Peloponnese, part of mainland Greece, the island of Crete, Cyprus and some other islands of the Aegean Sea. The rebels captured significant territory. On January 22, 1822, the 1st National Assembly in Piado (near Epidaurus) proclaimed the independence of Greece and adopted a democratic constitution. Military operations against Turkish troops were relatively successful. Turkey's response was terrible, thousands of Greeks were repressed by Turkish soldiers, and Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople was hanged. All these events were poorly received by Western Europe. The British and French governments suspected that the revolt was a Russian plot to take over Greece and even perhaps Constantinople. However, the rebel leaders clashed with each other and were unable to establish regular administration of the liberated territories. All this led to internecine struggle. A civil war began in Greece (late 1823 - May 1824 and 1824-1825).

3. Intervention by international forces

In 1825, the Turkish Sultan turned for help to the vassal, but very independent Khedive of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, who had just carried out serious reforms of the Egyptian army according to European models. The Sultan of Turkey promised to make concessions regarding Syria if Ali helped. Egyptian forces, under the command of Ali's son Ibrahim, quickly took possession of the Aegean Sea. Ibrahim also enjoyed success in the Peloponnese, where he managed to return Tripolis, the administrative center of the region.

However, in European countries, especially in England and France (and, of course, in Russia), sympathy for the Greek patriots grew among the educated elite and the desire to further weaken the Ottoman Empire among politicians.

In 1827, a convention supporting Greek independence was adopted in London. On October 20, 1827, British, French and Russian squadrons, under the overall command of the English Vice Admiral Edward Codrington, entered Greek waters. On the same day, the allies met with the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the Navarino Bay of the Peloponnese. During the four-hour battle of Navarino, the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was defeated by the allies. Following this, the French landing force landed on land and helped the Greeks complete the defeat of the Turks.

Having won this victory, the allies did not take further joint actions aimed at undermining Turkey's military power. Moreover, disagreements began in the camp of the former allies over the division of the former possessions of the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of this, Türkiye declared war on Russia in December 1827. The Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 began, in which Türkiye was defeated. According to the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829, Türkiye recognized the autonomy of Greece.

4. Independent Greece

On February 3, 1830, the London Protocol was adopted in London, which officially recognized the independence of Greece. By mid-1832, the borders of the new European state were finally drawn.

5. Statistics of the Greek Revolution

6. Interesting facts

The Greek poet George Zalokostas (1805-1858) took an active part in the war, whose patriotic poems and songs brought him popularity and were translated into many European languages.

Literature

Mernikov A. G., Spektor A. A. World history of wars. - Minsk, 2005.

Paleologist G.N. The history of the intervention of Russia, England and France in the Greek War of Independence. - St. Petersburg: Printing house of the Maritime Ministry, 1863. - 231 p.

Paleolog G.N., Sivinis A. Historical sketch of the people's war for Greek independence. - Printing house of the Maritime Ministry, 1867. - 552 p.

References:

Greek national liberation revolution 1821-1829

Greek War of Independence 1821-1832 (English)

Nina M. Athanassoglou-Kallmyer French images from the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) Publisher: Yale University Press (September 10, 1989) ISBN 0-300-04532-8 ISBN 978-0-300-04532-1 .)

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Greek revolt

In 1821, the Greeks rebelled against vassalage from Turkey. The uprising was led by Alexander Ypsilanti, a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, major general of the Russian army. Alexander I did not dare to help the Greeks. The uprising in northern Greece was soon suppressed.

However, a more formidable uprising broke out in the south of Greece, the islands of the archipelago. In January 1822, the National Assembly was created, which approved Greek independence and republican rule. Türkiye, with the support of the Egyptian Pasha, carried out a bloody massacre of the Greeks, which aroused the sympathy of the leading people of Europe for the struggling Greeks. England and France proposed to Nicholas I to send the Russian fleet to the shores of Greece.

In Navarino Bay, the united Anglo-Franco-Russian fleet in 1827 defeated the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. Under these conditions, Turkey, which considered Russia its main enemy, declared war on it, which ended with the Peace of Adrianople (1829). The independence of Greece with a republican system was recognized. In 1832, the republican form of government was replaced by a constitutional-monarchical system.

In 1820 there was a revolution in the Kingdom of Naples, in 1821 in Piedmont.

In the middle of the 19th century. The uprisings of the working class, the peasantry, and the struggle of the industrial bourgeoisie for power shocked Europe. It should be noted that an important feature of the revolutionary movement of this period was the simultaneity of revolutions in a number of European states.