Russian language

VOCABULARY

10. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of usage

Common words.

Common words- these are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence. It is these words that make up the main part of the vocabulary of the Russian language. People need them for everyday communication; common words are familiar and understandable to everyone, for example: tree, concert, brainy, count etc.

Obsolete words (archaisms and historicisms).

Outdated words- these are words that have fallen out of active use and have ceased to be relevant for a given era. Such words are rarely used in everyday communication and are not always understood by people. Among outdated words, archaisms and historicisms are distinguished.

Archaisms- these are outdated words that denote the names of objects or phenomena that currently exist, but for some reason have been replaced by other, later names.

Types of archaisms:
1) phonetic, for example: number - number, eighteen - eighteen ;
2) accentological, for example: siў mvol - symbol, muў language - music ;
3) morphological, for example: at the beginning of the 20th century the word piano was a feminine noun, but in modern Russian this word is used in the masculine gender;
4) word-forming, for example: fisherman - fisherman, energetic - energetic ;
5) lexical, for example: right hand - right hand ;
6) Some words may lose any meaning. In such cases, the word becomes archaic, for example: the word is outdated vulgar in meaning "popular".

Historicisms- these are outdated words that denote the names of objects, phenomena, and concepts that have disappeared from modern life, for example: chain mail, loophole, svetets, zemstvo, arquebus . Historicisms, unlike archaisms, do not have synonyms in modern Russian. This is explained by the fact that the very realities for which these words were names are outdated. Historicisms can be associated with very distant eras ( veche, oprichnik ) and with relatively recent events ( tax in kind, check ).

Neologisms.

Neologisms- these are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names of the corresponding objects and concepts, for example: teleconference, videophone . The appearance of new words is associated with the historical development of society, the development of science and technology, literature and art, and with changes in everyday life. For example, in the 70s words such as felt-tip pen, florist, simulator, TV show, photo frame . But now we cannot call these words neologisms, since they have already become familiar in everyday communication. There are general linguistic and proprietary neologisms. A general linguistic neologism quickly assimilates into the language, “takes root” in it, and its freshness quickly ceases to be felt, for example: computer . But original neologisms cannot become part of the language, since they exist only within a certain context, for example: poetry, sickly (V. Mayakovsky).

Neologisms include not only completely new, but also previously known words that have acquired new meanings. For example: in recent years the word has become widespread scenario in the meaning of “plan, scheme for holding an event, exhibition, etc.” In addition, the words have returned to our vocabulary mercy, charity etc.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is rich and diverse. But common vocabulary is undoubtedly considered the most important part of it. It is the core, without which it is impossible to imagine language and conversation; it includes commonly used words denoting concepts that are used everywhere. They can be heard on the street, at work, at school, in a store, in other words, anywhere. Folk vocabulary is the basis of the literary national dictionary, a very important material for speaking the native language. This is the foundation that helps you continue to enrich and improve your vocabulary. Its importance cannot be underestimated. Almost all units of folk vocabulary are used actively and constantly; they can be found in every speech style.

Commonly used and stylistically neutral words

The Russian language has many words that are known and accessible to everyone, which can be used both in conversation and in writing. As an example, we can cite the following lexical units: “river”, “soil”, “grove”, “bun”, “walk”, “eat”, “winter”, “catchy”, “work”, “read”, “ newspaper", "woman", "sentence", "face", etc. There are also neutral words that can be found both in scientific work and in ordinary conversation; they can be seen both in official paper and in a letter from a friend. There are a lot of such lexical units in the Russian language. The commonly used ones, which you now know, are distributed throughout the country. They are also used in some other countries where people speak Russian.

Emotionally expressive vocabulary

In addition to stylistically neutral lexical units, among common words there are those that can be pronounced by every person, but only sometimes. An opportunity must present itself for this. For example, the words: “zemlitsa”, “bungler”, “newspaper”, “bearded”, “square” - differ from stylistically neutral lexical units in that they can be called emotional or even expressive. This is very noticeable when pronouncing them. Emotional coloring is conveyed with the help of all kinds of suffixes, which can be derogatory-increasing or diminutive-affectionate, and expressiveness is achieved by the unusual figurativeness of words used in speech. By pronouncing such lexical units, a person shows his good or bad attitude towards an event or subject. And not surprisingly, they are very rarely used in scientific works and business papers. Emotionally expressive lexical units are not used in all styles of speech. As a rule, they are actively used in ordinary conversations, and they can also be read in printed publications. It is impossible to imagine how people would speak if it were not for the ubiquity of common words. Terms are something completely different, they refer to Do not confuse them with common words. This is a big mistake.

Dialectal and common

But from all of the above it does not follow that commonly used words represent a closed vocabulary that does not have any influence. You shouldn't think like that. On the contrary, terms (special or dialectal) can be added to this vocabulary, the use of which was previously curtailed. For example, the words: “motley”, “tyrant”, “boring”, “burning”, “loser”, “regular” - at the beginning of the 19th century were not as widespread as they are now: the area of ​​their use was limited to the dialect or special sphere. Nowadays, these lexical units are in common use. Interesting, isn't it? Commonly used ones are of great interest to many researchers. In addition, foreigners who are going to Russia often seek to recognize them.

Forgotten commonly used lexical units

Also, some commonly used lexical units may disappear from colloquial speech over time, narrowing the scope of their application. For example, the words “brezg” (dawn) and “zobat” (eat) are currently used only in a few Russian dialects. Many people no longer remember them. It happens that a lexical unit ceases to be commonly used and becomes professional jargon. The majority of people gradually forget this word, which is a little sad. Common words are lexical units that can be completely erased from people's memory. Unfortunately, this is true.

The popular vocabulary has its opposite - words of limited use. They can be heard when you are among people of a certain profession or living in the same territory.

Dialectisms

It is also necessary to consider words that are dialectal. They are used in their speech by people inhabiting a specific geographical area. Dialectal lexical units are most often used in simple conversations. And this is quite understandable. After all, dialect refers primarily to the oral speech of people living in villages. It will be incomprehensible to an outsider. However, village residents, of course, also know common words. It would be foolish to think that they cannot use them in their speech.

How do dialectisms differ from common words?

What is the difference between dialect and common words? The former are distinguished by a narrower area of ​​use; in addition, they are characterized by some semantic-lexical, grammatical, and phonetic features. Taking into account their characteristic features, several types of dialectisms can be distinguished. Which ones exactly?

Types of dialectisms

1. Phonetic dialectisms are specific lexical units. What can you say about them? They contain the phonetic features of any dialect: “tipyatok”, “Vankya”, “bochkya” (in common vocabulary these are “boiling water”, “Vanka”, “barrel”) - belong to South Russian; “kuricha”, “tselovek”, “tsiasy”, “nemchi” (in other words, “chicken”, “man”, “clock”, “Germans”) are words pronounced rather unusually, characteristic of several northwestern dialects. To outsiders their sound may seem somewhat strange. They are closer, of course, to commonly used words.
2. Grammatical dialectisms are unique lexical units. What is known about them? They have grammatical properties that are not characteristic of a literary language, and they also do not resemble common words in their morphological structure. It is rare to hear them.
3. Lexical dialectisms are words that are not similar to commonly used ones either in meaning or form. For example, inda - even, kochet - rooster, gutarit - talk, the other day - recently, etc.

Special and professional words

Lexical units that can usually be heard while in the company of people of a certain type of activity belong to special and professional words. They are used in some areas of technology and science. These two terms need to be distinguished in order to understand which word is officially accepted and constantly pronounced (special), and which is expressively reinterpreted, rethought after being borrowed from a commonly used dictionary (professional). The latter are common in the vocabulary of people in many occupations. Thus, common words sometimes give rise to professionalisms.

Special vocabulary, as a rule, completely “covers” a certain special field of technology or science: all important ideas and concepts are denoted by strictly established terms. Professionalism is a little different from them. They are not often presented as a system, since they are taken from oral conversations of people belonging to any specialty. Professionalism can be called quite emotional and vivid words. They sound very expressive. Every person needs to know what common words, dialect and professional words are.

2.1. Dialectal (regional) vocabulary

2.2. Socially restricted vocabulary

Literature

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From the point of view of the scope of use, vocabulary is divided into two large groups:

common,

limited scope of use.

1. Common vocabulary

Commonly used(nationwide) vocabulary is words, the understanding and use of which do not depend on the place of residence, profession, or occupation of native speakers. Commonly used vocabulary forms the basis of the vocabulary of a language. It includes, first of all, literary words(except for special vocabulary):

needle,rope,grumble,go, bonfire,rally,runny nose, cloth,sew…

All these words are understandable to every native speaker and can be used in a wide variety of settings and communication situations.

In addition, commonly used vocabulary has recently included non-literary words that are common among people of different ages and professions, regardless of place of residence:

bullshit, muzzle,bump around,will do,foolishly,hang around…

The use of these commonly understood words is limited to informal communication situations.

1. Vocabulary of limited scope

Vocabulary of limited scope (non-national) are words, the understanding and use of which are related to a person’s place of residence, his profession, and occupation. Non-popular vocabulary includes

territorially limited (dialectal),

socially limited vocabulary.

2.1. Dialectal(regional)vocabulary- this is part of non-national vocabulary that is typical for the population of a locality, district, region:

veksha'squirrel', unsteady'cradle, area 'bushes', peplum'Beautiful', row ‘to disdain’, have supper‘to have dinner’…

Dialectal words are called (lexical) dialectisms [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 211–212].

Popular and dialect vocabulary interconnected.

1) Many of the lexical dialectisms are by origin in popular words:

vered'sore', pregnant‘armful’, stomach'belongings', juda‘horror, fear’...

2) Many dialect words entered the national vocabulary:

nonsense,take a seat,plow,owl,frail,tedious,take a nap,barracks,mumble,clumsy,hype,background...[SRYA-1, p. 45].

2.2. Toward socially restricted vocabulary include

special vocabulary,

jargon.

1) Special vocabulary– these are words and combinations of words denoting concepts of a certain field of knowledge or activity:

dividend‘part of the profit received by shareholders’, alibi‘the absence of the accused at the crime scene as evidence of his innocence’, mezdra‘the underside of tanned leather’…

Among the special words stand out

• professionalism.

Terms(lat. terminus‘border, limit’) – words or combinations of words that officially accepted for naming concepts of science, production, art, etc.

Each term is necessarily based on a definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each field of knowledge has its own terminological system.

The terms are divided into

general scientific, which are used in various fields of knowledge: experiment, adequate, equivalent, reaction, progress...

special(highly specialized), which are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology: immobilization‘creating stillness, peace’, Glinka‘highest grade clay, kaolin’, epenthesis‘insert a sound to make pronunciation easier: poet - sings’…

Also distinguished commonly used(commonly understood) terms:

amputation, hypertension, cardiogram;

infinitive, adverb, case...

Terms are part of the literary language.

Professionalisms- these are words and combinations of words that are unofficial designations of special concepts.

Professionalisms function mainly in oral speech. Eg:

slur‘typographic defect in the form of a square, strip...’, cap‘large newspaper headline’… 1

Some authors contrast professionalisms as only names special (often specific) phenomena, concepts and professional jargon which are unofficial synonyms terms. Professional jargon is usually expressively colored:

solyanka'hydrochloric acid', pot'synchrophasotron', demobilization'demobilization', cap‘captain’... [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 222–224; ERYA, p. 392].

Professional jargon is not included in the literary language.

2) Jargon (French) jargon) – socially restricted words that are emotionally expressive synonyms of stylistically neutral common words.

The use of jargon is limited social factors:

the speakers belonging to the same social environment (for example, noble jargons),

belonging to the same profession (professional jargon),

the same age (e.g. youth slang),

community of interests, etc.

Professional jargons have existed for centuries in different countries during different periods. They reached a particular flourishing in the era of feudalism with its guild fragmentation and isolation of professions. Emergence professional jargon explained desire to classify any actions or features of production. The secret languages ​​of handicraftsmen (wandering saddlers, tailors, blacksmiths, coppersmiths), the jargons of gold miners, traveling actors, and small merchants and peddlers (offeners, peddlers) are known. Eg:

at the ofenya: throw'sleep', shivar'product', maz‘trader, “one’s own” person’, legal'house', usy‘money’ [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 234]…;

from buyers of illegally mined gold: resin'gold', two -'lb', three– ‘spool’ (4.266 g or 1/96 lb)…;

Currently, professional jargon have no secrecy purposes[SRYASH, p. 281–284].

Jargon may arise in any sufficiently stable team:

army jargon: perfume 'new recruits', grandfathers, demobilization…

jargon musicians and music lovers: fan,downhole, trash ‘rock music style’, The Beatles...

jargon schoolgirls: dunk‘to curtsy’, boots'cadets', pencil‘student of the city gymnasium’, eggplant‘student of the noble gymnasium’, canary‘ruble’ [SRYASH, p. 281–282].

jargon schoolchildren: teacher, banana,physical education, mathematics, physics…

jargon students: spur'crib' , school'university', cowgirl'scholarship', tail‘academic debt’, dorm'dormitory', cut off‘get an unsatisfactory grade’, fishing rod satisfactorily' …

youth jargon: cool‘the highest degree of positive assessment’, steep‘beyond all praise; unusual, shocking’, strain‘to bore, bother with requests, claims’, run over‘to bother with claims and reproaches’, get in, get in'understand'…

computer jargon: jar‘computer system unit’, Windows, Windows‘Microsoft Windows operating system’, gamer‘a person who constantly plays computer games’, glitch‘work with glitches (errors)’...

Internet-jargon: avatar, avchik, userpic‘the picture that the user chooses as his “face”’, appendicitis'application' (English) appendix), ban‘impose a temporary ban on the user from doing something’, google‘search the Internet (usually using Google)’...

First of all, it is youth slang that is called slang. Term slang(English) slang) originally designated exclusively the language of youth (cf. hippie slang) or professional jargon of any new, actively developing field ( business slang, computer slang). Lately the term slang used as a synonym for the general term jargon . The compatibility of the word has expanded significantly ( medical slang, army slang). The new term is gradually replacing the word jargon, which during the Soviet period acquired a negative connotation ( camp jargon,prison slang).

A special term to designate words belonging to slang (such as jargon), No.

Border between individual jargons, as well as between jargon (slang), vernacular and colloquial speech, is unsteady and permeable. Some researchers talk about the emergence common jargon (interjargon), which is used not only by certain social groups, but also by the majority of native speakers [Nikitina, p. 4].

Some slang words are gradually entering the common vocabulary(first into colloquial speech, and then they can move into colloquial speech and even into literary language).

For example, from jargon seminarians The words included in the literary vocabulary:

beast(lat. bestia'beast'; (bran.) ‘rogue, scoundrel; clever, cunning person’);

nonsense‘nonsense, nonsense’ (seminar word, most likely from Greek. Athenian),

from singing jargon: sing along;

from factory: bungler;

from the slang of beggars: double-dealer.

Such slang words as

float, fall through, cut off, window, steering wheel, linden...

damn, split...[SRYA, p. 93–94].

Gradually, these words lose their inherent connotation of rudeness and vulgarity, but their use in literary language, as a rule, stylistically limited within the framework of colloquial speech [SRYASH, p. 285–286].

Jargonisms differ from the words of other groups with the following features:

They represent not the main, but a parallel designation of the phenomenon of reality; next to him there are always (or almost always) synonyms for popular use[SRYA-1, p. 48–49].

All jargons have bright expressive and stylistic coloring:

schmuck,cheesy,sucker– this is an extreme degree of disapproval, neglect;

steep, specific with some vagueness and uncertainty of lexical meaning, they are capable of expressing a whole range of emotional nuances: from delight to complete disapproval.

Compared to common words that have lived for centuries, slang vocabulary is different great variability, fragility. The fact is that the emotional-expressive coloring is “erased” in the process of use: words become familiar, “boring”. Therefore, they are replaced by new, “fresh” words with vivid expressiveness. For example, those used in the 50-60s have almost disappeared from youth slang. 20th century

dude,dude, horses'parents', hut‘an apartment where you can get together’.

In the 80s they were replaced

men,girla, skull,haza,flat.

Wed. also slang terms money:

50–60s: tugriks, rupees;

60s: shurshiki, coins, money;

80s: money;

turn of the 80s–90s: wooden(about rubles), green(about dollars).

Modern student jargon differs sharply not only from the jargon of high school students, seminarians, and pre-revolutionary students, but also from the school and student jargon of the 20s and 30s. 20th century [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 233].

It happens that forgotten jargons are returning, because again have a touch of novelty.

Argotisms(French) argot) name the words used in criminal environment:

academy'jail', fraer‘petty, inexperienced thief’, raspberry‘den’, little guy‘letter, note’...

Argotisms serve to

linguistic isolation (the function of distinguishing “friend - foe”),

linguistic conspiracy [Rakhmanova, Suzdaltseva, p. 234].

In linguistic literature the term argot is understood ambiguously. Some authors understand it as “secret speech,” meaning not only thieves’ jargon. Sometimes terms argot And jargon are used as equivalent [SRYASH, p. 284].

Any jargon differs from the literary language in the first place vocabulary. They do not have morphological, syntactic or pronunciation features. True, non-literary speech (slang and vernacular) is often distinguished from literary

a) special use of word-forming means (cf.: mokrukha, bitch, mess) And

b) intonation.

Popular vocabulary

┌──────────────┴────────────┐

common vocabulary of limited

vocabulary of use

┌────────────────────┴────┐

territorially social

limited limited

(dialectal) ┌──────────────┴───┐

slang and special

argotic (terms And

professionalism)

Let us turn to the concept of “term”. Here are the three most complete definitions given in dictionaries of foreign words.

New Dictionary of Foreign Words (EdwART, 2009).

Temmin (lat. terminus limit, border)

• 1) a word or combination of words that precisely designates a specific concept used in science, technology, or art;
• 2) in logic - a constituent element of a judgment (subject and predicate) or syllogism; syllogism presupposes three terms: the major term of the syllogism is the predicate of the conclusion, the smaller term is the subject of the conclusion; the third, mediating concept included in the premises of the syllogism is called the middle term;
• 3) in ancient Roman mythology - God is the guardian of boundaries and boundary markers, pillars, stones, which were considered sacred.

Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language (Chudinov A.N., 1910).

Temrmin (lat. terminus)

• 1) an accepted conventional expression, a name characteristic of any science or craft;
• 2) term;
• 3) among the Romans: the god of boundaries, to whom the festival of terminalia was established;
• 4) border post, column;
• 5) in logic: the name of a concept as part of a judgment.

Large Dictionary of Foreign Words (Publishing House "IDDK", 2007). (Coincident with Ushakov's definition)

Term (term, m. [Latin terminus - limit, border]).

• 1) in formal logic - a concept expressed in a word (philosophy);
• 2) a word that is the name of a strictly defined concept. Special terms (denoting special concepts of certain branches of science, art, technology, production, etc.).

In Russian dictionaries the meaning of the word “term” is similar, because borrowed word.

Value according to Efremova:

A term is a word or phrase that denotes a strictly defined concept in some kind. areas of knowledge.

Value according to Ozhegov:

A term is a word or phrase - the name of a specific concept of some special field of science, technology, or art.

Meaning according to Dahl's dictionary:

Term is an expression, word, saying, the name of a thing or device, a conditional expression. Each science and craft has its own terms, accepted and conventional names. Terminology, collection and explanation of such sayings, naming, naming. -gical, -gical dictionary, nomenclature, dictionary of scientific and craft sayings.

As we can see, the meaning of the word “term” was quite diverse: logic, philosophy, mythology, definition. We are interested in that part of it that is interpreted as “a word that precisely designates any concept in a certain field of science or activity.”

So, what does the “term” include? When determining its status, it is necessary to pay attention to its connection with the basic unit of language - the word. To develop terminology, it was necessary to establish what a “term” is, what features it includes, and most importantly, how it relates to the word.

First of all, the term is considered as an element of a special language, a certain system, since “the term exists only insofar as it is an element of this system.” But a term is primarily a word, a lexical unit, and its specificity (belonging to a special vocabulary) is secondary. The specificity, in turn, is determined by the opposition of the term with commonly used vocabulary.

The problem of the status of the term was the subject of lively debate until the 1970s, as evidenced by the materials of special conferences (copy from Grinevich). On the one hand, there was a desire to contrast terms with commonly used vocabulary, to take them beyond the boundaries of language (Kapanadze, 1965). On the other hand, identify them with commonly used vocabulary (Kuzmin, 1962). In the mid-1970s, this problem calmed down somewhat, since by that time a more or less identical understanding of the meaning of a term as a word or combination that is associated with a concept belonging to any field of knowledge or activity had already been established. At the same time, a large number of formulations “did not impede the unity of understanding of the concept of “term”.”

Why did the question arise about the delimitation (or non-delimitation) of terms and commonly used vocabulary? To do this we need to turn to history. In Grineevich’s book “Introduction to Terminology,” the author cites construction as an example. This is one of the oldest types of human activity and housing is as familiar to us as food or clothing. Therefore, the special categories of architectural elements and building typologies include such terms that everyone understands, such as “single-story,” “multi-story,” “hospital,” “shop,” “windows,” “doors,” and so on.

At the same time, in an equally ancient field of human activity - medicine - most words are not commonly used. Sometimes there is only some parallelism: “scratch - honey.” excoriation", "mumps - honey. mumps."

Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that in any terminology there is necessarily a certain number of lexical units that are used both in professional and everyday speech. These units are called consubstantial. There are different points of view regarding these units. Some experts believe that consubstantial units appeared as a result of borrowing from commonly used vocabulary, others - that each word was a term at the time of its appearance, but not all remained terms at the present moment.

The second point of view is easier to understand. It was more fully substantiated by N.F. Yakovlev. He says that terms in the course of the historical development of language become everyday words as new technological inventions and new political concepts enter into popular life and mass use. Everyday words are terms that have lost their novelty, but have been preserved in everyday life. Such a word can be both a commonly used word and a term. For example, “water” is an everyday word, but in chemistry it is the term “substance H 2 O”.

The fact of borrowing commonly used words into specialized vocabulary is well known. (Ch. 7 add) Even if the word was originally used as a term (most likely borrowed), then etymologically it can be traced that in the native language it was also once in common use, in everyday life. On the other hand, if you look into the very depths of history, then words that are currently in common use (syringe, bridge) used to be the special vocabulary of the first doctors or artisans.

It should be noted that today almost every neutral noun is a concept that is used as a term in one or another field of science. For example, “book”, “magazine”, “poster” are different types of publications. Very often the names of various production processes and phenomena coincide with everyday ones. This indicates that the boundary between terminology and common vocabulary is unstable due to a constant two-way process: the transformation of terms into common words and vice versa.

However, as we said earlier, it is impossible to deny the fact that there are special terms that are used in narrow circles. What are the differences between terms and everyday words?

The main difference is the special area of ​​use (professional use), since each term is thematically specific. The term is used to name concepts and symbolize it. This property of the term is the most important; it explains not only that the term belongs to a special field of knowledge, but also all its properties.

Generalizing the definition in dictionaries (Explanatory dictionaries of Efremova, Ozhegov, Ushakov; Encyclopedic and Logical Dictionaries), a concept is a logically formulated thought about a class of objects or phenomena, which has a fairly clear and stable content and a relatively delineated scope.

A concept belongs to a specific field of knowledge, a term is an element of a fixed sublanguage and is used as such only within a given sublanguage. (Grineevich)

Speaking about the connection between the term and the concept, it is important to emphasize two more points:

1. The concept that is denoted by the term is interconnected with other concepts of the same field, and is an element of the system of concepts.

And therefore:

2. The term is interconnected with other terms and is an element of the terminological system.

The first feature is expressed in the definition of V.S. Kulebakin and Ya.A. Klimovitsky: “A term is a word (or phrase), which is the unity of a sound sign and the corresponding concept correlated (associated) with it in the system of concepts of a given field of science and technology” (Linguistic problems... 1970, pp. 19-20).

The second feature is reflected in the definition of the term given in the book “Russian Language and Soviet Society. Vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language": "A term is a unit of name in a given field of science and technology, to which a certain concept is attributed and which is correlated with other names in this field and forms a terminological system with them" (Russian language and Soviet society. Lexicon ... 1968, p. 152). These two definitions more or less clearly show the logical features of the term: the connection of the term with the concept and its logical systematicity (sometimes called systematicity).

The second important property of the term is substantive accuracy and clarity. The meaning of the term must be clear and limited. Precise boundaries, as a rule, are established using a definition - a scientific definition, which is also a definition of the meaning of the term. A definition is a necessary component of a term, since it plays a key role in isolating a term from common vocabulary. What does this element of the term include? A definition reveals the content of a concept, which means it lists all its characteristics that are necessary and sufficient to distinguish a given object from similar objects. There are several most common parameters:

• · Function. “Binding” is a hard or soft covering (consisting of covers and spine) designed to protect the book block attached to it. Unlike the cover, the binding is made of stronger and more wear-resistant materials and is connected to the book block using more complex types of sewing, flaps of the spine or edging material, and the outer sides of the endpaper and endpaper.
• · Compound. “Parchment is a material made from specially processed animal skins, used for writing and bookbinding. When unpainted it has a characteristic yellowish-white color. The front (meat) side of the parchment has a smooth texture, while the back (wool) side has a velvety texture. Writing material obtained from animal skins through a special processing process that excludes tanning. Compared to paper, it has a special texture, elasticity and density.
• · Spatial position. “Super ex libris” is an owner’s book mark located on top of the binding or other covering of the book.
• · Properties. “Lederin” is a fabric or paper-based binding material that imitates leather. Unlike calico, lederine is water-resistant and has a glossy surface with a pattern.
• · Receipt. “Inlay” is a method of applying an image by gluing cut-out elements of a material of a different type and color into specially designated areas of the background covering material. One of the variants of the mosaic technique, in which the image is in the same plane as the background.

When using an ordinary word, we usually do not peer into its structure, do not look for distinctive features, but operate only with external representation and external connections. Thus, the difference between a term and a commonly used word is that the term presupposes a complete definition, built according to certain laws. Commonly used vocabulary implies the most superficial, everyday properties of the corresponding object.

If there is a definition, the term also implies such properties as:

• · belonging to a special field of knowledge;
• · independence from context;
• · unambiguity;
• · stylistic neutrality;
• · conventionality of the term - the purposeful nature of the appearance of the term, implying a careful choice of name for any new concept;
• · reproducibility in speech.
• · nominative character due to the main function of the term;
• · clear position in the system.

In addition to the characteristics of the term, we will consider the requirements for it. Grineevich in his work says that the term should be considered in three aspects:

• · syntactic - form, structure of the term;
• · semantic - the meaning and content of the term;
• · pragmatic - features of the functioning of the term/

Form requirements:

• 1. compliance with language standards:
  • - elimination of professional jargon (“blunder” - a gross error in printing);
  • - elimination of deviations from phonetic and grammatical norms: “eslibris is right. bookplate."
• 2. brevity - the absence of words that do not carry a semantic load, the absence of pleonasm. "
• 3. derivational ability of the term
• 4. invariance - the immutability of their form

Content requirements:

• 1. Consistency of semantics - the absence of inconsistency between the lexical and terminological meaning of a word - the correspondence of the term to the concept it reflects. “A cover is a soft wrapper, a cover made of paper, fabric and other materials that holds together a block of a book (brochure, magazine) and protects it from contamination and destruction.
• 2. Unambiguity of the term in this terminology.
• 3. Meaningfulness - the presence in the meaning of a term of a sufficient number of features for identification. “Composite binding” is a binding whose cover consists of several parts, usually made of different materials (for example, a spine made of leather, covers made of fabric or paper).
• 4. Lack of synonyms. “Falchik” is a strip of paper, leather, fabric or other material connecting parts of a composite endpaper, or glued to the spine fold of a notebook or to individual inserts. See also: "piping".

Pragmatic requirements:

• 1. Implementation - the term should be used, generally accepted among specialists
• 2. Internationality - the sameness or similarity in form and content of terms in at least three national languages.
• 3. Modernity - ousting obsolete terms from use and replacing them with new ones. (“letterpress”, “st”)
• 4. Euphony - the term should be convenient to pronounce, and the term should not cause unwanted associations.