What is a sentence structure? type of block diagrams

1. Structural diagram as a predicative minimum (concept of the authors of RG-80, N.Yu. Shvedov). Attention is paid only to the formal structure of the sentence as a predicative unit. The structural diagram does not include components that do not form its predicative basis, that is, secondary members are not included. The structural diagram of a simple sentence is based on the grammatical form of exclusively the main members of the sentence.

1. Structural diagram as a nominative minimum (concept of T.P. Lomtev, G.A. Zolotova, syntaxists of Czechoslovakia, etc.). This understanding is addressed not only to the formal structure of the sentence, but also to its semantic organization.

1. Indicators of predicativity: conjugated verbs, infinitives, linking verbs.
2. Determinative nominal forms for linking verbs.
3. Nouns in Im.p. or their substitutes (substitutes).

1. Components of a minimal block diagram.
2. A substantive component with a subjective meaning (eg, He is ashamed).
3. Adverbial component (eg, He acted nobly).

1. Single-component and two-component;
2. Within both one- and two-component schemes, further division occurs in accordance with the grammatical form of expression of the components of the scheme (see Russian grammar: In 2 volumes / Edited by N.Yu. Shvedova. - M., 1980. - T .2. - P.97).

1. with prepositions (No time for talking), 3) with particles (Here is the voice, so the voice), 4) with interjections (Oh yes dancer).

1. The paradigm of a sentence as a system of its forms. Broad and narrow understanding of the proposal paradigm. Types of paradigms (full and

1. The paradigm of a sentence is understood as a system of its forms, similar to the system of word forms. This is a certain range of intra-circuit modifications of the proposal (work

1. Understanding the proposal paradigm is based on a larger range of phenomena. These include changes of an intra-circuit nature, as well as possible transformations of one structural diagram into another (see Beloshapkova V.A. Modern Russian language. - M., 1981. - P. 454).

To denote the structural essence of a sentence, its minimum, different terms are used - predicative minimum of a sentence, sentence formula, sentence model, structural basis, sentence scheme, nuclear sentence.

A sentence is constructed according to one or another abstract pattern - a structural diagram. When creating a sentence, notes O. Jespersen, the speaker relies on a certain sample[Jespersen 1958]. No matter what words he chooses, he constructs a sentence according to this pattern. This pattern arises in the speaker's subconscious as a result of hearing a huge number of sentences that have common features. A sentence, O. Jespersen emphasizes, does not appear in the speaker’s mind immediately, but is created gradually during the speech process. The speaker has to apply language skills to a given situation in order to express something that has not been expressed in detail before. He must adapt his language skills to changing needs.

V.M. Pavlov notes that any linguistic means (here we are talking about the sentence as a systemic unit of language) is used in speech not as something absolutely identical to itself, “ready in advance,” as if stored in the required quantity for all subsequent cases of standard copies, but in the order of repeated transformations of a certain “matrix-stereotype” in the process of its own reproduction. Repeating itself in the process of its reproduction, such a matrix does not lose the ability to undergo adaptive modifications. A distinctive property of linguistic means, emphasizes V.M. Pavlov, is their regular reproducibility [Pavlov 1985].

The task of the study of the structural scheme of a sentence is to determine, in relation to sentences of different types, a minimum of components in which the sentence, regardless of the context, is self-sufficient and capable of performing its functions . Block diagram can be defined as an abstract sample consisting of a minimum of components necessary to create a sentence [Beloshapkova 1977].

Formal models are filled with specific lexical material. The interaction of vocabulary and syntax occurs primarily at the level of general categorical meaning of parts of speech. Thus, the position of the subject is replaced mainly by words with the general categorical seme “subjectivity”, i.e. by nouns, and the position of the predicate is replaced mainly by verbs, with a categorical seme of a procedural attribute.

Scientists note that, as a rule, it is not the semantics of individual words that interferes with the syntax, but the semantics of certain (more or less general categories, for example, for a noun it is animate/inanimate, countable/uncountable, naming body parts, etc., for a verb - transitivity /intransitivity, action/state, etc.

Lexical semantics imposes restrictions on the possibility of using a word in a certain syntactic function. Thus, inanimate nouns are rarely used as the subject of a transitive verb: Wind broke a tree; The wind broke the tree.

There are two approaches to determining the minimum of a sentence and, accordingly, to determining the structural scheme of a sentence: 1) the structural scheme is the predicative minimum of a sentence; 2) the structural diagram is the nominative minimum of the sentence.

The understanding of the structural scheme of a sentence as a predicative minimum is embodied in Grammar-70. All types of Russian sentences are described here in the form of a list of block diagrams. Structural diagrams are divided into two classes: two-part and one-part. Within these classes, subclasses are distinguished according to the form of expression of the circuit components.

Structural diagrams in this concept are written in the form of symbolic formulas, in which certain symbols indicate the components of the schemes according to morphological characteristics (part of speech, its form), for example:

N1–Vf Son is studying; (Noun – N, in the nominative case – 1, verb – V, in the personal form – f).

N1–Vf–N4 Father is reading a newspaper;

N1 – Vcop – N1/Adj Son–student. Boy–smart;(Vcop is a copular verb)

Inf – Vcop - N1 Fly–his dream etc.

Each language has its own system of such structural patterns. Individual patterns in different languages ​​may be the same, but the systems as a whole are always different. For example, Indo-European languages ​​are characterized by so-called two-component structural patterns containing a predicate, i.e. the verb in the personal form (or the form of another word in the same position), and the subject, i.e. nominative case form of a name or infinitive (less often another word form in the same position): The sun is shining; The sun shines; Die sonne scheint.

The models by which sentences and syntactic structures are constructed are stored in our linguistic memory as a ready-made sample, a template with the help of which an unlimited number of speech messages can be transmitted.

As one of the universal principles when children master syntactic structures, the principle of obligatory subject is noted. However, in some languages ​​the subject is not always realized phonetically. Languages ​​are considered to contain a syntactic subject, but only some of them require its phonetic implementation, i.e. utterances. A classic example is the comparison of English and Italian. The subject in English must be pronounced, while in Italian it can remain phonetically empty:

Italian: Ha telephonato. Gianni ha telefonato.

English: * Has telephoned. John has teleptoned.

I called. John called.

The Russian language occupies an intermediate position between Italian and English: pronouncing the subject is not necessary in all contexts.

Children learning English often do not pronounce the subject. They pronounce constructions that are unacceptable in English. The role of adult speech is reduced to illustrating grammatically correct constructions in a given language. Children gradually master the rule of filling in the subject position, even in explative constructions: it rains: it is late etc.

10 . Structure of components

Syntactic relationships between words are reflected not only in a hierarchically ordered structure - a dependency tree. In addition to the relationships between words in a sentence, there is another type of relationship - relationships between groups of words, between phrases. This type of relationship is reflected in a structure of a different type - the structure of components.

A word with words dependent on it forms a component. Components can be “nested” into one another. A sentence that includes all components can also be recognized as a whole component.

The boundaries of components are usually denoted by square brackets. Let's imagine the structure of the components of the sentence First-year students will soon take an exam on introduction to linguistics

[first year]

]

[will rent]

[soon [to be handed over]]

[in linguistics]

[introduction [to linguistics]]

[on [introduction [to linguistics]]]

[exam [on [introduction [to linguistics]]]]

] [soon [will take [exam [on [introduction [to linguistics]]]]]]]]

The structure of the components can be represented as a tree, where each node represents a certain component. The proposal itself is also a component. It corresponds to the root node of the tree.

Hello two-students. I was recently wandering around the Internet and came across a textbook on the Russian language. I remembered this school, which I had to go to every day and sit through my pants. Even though I always studied well... Let’s say it’s good, I wouldn’t want to repeat this experience. I found a lesson in the textbook about how to correctly structure sentences. And I decided to write an article about this, so that you, caught by nostalgia for your school days, or, suddenly, by necessity, would not wander around looking for textbooks on the Russian language, but would come to my blog. And here’s a quick check for you:

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1. With answer
2. With a viewing mark

1. Task 1 of 10

   1 .

   Find the structure [ __ and __ ====== ] among the sentences presented.

2. Task 2 of 10

   2 .

   Find the structure [│О│,…] among the sentences presented.

3. Task 3 of 10

   3 .

   Find the structure [│ВВ│,…] among the sentences presented.

4. Task 4 of 10

   4 .

   Find the structure [│DO│, X...] among the sentences presented.

5. Task 5 of 10

   5 .

   Find the structure [X,│PO│,…] among the sentences presented.

6. Task 6 of 10

   6 .

   Find the structure “[P!]” - [a] among the sentences presented.

7. Task 7 of 10

   7 .

   Find among the presented sentences the structure “[P..,│O│!] - [a]. - [│BB│,…P..].”

8. Task 8 of 10

   8 .

   Find the structure […..], and […..] among the sentences presented.

9. Task 9 of 10

   9 .

   Find among the sentences presented the structure […..], (that….).

10. Task 10 out of 10

    10 .

    Find among the sentences presented the structure […..], (which….).

Someone will object: “School is over long ago, let’s write without diagrams.” This point of view is quite fair. For those who communicate via SMS and game chats. So, today the topic of our lesson is: “How to create a sentence diagram?” Moreover, if you are a copywriter or want to become one and earn more than your teacher, knowledge of sentence patterns, unfortunately, is necessary.

The procedure for drawing up a proposal outline

To draw up a diagram you will need graphic symbols. Equivalent clauses within a complex sentence are denoted by square brackets. The subordinate together with the conjunction is in parentheses. The main word from which the question is asked is a cross.

Simple sentence diagram

Let's look at an example right away. Let's start with the easiest task for elementary school.

This is a simple two-part sentence. A distinction is also made between one-part sentences, when the main members of a sentence are expressed by one subject or one predicate. Simple sentences can be common, as in our case, or uncommon, for example:

Let's pay attention to the predicate. It can be simple or complex:

• Simple: " Michael composed ».
• Compound verb: “ Misha wanted to write on the sofa».
• Compound nominal: “ Misha was a friend for me».

A simple sentence may include:

Ivan, sit in the left row. The proposal outline is as follows

[│О│,…..].

It is important to highlight the address with commas in the same way as introductory words.

Unfortunately, this happened quite often

[│ВВ│,…..].

Don’t forget to find and highlight the adverbial or participial phrases.

Without taking his eyes off, the dog looked at her

[│DO│, X...].

The view that opened before him was like an enchanted kingdom of cold.

[X,│PO│,…..].

Direct speech is often found in literary texts and reasoning texts.

“Don’t go into the yard!” the stranger shouted loudly.

“[P!]” - [a].

“Hurray, brothers!” he shouted. “It seems like our business is starting to improve.”

“[P..,│O│!] - [a]. - [│BB│,...P..].”

So, an English teacher. Imagine I got all A's (80 percent), I'm going to a college with honors, Olympiads, conferences - everyone knows me. And this...... well... the woman gives me a hard time. I tell her: aren’t you normal, look at my grades, what are you doing? And nothing - supposedly a principle. Although what the hell is the principle when she gave fours to athletes who did not come to classes at all and gave fives for a can of coffee. And everyone told her this: Pasha needs to give at least a four. In short, it's tough. Already at the defense of my diploma, the director himself intervened and she gave me a 4 after the defense, but the honors diploma was lost.

Complex sentence diagram.

There are several types of complex sentences. Let's look at them in order.

A compound sentence is two simple, equal sentences connected by a coordinating conjunction.

The walls of the tunnel moved apart, and the travelers found themselves in a huge sublunar grotto.

The scheme here is simple […..], and […..].

In a complex sentence, one part is main, the second is subordinate, accompanies the first.

The individual columns were so huge that their tops reached right up to the vault.

[…..], (What ….).

The air around him was much cleaner than what he breathed at home.

[…..], (which….).

Subordination in such sentences occurs with the help of subordinating conjunctions.

A non-union sentence is similar to a compound sentence, but does not have a conjunction.

The television studio offered a ridiculously small amount - Miga got angry.

[…..] — […..].

In our example, Migi's dissatisfaction is caused by the actions performed in the first part of the complex sentence. But there is no conjunction; it is replaced by a dash.

Don't get confused when creating a diagram with different types of connections. It can be very difficult to break such sentences without losing the main idea.

The bottom of the tunnel went down, so it was easy and simple to walk: it seemed that someone was pushing in the back, and the light would soon turn on ahead.

[…..], (therefore….): [│BB│,...], and [....].

A complex sentence may have several subordinate clauses that follow from one another. This is consistent submission.

The children were informed that tomorrow there would be a holiday that would end with a carnival procession.

(which ….).

There are also parallel subordination. From the main clause, different questions are asked to the subordinate clauses. In this case, subordinate clauses can become separate simple sentences almost without change.

When the photographer arrived, Serenky wrapped the stock in a handkerchief to hide it in his bosom.

↓ when? ↓ why?

(when ....), (to ....).

In the Russian language, homogeneous subordination is distinguished. This is a list of simple sentences. They are asked the same question from the main part, and they are connected by the same union.

Watching nature in the spring, you can notice how birds fly in, how tender leaves appear, how the first flowers bloom.

↓ what? ↓ what? ↓ what?

(like ....), (like ....), (like ....).

The main types of proposals are considered. When reading and analyzing the text, carefully look at sentences that are large in construction. Highlight the main information. Mentally ask questions from the main word or main part to the subordinate or subordinate. This will help you grasp the essence and place punctuation marks correctly.

Good luck to everyone! Well, find 10 differences in these pictures and write how long it took you to do it.

Find 10 differences

Why might you need a proposal outline? There are several options. For example, you need to create an outline of a sentence when parsing it syntactically.

You can also schematically depict the parts of a sentence for yourself in order to more clearly imagine its structure and trace the logic of connecting parts of a sentence to each other (relevant for complex sentences).

If we are talking about complex sentences, it is convenient to analyze sentences with different types of connections using diagrams. And in simple ones, the diagram helps to visualize the syntactic structure.

In general, whatever one may say, sentence patterns in the Russian language are far from useless. Now we will summarize this topic. So that you can use this article as reference material. By the way, in order to draw up diagrams correctly, it doesn’t hurt to repeat some topics on syntax. Now we will analyze example circuits and repeat them at the same time. So you will benefit twice from the article - at the same time you will receive a summary of types of sentences, punctuation marks for direct speech, homogeneous members, etc. will.

Proposal outline plan

1. Read the sentence carefully, pay attention to the purpose of the statement: narrative, interrogative, or motivating. And take note of the emotional coloring: exclamatory or non-exclamatory.
2. Identify grammatical basics. What parts of speech are they expressed by?
3. After this, it will no longer be difficult to tell whether the sentence in front of you is simple or complex.
4. In a complex sentence, determine the boundaries of the simple ones included in it and, using a simple pencil, mark them with vertical lines. By the way, also separate participial and adverbial phrases and other types of complications with these features.
5. Underline the additional parts of the sentence (dashed line - addition, wavy line - definition and participial phrase as a whole, "dot-dash-dot" - adverbial phrase and participial phrase). What parts of speech are they represented by?
6. If you have a complex sentence with a conjunction between its parts, pay attention to the conjunctions: whether they are coordinating or subordinating.
7. The previous paragraph will help you correctly identify the predicative parts of a complex sentence. So, parts of a complex and non-conjunctive complex sentence are equal, denote them with square brackets. Indicate the subordinate clause in a complex sentence with parentheses. Don’t forget that the union/union word must also be included in them.
8. In a complex sentence, in the main part, find a word from which you can ask a question to the subordinate clause, mark it with a cross. From the word, draw an arrow with a pencil to the subordinate clause and write down the question. It also happens that the question to the subordinate clause is posed from the entire main clause.
9. And now the next step is the scheme of a simple/complex sentence - depending on what you have. Draw a linear graphic diagram onto which you transfer all the main symbols that were previously used to outline the sentence. In particular, sentence boundaries, grammatical basics, complications, if the sentence is complicated, the connection between sentences and the arrow with the question, conjunctions and allied words.
10. Complex sentences with multiple clauses will require a vertical diagram to correctly display sequential, parallel, or homogeneous subordination. We will look at these below using specific examples.
11. The numbers above the parts of a complex sentence can indicate the levels of subordinate clauses, which will reflect their position in the complex sentence. The main sentence is not indicated in any way.

Sometimes teachers may have specific requirements. For example, in the diagram, in addition to the main ones, additional members will be indicated. In addition, there are also reverse tasks when you need to compose a sentence according to the scheme. You will find an example of such a task below.

Simple Sentence Schemes

So let’s start right away with a task, no joke, at the 2nd grade level: we need a diagram of a simple sentence of the form “subject - predicate - subject”. Simple example:

At the same time, keep in mind that a simple sentence based on the presence of main members can be one- and two-part. By the presence of minor members - common and non-common (in the example above, which one?). And also based on the presence of a complete or reduced set of necessary members, sentences are divided into complete and incomplete.

When transferring the main members of the sentence to the diagram, do not let the predicates confuse you. They are:

Now let's move on to grade 5 and take on sentence patterns with inversion and other types of complications of simple sentences.

Appeal: denoted by O, the sign is separated from the rest of the sentence in the diagram by two vertical lines - │ │. The address is not a part of the sentence and only its location and the punctuation marks used during the address matter:

In the diagram with homogeneous members The latter sentences are indicated by a circle - ○, in which their syntactic role in the sentence can be noted (homogeneous objects, or adverbials, or subjects - any of the possible options). Also, the conjunctions and punctuation marks associated with them are transferred to the diagram. Generalizing words are also indicated, for example, by a circle, only with a dot in the middle. And in this article we use a square - it’s more convenient for us:

Offers with introductory words: we can designate them as BB and also enclose them in two vertical lines - the introductory words are not part of the sentence. Otherwise, the same aspects are important for the scheme with an introductory word as for the scheme with an appeal:

In the scheme with participial phrase, in addition to punctuation marks, indicate the word being defined. In the scheme with participial phrase And constructions with the meaning of addition and clarification– the most important thing is to indicate their place in the sentence:

You also probably remember that a simple sentence can be complicated dissociated members(some of them are already reflected in the examples above):

• separate definitions (agreed and uncoordinated, single and widespread; participial phrases also belong to this category);
• separate additions;
• isolated circumstances (gerunds, participial phrases, nouns and adverbs in the role of circumstances).

Sentences with direct speech

The diagram of a sentence with direct speech is not at all difficult: it only indicates the boundaries of the sentence, the words of the author and the direct speech itself, as well as the punctuation marks that accompany them. Here are some examples:

Complex Sentence Schemes

And now we have finally reached the high school program. And now let’s look at diagrams of compound and complex sentences with examples. And we will definitely consider proposals with non-union, as well as different types of communications.

Let's start with compound sentence: its parts are equal, so in the diagram we denote them with the same square brackets.

IN complex sentence The main and subordinate parts are clearly distinguished, so we denote the main part with square brackets and the subordinate part with round brackets. A subordinate clause can occupy different positions in relation to the main one: stand in front or behind it, break the main clause.

Parts non-union complex sentence are equivalent, therefore, here, too, the same square brackets are used to denote them in the diagram.

Making a diagram offers with different types of communication, it's easy to get confused. Carefully study the proposed example to avoid mistakes in the future:

Special case - complex sentence with several clauses. When drawing diagrams of subordinate clauses, they are arranged not horizontally, but vertically. Consistent submission:

Parallel subordination:

Homogeneous Subordination:

Make sentences based on these diagrams

Now, after we have examined the whole theory in such detail, it will, of course, not be difficult for you to write proposals yourself using ready-made diagrams. This is a good workout and a good task to check how well the material has been learned. So don't neglect it.

1. Sentence with appeal: [ │О?│… ]?
2. Sentence with homogeneous members: [and ○, and ○, and ○ – □].
3. A sentence with a participial phrase and an introductory word: [ X, |ПЧ|, ... |ВВ| …].
4. Sentence with direct speech: “[P, – a: – P].”
5. A complex sentence with several types of connection: [...], but [...], (which...): [...].

Write us your options in the comments - at the same time you can check whether you have learned everything well and understood the diagrams. See for yourself that there is nothing extremely complicated here!

Conclusion

You have worked on a large and voluminous topic. It includes knowledge from different sections of syntax: types of sentences, types of predicates, punctuation marks for homogeneous members of a sentence, direct speech, etc. If you carefully studied all the material, you could not only remember how to designate the members of a sentence in the diagram, but also repeat very important and useful rules.

And if you haven’t been too lazy to write down the sentences according to the diagrams, then you can say with complete confidence: you will meet tests and exams fully armed.

Do you think this article will be useful to someone else in your class? So click on the buttons below and “share” it on social networks. And write, write in the comments - let's communicate!

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b) Structural diagram of a simple sentence

The structural diagram of a simple sentence is an abstract syntactic example of constructing structurally similar simple sentences. The structural diagram represents the basis of the formal structure of simple sentences. The block diagrams reflect special signs(see) part-speech characteristics and necessary formal features of structurally obligatory (necessary) components of a sentence. Vary minimal proposal structure(see) and extended proposal block diagram(cm.).

Special signs used in the structural diagrams of a sentence are alphabetic signs-symbols indicating the Latin names of parts of speech and their individual forms: V (Latin verbum) - for the verb, Inf (Latin infinitiv) - for the indefinite form of the verb; N (lat. nomen) – for a noun (this sign is also used for a schematic representation of pronouns-nouns); A (lat. adjectivum) – for the name of an adjective and for a schematic representation of adjectival forms of other parts of speech (participles, ordinal numbers, pronominal adjectives); Adv (lat. adverbum) – for adverb; copula (copula) - for a connective in compound predicates; with a zero connective, its sign is enclosed in brackets - (cop). With the sign N (noun), lower digital indices are used to indicate the case form of the name (numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 - corresponding to the case number). With the V sign (verb), subscripts (numbers 1, 2, 3) are used to indicate the shape of the face. Indexes are used to indicate number forms s(lat. singularis) – units hours and index pl(lat. pluralis) – plural h. To indicate personal, i.e. the finite form of the verb, as well as the short form of the adjective, intended to be a predicate (i.e., perform the function of a finite verb), the index f (from the Latin finitum) is used - V f and A f. Examples: The night is dark - N 1 (cop) A f /1/5 (in the subscript the / “slash” sign indicates a relationship of variation: either a short form intended to be predicate, like a finite verb, or a nominative case form, or an instrumental case form. Example : The night is dark / dark / was dark.

The minimal structural diagram of a simple sentence is a structural diagram in which, with the help of special signs, the part-speech characteristic and formal characteristics of the components are reflected predicative sentence core(subject and predicate of a two-part sentence and the only main member of a one-part sentence).

An extended structural diagram of a simple sentence is a structural diagram that generalizes the nominative minimum of a simple sentence, which includes the predicative core of the sentence in combination with its obligatory extenders. For example: In the evenings I read books on art history– N 1 V f N 4 (verbal representation of the scheme: name in the nominative case + finite verb, i.e. in conjugated form, + name in the accusative case).

Sentences of phraseological structure are simple sentences in which syntactic connections are not motivated and lexical content is not free, i.e. is not determined by the laws of meaning construction, since the meaning of such sentences in each case of use is unique. Sentences of phraseological structure belong to the conversational style, are distinguished by a high degree of expressiveness, and are created according to unique schemes: N 1 as N 1:– Forest like a forest; N 1 so N 1 – A house is a house; N 1 is not in N 4 – A holiday is not a holiday;This is N 1 so N 1 – This is news, this is news; Everyone N 3 N 1 – News to all news; No to Inf – No to come; Who else but N 3 Inf – Who else but him should do this?

Semantic aspect of a simple sentence

a) Preliminary information

Semantic aspect of a simple sentence includes a system of semantic features expressed in a sentence that create the concept of its semantic structure(cm.).

Semantic structure of a simple sentence – a hierarchically organized system of generalized (typical) content features characteristic of large classes of semantically similar sentences.

The main components of the semantic structure of a sentence are: there are two main components of the semantic structure of a simple sentence, called terms dictum(see) and mode(cm.).

b) Dictum of the proposal

Dictum – a complex of objective meanings that contain information about the actual situation reflected in the sentence, giving a general idea of ​​the structure of this situation. Term dictum systematizes an infinite number of objective situations into separate types. When describing the dictum, the terms are used proposition(cm.), predicate(cm.), actant(cm.), subject(cm.), object(cm.), predicate-actant structure(cm.).

Proposition – an abstract model of the situation displayed in a sentence in abstraction from its modal-temporal characteristics. The proposition includes: a) a sign predicate(see), connecting the participants (actants) of the situation, and b) signs actants(see), otherwise – participants in the situation. This means that the proposition has predicate-actant structure(cm.).

Predicate– the central component of a proposition that determines the number and role characteristics of actants. For example, transfer predicates ( give, return, send etc.) presuppose the obligatory presence of three actants - the transmitting subject (who?), the transmitted object (what? / whom?) and the addressee object (to whom? / where?): I returned the books to the library; He handed the pen to his friend.

Actant – a general term that refers to the participants in a situation without indicating their specific roles in the situation. To name the actants of a situation, taking into account the role they play in it, there are many terms in scientific syntax. In educational syntax, two terms are mainly used: subject(cm.), object(cm.).

Subject – the central actant of the situation from which the attitude emanates or to which the predicative attribute is attributed. In the most typical cases, the subject is represented in the form of a subject ( Father got sick). In impersonal sentences, the subject is represented by a name in the indirect case, for example: To my father not feeling well; Parents was not at home. In definite-personal, indefinite-personal, generalized-personal one-part sentences, the subject is expressed in the personal endings of the verb components. Examples: I'm writing a letter(= I, i.e. speaking); Writing a letter(= You, those. listening); They're screaming on the street(= someone, unknown who).

Object– a generalized name for any non-subjective participants in situations. Various types of objects are distinguished, in particular direct object, indirect object, locative object (indicates the spatial boundaries of the designated action or relationship), temporal object (indicates the time of manifestation of the predicative feature), instrumental object (indicates the means, instrument with the help of which the action is performed). action) etc.

Predicate-actant structure – a predicate in combination with its obligatory actants (for example, a verb transmit has a predicate-actant structure, including four components: subject sign + predicate sign + direct object sign + addressee sign): I gave the book to a friend.→ N 1 V f N 4 N 3, where the sign N means the nominal part of speech, the sign V f– personal verb, subscripts with the N sign indicate case forms of names (i.e., case number).

Ways of representing propositions. There are two main ways of representing propositions: a) predicative construction(see) and b) non-predicative construction(cm.).

Predicative construction for representing a proposition – primary way of representing a proposition: a construction in the form of a simple sentence. The doctor came to the patient; My son was given a gift for his birthday

Non-predicative ways of presenting a proposition – representation of a proposition through phrases: doctor's visit to a patient;doctor visiting a patient;giving my son a birthday gift etc.

c) Mode of sentence

Mode – a complex of subjective meanings that arise in a sentence as a result of an “active operation” carried out by the subject of speech with the dictum of the sentence. Through the modus meanings put into the dictum by the speaker, he conveys the factual content either as a real fact, occurring in a particular time slice, or as an unreal fact, i.e. desired, expected, required. When describing the mode, the terms are used predicativity(cm.) , modality(cm.), objective modality(cm.), subjective modality(see) and a number of others.

Predicativity– a fundamental, fundamental semantic feature of a simple sentence, generated within its framework predicative core(see) and denoting the relationship of the content communicated in a sentence to reality through categories modalities(see) and time(see), i.e. through modal-temporal meaning(cm.).

Modality – a grammatical-semantic category, necessarily presented in any sentence, with the help of which the speaker expresses his own assessment of the relationship of the communicated content to objective reality. The content of a sentence can be represented by the speaker as fact is real relating to the present, past or future tense, or as something unreal(unreal), i.e. as possible or impossible, necessary or probable, desirable or undesirable, etc. Modality is expressed by a) mood forms, b) auxiliary verbs with modal meaning ( maybe, wants, assumes etc.), used in compound predicates as connective components, c) introductory words with a modal meaning ( of course, certainly, for sure, maybe, d) modal and modal-volitional particles of the type hardly, hardly, perhaps, tea, alas, perhaps, let, let, come on, let etc.

Objective modality – the main type of modal meanings expressed in a sentence through the categories of mood and tense. Through the category of objective modality, the speaker connects the expressed content with objective reality, presenting the content of what is being communicated either as a real fact, occurring in a particular time slice (before, during or after the moment of speech), or as an unreal fact outside of temporal localization (i.e. .as desired, required, expected, etc.). Without the expression of objective modality, a sentence as such cannot exist. Therefore, the speaker is obliged to obey the objective laws of language, manifested in the process of linguistic communication. Objective modality is expressed through the categories of tense and mood.

Time - a grammatical-semantic category with the help of which the speaker expresses the relationship of a real event reported in a sentence to a particular time slice. The starting point of the time slice is taken to be the moment of speech - before the moment of speech (past tense), at the moment of speech (present time), after the moment of speech (future tense).

Subjective modality – type of modality reflecting speaker's personal attitude to the content of the statement . Through subjective modality, the speaker modifies the objective modality of a sentence with his subjective assumptions and ideas. Subjective modality is expressed through introductory modal words ( of course, of course, maybe, probably, perhaps, obviously etc.), modal particles (hardly, hardly, as if, as if) etc. Wed: Tomorrow, perhaps (unlikely) / for sure / Of course) the weather will be good.

Intrasyntactic modality – modality expressed within the predicative core of a sentence through modal connectives of compound predicates. Modal connectives indicate the attitude of the subject of the sentence to the action indicated in the main part of the compound predicate: The boy wants / Maybe / must / trying / tries to draw.

Predicative core simple sentence - the main members of the sentence, within which the grammatical meaning of predicativity is expressed, i.e. modal-temporal meaning(cm.).

Modal-temporal meaning– a set of tense and mood values ​​inherent in any simple sentence. Through the meanings of time and mood, the content of a sentence is tied to reality, assessed either as a real fact of the present, past or future time, or as an unreal (unreal) fact, existing only in the speaker’s brain as a desirable, expected, possible, required phenomenon, etc. The meanings of tense and mood are expressed either in the form of a simple verbal predicate, or in the form of a verbal connective with a compound predicate. In verbless sentences, modal-temporal meaning is expressed using intonation, as well as through time adverbs and particles. For example: Winter. – In this sentence, the meaning of the present tense of the indicative mood is expressed through declarative intonation. In a sentence If only it were winter! using a compound particle at least expresses the value of desirability (regardless of a specific time) . In a sentence Early morning through narrative intonation, the presence of the named fact is communicated at the moment of speech (i.e. at the present time).

Modal-temporal paradigm of the sentence– the totality of all possible modal-temporal modifications of a sentence. The initial form of the paradigm is represented by a variant of the sentence that expresses the meaning of the real modality of the present tense. An example of a far from complete modal-temporal paradigm of a sentence: Happy children → The children will / were / would be / there will probably be / at least there were / if only there were / there certainly will be / let them be / will there be / let them want to be / wish to be / probably want to be / of course we would like to be / definitely should be happy.

Communicative-dynamic aspect

simple sentence

a) Introductory remarks

Communicative-dynamic aspect of a simple sentence constitute such features of a sentence that characterize it as a functioning, dynamic entity. These signs of a proposal appear in the process of its functioning. The communicative-dynamic features of a sentence are described using the terms intonation(cm.), actual division(see) and word order(cm.).

Intonation – a fundamental feature of any sentence, representing a system of sound means that function in interaction with the syntactic structure of the sentence and its lexical composition. Without intonation accompaniment, a sentence cannot function. With the help of intonation, the goals of the sentence are expressed (narration, question, command), and the actual semantic centers of the sentence are identified. Among all the possible dynamic features of a sentence manifested in the process of functioning, a special place is occupied by an intonational feature called the term actual division of the sentence(cm.).

b) Actual division of the sentence

Current division of the proposal is associated with understanding the content of a sentence from the point of view of the known/unknown content stated in it. Actual division is a communicatively significant division of the composition of a simple sentence into two parts, one of which contains known (i.e. communicatively insignificant) information extracted from the previous context or from the situation, and the other part introduces new, communicatively significant, i.e. e. relevant information for the sake of which the sentence is pronounced. For example: This girl very smart . Part of a sentence contained in a phrase this girl, carries information known to interlocutors either from the situation or from a previous context. Part of a sentence very smart contains new information, for the sake of communicating which this sentence is pronounced. This means that the actual division of a sentence in a brief formulation means the informational and semantic division of the sentence into two meaningful parts - the known and the new. To designate parts of the actual division, terms are introduced Subject (see) and Rema (cm.) .

Theme-rhematic division simple sentence - the same as actual division(cm.).

Topic – component of the actual division of a simple sentence, carrying irrelevant information, i.e. information known from a previous context or situation.

Rema- this is a component of the actual division of a simple sentence that carries new information. In calm, emotionally neutral speech, the direct order of the components of the actual division is usually observed: first, the part of the sentence that carries known (from the situation or from the previous context) information is pronounced, i.e. topic messages, then new information, i.e. rhema messages; compare: Father left to the village (answer to question: Where did your father leave?). In emotionally charged, excited speech, the typical order of theme and rheme is often violated, while the rheme is subject to strong intonation emphasis cf.: To the village father left / Father to the village left. There is a category of sentences that contain only new information, i.e. rhema only: Night. It's getting cold.

Ways to express the actual division of a sentence– special linguistic means with the help of which the actual division of a sentence is carried out. Methods of expressing actual division are divided into basic And additional(cm.). Basic language means, which emphasize the actual division of the sentence, are word order(see) and intonation(see), acting in close unity and interaction with each other.

Word order as one of the main ways of expressing actual division appears in neutral speech. For neutral speech, the usual order is the direct order of the components of the actual division, realizing the natural flow of thought “from the known to the unknown,” i.e. from topics To reme: We went on an excursion yesterday. (this stylistically neutral sentence is a complete answer to the question: “When did you go on an excursion?”).

Intonation as one of the main ways of expressing actual division works both in neutral speech and in emotionally charged speech. In neutral speech, in which the topic precedes the rheme, there is a rise in tone on the topic, which creates intonational tension in anticipation of the rhematic part of the message. Then there is a change in intonation (sometimes accompanied by a slight pause) and a calm decrease in intonation on the rhem. Example: Earth - our wealth. The man will be freed only the mind. In colloquial, emotionally intense speech it is observed inversion(see) components of actual division : The rheme occupies an unusual place for itself in the linear structure of a sentence - either the initial or middle position, while standing out with a strong logical stress. For example: Our wealth - Earth. Only the mind will free man - Man only the mind will release.

Inversion – changing the usual order of arrangement of sentence members and components of actual division.

Additional means of expressing the actual division of a sentence - linguistic means that, layered on top of the main ones, emphasize the thematic or rematic nature of one or another part of the sentence. These include particles(cm.), replays(cm.), incompleteness of sentences(cm.), special syntactic constructions(cm.), nominative topics(cm.), parcellation(cm.).

Particles as an additional means of expressing actual division. There are two types of particles - a) particles accompanying the subject of the message, such as the particle or (K son my father was strict , to my daughter treated me well); and b) particles that emphasize the rhematicity of one or another part of the sentence, these include particles this is, exactly, only, only, This I took the book;In the silence of the steppe I heard only barking dogs .

Repetitions as an additional means of expressing actual division used to highlight both theme and rheme: And our artillery thrashed and threshed and threshed (emphasis on rheme); Earth - this is our wealth, Earth- this is the home of our existence(highlight the topic).

Incompleteness of sentences as an additional means of expressing actual division used to skip the thematic part or its individual components: The world is illuminated the sun, Human - knowledge .

Special syntactic constructions used as a means of expressing actual division. Examples of such structures: As for me, then I I can't help you(the thematic component of the actual division is emphasized), Who do I need most?, so this in you (the rhematic component of actual division is emphasized).

Nominative themes– a special construction consisting of a name in the nominative case and used to emphasize the topic of further discussion. War… How many years have passed? she continues to appeal to our memory.

Parcellation – a syntactic phenomenon that is a kind of stringing together of an already completed sentence of individual rhematic segments, marked with independent ending signs. For example: He's from this city left. Forever. No one knows where.

Communicative sentence options– variants of the same sentence, differing in actual division. Communicative variants of a sentence are created by changing its theme-rhematic division, differ in word order and intonation, as well as stylistic coloring, resulting in communicative paradigm of the sentence(cm.).

Communicative sentence paradigm is a set of all possible communicative variants of the same sentence. For example: Today we will go to the theater (to the question - where?) / We'll go to the theater Today. (to the question - when?) / Let's go to the theater today We (to the question - who?) / Today we're going to the theater let's go (to the question – will you go?).

c) Word order in a sentence

Word order in a sentence – linear order of the components of a sentence. Word order in the Russian language is a very dynamic, extremely mobile phenomenon. Conventionally, three main types of word order can be distinguished: a) the most typical, frequent variants, characteristic of constitutively free and invented sentences (for example: Little boy reading an interesting book); b) variants of word order are unusual, atypical, but perceived as completely natural within a certain context and situation (for example: a sentence A boy is reading an interesting book is perceived as a completely natural complete answer to the question: “What book is the boy reading?”); c) variants of word order that indicate negligence in speech and are unacceptable in speech practice: ? The boy is reading an interesting book.

Regularities of word order in neutral speech. The following rules are observed: 1) concordant words are used before supporting names ( springtime, flowering plant); 2) controlled words are located after the support words: pale with fear, coat without a collar, telling tales; 3) the position of adjacent words depends on their syntactic meaning : adjacent words denoting external circumstances (place, time, purpose, condition, reason) and complementary relationships are used after supporting words (