Pharaoh is the title of kings in Ancient Egypt, as well as the title of the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty. The origin of the word “pharaoh* is unknown. Some translate it as “per-o” - a big house, others associate it with the word “fra* or “pra”, i.e. the sun. Pharaoh was considered a son sun Ra , the earthly incarnation of Horus and the heir of Osiris. Used to refer to the kings of Egypt from the 15th century. BC To prevent divine blood from mixing with human blood, the pharaohs married sisters or, at least, within a family circle. The life of the pharaohs was subordinated to ritual, because he was responsible for the well-being of the country, for the floods of the Nile, for the harvests. He was the main figure in religious rituals.
Pharaoh Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut(Maatkara Hatshepsut Henemethamon), daughter of the pharaoh Thutmose I and Queen Yasmos. Her mother was from the family of Theban kings, but her father was not of royal origin. Ruled Egypt for almost 22 years at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 15th centuries BC. Hatshepsut is the first known woman in world history and one of the most famous Egyptian rulers. She dressed in men's clothes and wore a fake beard to look like a man. During her reign, Egypt experienced economic prosperity, the restoration of the country after the Hyksos invasion was completed, and many monuments were erected.
When her mother Queen Yasmose died, Hatshepsut was, according to the Legitimists, the only offspring of the ancient line, and the king was forced to appoint her as his successor, despite the fact that the Egyptians had never before submitted to the rule of a queen. There are many versions in determining the degree of kinship between the two pharaohs Thutmose I and Thutmose II and with Queen Hatshepsut, but one thing is clear: at first this bright, intelligent woman had to cover up her actual performance of royal duties with fictitious rulers.
Hatshepsut became king - an incredible fact and not at all in harmony with the state legend about the origin of the pharaoh. She was called the "female Horus". The word "majesty" was given a feminine form (since in Egyptian it is consistent with the sex of the ruler), and the customs of the court were changed and distorted so that they could suit the rule of a woman. Hatshepsut was supported by the priesthood and the highest administrative officials of the country. Her co-ruler Thutmose III was removed from sending priestly functions to the temple of Amun.
Hatshepsut paid little attention to military affairs, but built a lot of temples. The greatest creation of her reign is temple in Deir el-Bahri . The building was conceived completely differently from the large temples of that era. The plan was modeled after the small stepped temple of Mentuhotep II in a nearby recess in the rocks. It rose from the valley in three terraces to the level of an elevated courtyard adjacent to the high yellow rocks where the holy of holies was carved. In front of these terraces there were wonderful colonnades, surprising with their exceptional proportionality. These are the first external colonnades in the history of architecture. The creator of the temple was the favorite of Queen Senmut.
After the death of the queen, her co-ruler Thutmose III regained power and did everything to erase the memory of the queen. All mentions of her were destroyed. The names of her confidants, carved on their tombs, have been erased; but this meant the death of the soul. The supporters who survived the queen left the country.
Pharaoh Amenhotep IV
Amenhotep IV - Egyptian pharaoh from the 18th dynasty. Ruled at the end of the 15th century. BC e., according to other data in the second half of the 14th century. BC e. Amenhotep married a noble Egyptian woman Nefertiti, disdaining the centuries-old tradition of royal marriages: the throne in Egypt was formally passed down through the female line - the husband of the eldest daughter of the previous pharaoh became the pharaoh. However, the wife of his father Amenhotep III and his mother was also not the daughter of the pharaoh, but the daughter of the provincial priest Tiy. This marriage was condemned by the priests of Amun and was not recognized by them. Amenhotep IV tried to carry out religious reform, replacing the cult of the Theban god Amun-Ra, as well as numerous local nome cults with a new state cult of the god Aten.
He established in Egypt sun worship (atomism). The pharaoh declared the solar disk (Aten) the only god, and himself the son of Aten and “the only one who knew the true god.” He banned the old cults, confiscated temple properties, and made the new city of Akhetaten (El-Amarna) the capital of the state. Luxurious temples were built in honor of Aten, and a new priesthood appeared, devoted to the reformer pharaoh. The pharaoh adopted the new name Akhenaten (“useful to Aten”). The political reason for this coup was the struggle of the pharaoh with the Theban priesthood, which began under Amenhotep III.
This first attempt in world history to introduce monotheism (monotheism) failed. The temple and state economy under Amenhotep IV - Akhenaten gradually fell into decay; Foreign policy was also unsuccessful for the country: Egypt lost many territories under its control. The incursions of the nomadic Habiru tribes into the Asian possessions of Egypt further complicated the situation. Under these conditions, the priests of Amun, apparently, did not even need to instill in the people the idea that Amon was angry with the heretic pharaoh and was sending punishment on Egypt: such an idea suggested itself. The new religion existed only until the end of the reign of Amenhotep IV, when the reformer pharaoh died at the age of about 33 years. The circumstances of Amenhotep IV's death are unknown. The series of documents with his name ends in 1402.
Under Akhenaten's successors, Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun, the capital returned back to Thebes and the cult of Amo-na-Ra, which had suffered a lot during the years of sun worship, was restored. Images of the royal couple - Akhenaten and Nefertiti - are destroyed. However, in art, the traditions of realism of the Akhetaten period were firmly entrenched. On later reliefs and statues, the influence of Akhetatonian art is clearly visible.
Pharaoh Tutankhamun
Tutankhamun(reigned presumably 1333-1323 BC) - Egyptian pharaoh, the last representative of the XVIII dynasty. He was married to Ankhsenpaaton, one of the daughters of Amenhotep IV, being a relative of him.
Tutankhamun came to power at the age of 8-9 years. He was brought up in the spirit of the cult of the sun god Aten, introduced in Egypt by Amenhotep IV, and was initially named after the new god of the country. The capital was nominally returned to Thebes, but in reality Memphis was the city in which Tutankhamun spent most of his reign. However, in reality, the rule in the country passed into the hands of two educators and regents of the young pharaoh - Aye and Horemheb, former comrades of Akhenaten, who after the death of this pharaoh anathematized the teachings of their former patron (mentions of him were destroyed in every possible way, Akhenaten’s name was hollowed out from the cartouches). Ey was once one of the apologists of the cult of Aten, but under Tutankhamun he was already a priest of Amun. Horemheb was a prominent military leader; he could not come to terms with the fact that as a result of Akhenaten’s pacifist policy, the Eastern Mediterranean fell away from Egypt.
Under Tutankhamun, under the leadership of the military leader Horemheb, for the first time after the collapse of the “Egyptian empire” of the Tutmosids, successful military campaigns were carried out in Nubia and areas of Asia close to Egypt.
At the time of his death, Tutankhamun was 18-19 years old. Such an early death of the pharaoh has long been considered sufficient reason to consider it unnatural. It followed from this that Tutankhamun could have been killed on the orders of his own regent Ey, who became the new pharaoh after the death of Tutankhamun. However, new research conducted in 2005 has highlighted speculation that Tutankhamun died as a result of trauma - an open fracture of the leg led to gangrene and blood poisoning. Apparently, the pharaoh received it during a hunt, which he was a great lover of.
The tomb of Tutankhamun is located in the Valley of the Kings, and this is the only almost unlooted tomb that has reached scientists in its original form, although it was opened twice by tomb thieves. The entrance to the tomb was covered with construction debris during the construction of the tomb of one of the pharaohs a hundred years later.
Pharaoh Ramesses II
Ramses II Meriamon(Usermaatra Setepenra), or Ramses II the Great (in old literature also Ramses; lived presumably in 1314 BC - 1224 BC or 1303-1212 BC) - the third king of the XIX dynasty. Under Ramses, Egypt reached its maximum borders. The name means "Ra gave birth to him."
Becoming co-ruler with his father Seti I at the age of just 10, Ramsee was first the pharaoh's viceroy in Ethiopia, where he had to deal with native raids. Having ascended the throne, he continued his father’s campaigns and restored Egyptian power in Palestine. The main foreign policy event during the reign of Ramesses II was the aggravation of relations and, finally, a bloody war with the kingdom of Hatti. The turning point of this war was the famous Battle of Kadesh, as a result of which Egyptian interests in Syria-Palestine were protected. Among the sources telling about the Battle of Kadesh, a remarkable historical and literary work stands out, the so-called “Poem of Pentaur”, which tells about the remarkable courage of Ramses II and the help that the god Amon provided him during the battle. This victory was immortalized on the walls of the temples at Abu Simbel, Luxor and Derra and sung by the court poet in the epic Pentaura. Ramesses II built many statues and temples in his honor in various parts of Egypt. The largest to date are two 20-meter statues of a seated Ramesses II in Abu Simbel in the south of the country. The fight against the Hittites ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty with King Hetasir III; it was the first known international treaty in history. The treaty was aimed at ensuring the mutual inviolability of possessions and providing assistance with infantry and chariots in the event of an attack on one of the contracting parties or an uprising of subjects. The text of the treaty, originally written on a silver tablet in cuneiform, was translated into Egyptian and immortalized on the walls of Karnak and the Ramesseum. From now on, Egyptian doctors, famous for their art, were often sent to the Hittite court. In order to strengthen peace, Ramsee married the daughter of the Hittite king (according to other sources, two at once), who then visited Egypt.
Ramses also reorganized the army and created a strong navy, which made it possible to repel the invasion of the peoples of the sea, and finally subjugated Nubia to Egypt. Ramesses immortalized his name with grandiose buildings throughout Egypt and Nubia. Due to prolonged wars, the capital was moved from Thebes to Tunisia. Ramesses II was one of the most popular rulers of Egypt; legends were written about his courage and wisdom, making him the personification of Egyptian power.
Ramesses II died in the 67th year of his reign and was survived by twelve of his sons. The Egyptian throne was inherited by the king's thirteenth son, by this time a middle-aged man.
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I didn’t see him, just a shadow reflection on
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/ Pharaohs of Egypt
Pharaohs of Egypt
The long history of Egypt with its varied, sometimes dramatic events has always unfolded around one unchanging, unshakable center - the pharaoh. He was elected not by people, but by the gods, who gave him the right and opportunity to speak and act on their behalf. Pharaoh is the ruler of Egypt, a mediator between heaven and earth. Behind every pharaoh lies the hidden history of Egypt. The ascension to the throne of a new king became the beginning of a new era for Egypt, and a new countdown of time began with it. The main task of the pharaoh was the destruction of evil and the establishment of Maat - a fair order governing the world of people and the entire Universe.
Who are the pharaohs
The word "Pharaoh" comes from the Egyptian "Per-aa", which means "magnificent house". This is what the ancient Egyptians called the palace, which was a sign that distinguished the pharaoh from other people. Basically, the pharaoh was called the ruler of both lands, which meant Upper and Lower Egypt, or “belonging to the Reed and the Bee.”
In Ancient Egypt there was a cult of pharaohs. The Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were, in fact, gods, and considered the god Ra to be the first of them. From his divine ancestors he receives a great inheritance - the land of Egypt, which he must preserve as his most precious treasure. The predecessor of the real rulers of Ancient Egypt is considered to be the god Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis. Pharaoh is the earthly embodiment of the divine Horus. Like the falcon god Horus who fights Set, the pharaoh must destroy isefet - destruction, violence and evil and establish Maat - truth and justice, prudence, order, unity and harmony. The winged goddess Maat, whose attribute is an ostrich feather, will accompany the pharaoh from the first days of his reign until the last stage of the great journey, when after death his soul will appear before the court of Osiris. At this trial, his every thought, every word, every action he commits will be weighed.
In order for the gods to live on earth, they needed houses. Therefore, one of the main responsibilities of the pharaoh was the construction of temples. Pharaoh is the high priest. He performed rites and ceremonies through which sacrifices and prayers reached the gods. “The Sacrifices of Maat” is one of the most important ritual scenes. By making a sacrifice to the deity, the pharaoh gives his good deeds performed in the name of Maat. Behind each ritual gesture of offering there are specific actions, feats, and a fulfilled duty of honor before the gods and people.
Every step of the pharaoh had to comply with strict rules and laws. The pharaoh is directly responsible for justice, the economy and the well-being of the country. The pharaoh is at the head of the army. In hunting, in competitions, in art and knowledge - he must be the best everywhere. Pharaoh must be an example in everything. If this was not the case, his authority was questioned, and then Egypt experienced its most difficult times.
The Egyptians believed that a pharaoh's energy was exhausted after 30 years of reign. That is why the pharaoh had to undergo the ritual of renewing the vital forces of Heb-Sed. This ritual could last more than two months. It consisted of many ceremonies and trials. Kheb-Sed gave a “second wind” to royal power and made it possible to feel that the king and his country were forever young.
The name of the pharaoh consisted of five parts. The first part meant the fact of divine origin. In the second part, the origin of the pharaoh from the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt – Nekhbet and Wadjet – was emphasized. The third name was Golden and symbolized the eternity of the ruler’s existence. The fourth name usually indicated the divine origin of the pharaoh. Finally, the fifth or personal name was considered to be the one given at birth.
The pharaoh, as a rule, was surrounded by a large court consisting of court officials and servants. It was believed that all pharaohs are the result of the marriage of the pharaoh's wife with one of the divine beings. At the same time, not only men, but also women could be pharaohs. To prevent the mixing of divine blood with human blood, the pharaohs first married their own sisters, and only then took other women as wives. Only a child born from the marriage of the pharaoh with his sister could inherit the throne. Women born into the pharaoh's family were endowed with great power. For example, Yahhotep I ruled Egypt until her son Ahmose reached maturity, and even led military campaigns. Queen Hatshepsut was crowned as king and god and ruled alone in Egypt for about 20 years, she was depicted as a man.
The main clothing of the pharaoh was an apron made of narrow fabric. It was wrapped around the hips and secured at the waist with a belt. This apron was called schenti. Unlike other segments of the population, the ruler’s shenti was made of thin, well-bleached linen. Also, there were aprons made of pleated fabric, worn over a loincloth. As decoration, an apron in the form of a trapezoid, which was made of precious metals, was tied to the pharaoh's belt. The finishing touch was jewelry and decorations.
An indispensable attribute of the pharaoh was the crown. The most common double crown "pschent" consisted of the red crown of Lower Egypt "deshret" and the white crown of Upper Egypt "hedjet". Each of these two crowns also belonged to the goddesses who patronized these parts of the country - respectively Wajit, the cobra goddess, and Nekhbet, revered in the form of a vulture. Images of Wadjet (uraeus) and Nekhbet were attached to the front of the crown. Less commonly worn were the blue khepresh crown (for military campaigns), the golden hait crown (for ritual ceremonies), the seshed diadem (in the era of the Old Kingdom), as well as other headdresses like the hemkhemet crown, more often found in images of gods than pharaohs.
Pharaohs often carried a cane with them, the upper part of which was made in the form of the head of a dog or jackal. The ruler always had his head covered. And even in the family circle he always wore a wig. There were formal and everyday wigs. A tiara in the shape of a golden cobra could be worn over the wig. Usually her head rose above the king's head. A mandatory attribute was a false beard braided into pigtails. It was connected to the wig by two garters. The pharaoh, as a rule, did not wear a natural beard and mustache, but sometimes he could leave a square beard.
The pharaoh, first of all, was the guarantor of stability, justice and order in the country. Every subject could count on the mercy of the ruler. And the biggest holiday was the coronation of the ruler. After all, the country again found a ruler who was the guarantor of stability and continued existence.
Life of the Pharaohs
The pharaohs lived in beautiful palaces, they were served by the sons of the high priests, and even the high priests themselves, who oversaw the performance of rituals and “talked” with the gods, considered themselves merely servants of the pharaoh. But the life of the supreme rulers of Ancient Egypt was not as carefree as it might seem at first glance; they could not do what they wanted, but were obliged to perform rituals and participate in ceremonies all their lives.
The Egyptians believed that the pharaoh could influence all events that took place. It is only thanks to him that the sun rises in the morning, the Nile floods at certain times of the year and brings with it fertile soil, grains sprout and the harvest ripens. PAccording to the opinion of the ancient Egyptians, it was the pharaoh who regulated the cycle of day and night, provided divine assistance during military campaigns and protected from epidemics and other punishments.
The entire population of Egypt, literally, idolized the pharaoh, under favorable circumstances. 
However, when a bad streak or a series of failures and troubles came, for example, failure in military affairs, a slave revolt, a terrible epidemic that “decimated” a quarter of the population, a bad year and, as a consequence, famine – all this was also “attributed” to the pharaohs. They say that our ruler has lost divine protection and now nothing good can happen. And in order not to fall into disgrace and not be overthrown, one had to really care about the well-being of one’s own state.
Therefore, the life of the pharaohs was not at all like a fairy tale. The rulers were treated as a direct extension of the divine will. They were the central figures of the religious cult. Participation in religious rituals was one of the obligatory moments, because the gods themselves decreed this. The power of the pharaoh was absolute, it was not limited by any set of rules or laws. At the same time, only a limited circle of people were allowed to communicate with them.
At the royal court, a special event was the morning toilet ceremony of the pharaoh. The awakening of the ruler always began with a hymn in honor of the rising sun and was accompanied by an elaborate ceremony that prepared him for the morning exit. The pharaoh rose from his bed and washed himself with rose water in a gilded bath. Then his divine body was rubbed with aromatic oils under the whisper of prayers, which had the property of driving away evil spirits. The barber shaved his head and cheeks, while he used razors with different blades. Having completed the first part of the toilet, the godlike man with a smoothly shaved head and a short beard, fresh and cheerful, passed into the hands of the next specialists who dealt with his make-up. They kept their paints in small vessels made of glass and obsidan. Pharaoh had eyeliner. The master tried on wigs of various designs on his shaved head - vaulted, bladed, tiled. The barber offered two types of beards tied with ribbons: Amon's cube made of hard horsehair and Osiris' flagellum made from the blond hair of Libyan wives.
The guard brought a white dress made of the finest “royal linen” - “woven air”, all in flowing folds; wide sleeves in feathery folds similar to wings, a tightly starched apron protruding forward in a multi-fold transparent, as if a glass pyramid. The royal outfit was not just luxurious, it had to correspond to the divine essence of its owner. Therefore, the morning ceremony was completed by decorating the royal person with precious symbols of royal power. The necklace or mantle was made of strung gold plates and beads with a flat clasp at the back, from which a gold tassel of chains and flowers of amazingly fine and exquisite workmanship descended down the back. The classic mantle was made up of numerous rows of beads. In addition to the necklace, the pharaoh wore a chest decoration with an image of a temple on a double gold chain. Three pairs of massive bracelets adorned the arms and legs: wrists, forearm and ankles. Sometimes a long, thin tunic was worn over the entire costume, tied with a belt made of the same fabric.
Cleansed and smoked with incense, fully clothed, the pharaoh went to the chapel, tore off the clay seal from its doors and alone entered the sanctuary, where a wonderful statue of the god Osiris reclined on an ivory bed. This statue had an extraordinary gift: every night its arms, legs and head, cut off by the once evil god Seth, fell off, and the next morning, after the pharaoh’s prayer, they grew back on their own. When the most holy ruler was convinced that Osiris was safe again, he took him from his bed, bathed him, dressed him in precious clothes and, seating him on a malachite throne, burned incense before him. This ritual was extremely important, since if the divine body of Osiris did not grow together one morning, this would be a harbinger of great disasters not only for Egypt, but for the whole world. After the resurrection and vestment of the god Osiris, the pharaoh left the door of the chapel open so that the grace emanating from it would pour out throughout the whole country; he himself appointed priests who were supposed to guard the sanctuary, not so much from the evil will of people, but from their frivolity, as it happened more than once that someone, carelessly approaching too close to his place, received an invisible blow that deprived him of consciousness and sometimes even life.
Having completed the ritual of worship, the pharaoh, accompanied by priests singing prayers, went to the large refectory hall. When the pharaoh sat down at the table, young girls and boys ran into the hall, holding silver plates with meat and sweets and jugs of wine in their hands. The priest, who oversaw the royal kitchen, tasted food from the first plate and wine from the first jug, which the servants, kneeling, then served to the pharaoh. After the pharaoh, having satisfied his hunger, left the refectory hall, the dishes intended for the ancestors were passed on to the royal children and priests.
Morning time was reserved for government affairs. From the refectory, the pharaoh headed to an equally large reception hall. Here the most important state dignitaries and closest family members greeted him, falling on their faces, after which the Minister of War, the High Treasurer, the Chief Justice and the Supreme Chief of Police reported to him on the affairs of the state. The reports were interrupted by religious music and dancing, during which the dancers covered the throne with wreaths and bouquets.
After this, the pharaoh went to a nearby office and rested for several minutes, lying on the sofa. Then he poured libations of wine before the gods, burned incense and told the priests his dreams. Interpreting them, the sages drew up the highest decrees on matters awaiting the decision of the pharaoh. But sometimes, when there were no dreams or when their interpretation seemed wrong to the ruler, he smiled complacently and ordered to do such and such. This order was a law that no one dared to change, except in detail.
In the afternoon hours, the God-equal, carried in a stretcher, appeared in the courtyard in front of his faithful guard, after which he climbed onto the terrace and, turning to the four cardinal directions, sent them his blessing. At this time, flags fluttered on the pylons and powerful sounds of trumpets were heard. Anyone who heard them in the city or in the field, be it an Egyptian or a barbarian, fell on his face so that a particle of the highest grace would descend on him. At such a moment it was impossible to hit either a person or an animal, and if a criminal sentenced to death could prove that the sentence was read to him during the pharaoh’s exit to the terrace, his punishment was commuted. For ahead of the ruler of earth and heaven walks might, and behind is mercy. Having made the people happy, the ruler of all things under the sun descended into his gardens, into the thicket of palm trees and rested there, receiving tribute from his women and admiring the games of the children of his house.
For dinner, the ruler went to another refectory, where he shared dishes with the gods of all the nomes of Egypt, whose statues stood along the walls. What the gods did not eat went to the priests and high courtiers.
In the evening, the pharaoh received his wife, the mother of the heir to the throne, and watched religious dances and various performances. Then he went back to the bathroom and, having cleansed himself, entered the chapel of Osiris to undress and lay down the wonderful god. Having done this, he locked and sealed the doors of the chapel and, accompanied by a procession of priests, headed to his bedchamber.
It should be noted that the pharaoh’s wife often became his adviser and closest assistant, and ruled the state along with him. Therefore, it is not surprising that when the pharaoh died, the inconsolable widow took upon herself the burden of governing the state.
Pharaoh's house
Approximately, at the end of the 4th millennium BC, a complex of buildings intended to house and function the central government - the palace of the pharaoh or nomarch - acquired that special architectural form, which was then preserved for most of the 3rd millennium.
This prototype of the palace, which then existed for about 500 years, had the following design characteristics: a rectangular parallelepiped, the outer walls of which were surrounded by a series of towers, evenly interspersed with deep niches; the internal massif had courtyards and chambers located in the corners. The external facades were also decorated with tall, closely spaced pilasters, joined at the top and often framed by rich cornices and decorative panels.
The palace of the pharaoh, the highest expression of the city and the kingdom, had to meet not only the needs of the king, but also the administration, and was therefore divided into two large sectors. The first included the official quarters of the king and his family: a large hall with an audience, a throne room, and finally, rooms used by the “master of the palace,” “guardian of the crown,” “master of the two thrones,” and head of the royal regalia,” who presided over all complex ceremonies and the court itself, including numerous court ladies and the royal harem, to which was added an army of servants, palace workers, artisans, artists, doctors and hairdressers. In direct connection with this official part were the “Royal Court” and the “Chamber of Works,” chaired by the “Palace Architect and Builder of the Royal Navy.”
The second sector included: the White House (Treasury Department); “Red House”, or “House of Eternity” (Ministry of Royal and State Cult); "Chamber of Press" (Ministry of Taxes) with a highly organized cadastre and national property register; "House for the leaders of the armed forces", connected to the barracks of the Pharaoh's army.
The royal court had an office and archives. The legal procedure took place in three stages: petition, written and registered; judicial investigation; verdict based on hearings of the parties. Punishment included temporary imprisonment, corporal punishment and, rarely, death by beheading or hanging.
Of course, with the strengthening of power, the palace needed more and more premises and services. Often different departments were headed by the same person. During Djoser's time, for example, the high priest Imhotep, an exceptional personality, combined the functions of a physician, a royal architect and a vizier.
During the IV dynasty, the palace-castle reached its maximum splendor. It can be believed that these monumental buildings were developed technically and artistically on the basis of architectural experience completely unknown in the rest of the world. The façade, for example, was characterized by a play of voids and fullness, emphasized by protruding elements and vertical lines that, in comparison with the walls of Djoser's mausoleum, demonstrate an exceptional architectural, as well as technical and constructive, evolution in less than 200 years.
By the end of the 3rd millennium BC, the delightful castle-palace ceased to exist not only as an aesthetic and architectural solution, but also as a three-dimensional composition of one block, combining the functions of the residence of the pharaoh and the government. With the advent of the 2nd millennium, demands became more varied and complex: the growing empire demanded more and more prestige and more and more sophisticated instruments of power. The palace now housed the official apartments of the king and his court. This was the place of the ruler of the world, god on earth; the palace was equated to a temple. The central hall was the hypostyle hall, filled with giant columns, leading to the throne room, also with a colonnade. Next to it, in front of a large vestibule, also decorated with columns and pilasters, there was a “Hall of Celebrations” and auxiliary rooms for court servants. All the richness and monumentality of the ensemble was concentrated along the axis running from the atrium entrance to the throne room. Basically, the palace was like a temple, where the throne room occupied the place of the prayer house.
A characteristic palace facade with a portico appears in the Temple of Seti at Abydos; internal and external porticoes with columns - to the palace of Amenophis III in Luxor; the hypostyle audience hall, the festivities salon and the throne room are in similar rooms at the Karnak Temple.
The idea of surrounding the "center of world power" with imposing walls, in addition to the outer facades of the palaces, was realized in the city walls and Great Gate of Medinet Habu.
During the reign of Akhenaten (1372 - 1354 BC), in this exceptional period for 
ancient art and religion, there were decisive changes in the architectural language of government buildings and residences of the pharaoh. Thus, in the city of Akhetaten in Tel el-Amarna, the palace no longer appears as an array enclosed inside a rectangular structure, and not as a temple surrounded by giant columns, but as a house-villa in the center of other buildings, surrounded by open space. Between the main artery (the “royal road”) and the Nile stretched a long zone occupied by the official residence: the complex, starting from a spacious peristyle with a throne room, developed through a series of courtyards and gardens to a guest house, harem, royal offices and services. The gallery, which crossed the royal road, connected the palace with the apartments of the pharaoh and his family. These rooms were modest in size, but rich in elegant paintings with images of flowers and birds, even painted on the floors. The floors were decorated with colorful mosaics, and the walls, columns and ceilings were painted. The premises were furnished with rich furniture and filled with luxurious decorations. The walls, as a rule, were painted with scenes from the life of the royal families: for example, the king surrounded by children and the queen, or the king surrounded by charming concubines. The rooms were surrounded by loggias with columns or small pilasters made of painted wood; The hanging gardens that went down to the main highway gave them a special charm. Government buildings surrounded the complex, which was also adjacent to a private temple and a school for future associates of the pharaoh.
To the north of the city was the palace of Hataton ("Castle of Aten"), probably the first palace built in the new capital, since it is still enclosed in a square and divided into six rectangular symmetrical zones. Two large courtyards occupied the central space, connected to a single entrance. The first courtyard led to the pharaoh's personal sanctuary on the left, and to the service area and storerooms on the right. The second courtyard with a garden, the heart of the entire ensemble, led to the apartments of the king and his family - on the right, and on the left - to the zoological garden with animals in enclosures that came from the most distant corners of Egypt. In the back, in the center, was dominated by a hypostyle hall with a throne room, to the right of which was a festivities hall, to the left - a private garden with flowers and fountains, surrounded by cages with exotic birds.
Meru Aten, the pharaoh's vast summer residence, lies in the south of the city. It includes two large rectangular enclosed spaces located side by side. The smaller one was intended for religious meditation, on its sides there were many prayer houses and small cells, a small covered temple and a sacred enclosure or temple in an open area; in the center there is a grove with a sacred lake, around which pavilions and altars are scattered. In a large space, the buildings were mainly distributed along the short sides, so that an open area remained in the center: to the right was the residence itself with three small temples and a garden with gazebos, fountains, canals and water crackers; on the left are spacious stables for horses, a hangar for chariots and a royal kennel. Central Park had a large navigable artificial pond with a pier, islands and pavilions.
However, even the palaces, hanging gardens and well-kept parks of Akhenaten, unusually luxurious and original, cannot compare with the monumentality and enormous size of those that appeared 100 years later with Ramesses II and Ramesses III, the rulers of the world and the great builders. Undoubtedly, the fame of their gigantic abodes and huge gardens was still alive in the 1st millennium, when Nebuchadnezzar - five centuries later - built his palace and famous hanging gardens in Babylon.
And if in the 3rd millennium the palace competed in scale with the “abode of the pharaoh in the other world,” then in the 2nd millennium the tomb could hardly compare with the mortuary temples and palaces where the pharaoh exercised power over the whole world.
Death of the Pharaoh
Since the ruler was the embodiment of a deity, he had his own cult, both during life and after death. The death of the pharaoh was a great tragedy. After all, Egypt could not exist without a ruler. His cult is very clearly expressed in the funeral rite. According to the Egyptians, the ruler retains his divine status in the afterlife and continues to rule there. Therefore, the late ruler was supposed to be escorted to the next world with dignity.
Initially, the funeral rite followed the path of the sun from east to west. However, during the Middle Kingdom this path changes, as it is the road to the kingdom of the dead of Osiris, where the sun moves in reverse. Even during the life of the pharaoh, preparations began for his funeral - they began to build a monumental necropolis - most often in the form of a pyramid, many of which have survived to this day. Immediately after death, the pharaoh's body was embalmed. Internal organs were removed to avoid rotting processes. The body was treated with special balms and solutions. The corpse was wrapped in bandages in order to slow down the decomposition process and block the access of air to the flesh. On a ceremonial boat, the body of the pharaoh was delivered to the foot of the pyramid. Only the priests and their close associates entered the sanctuary. After all the ceremonies were completed, the tomb was sealed.
Like all pagans, the ancient Egyptians left things next to the ashes of the pharaoh that were supposed to be useful to him “in the next world.” It is these relics that have attracted “treasure hunters” for thousands of years. With each new pharaoh, a new era of Egypt began.
Dynasties of Egyptian pharaohs
Third millennium BC
3,000 years – I dynasty – Capital Abydos (Tin), Upper Egypt – The birth of absolutism.
Narmer (Men, otherwise Menes), the king of Upper Egypt conquers the entire Nile Valley all the way to the Mediterranean Sea. The unification of the two kingdoms under the new symbol of the “white crown” of the South, connected to the “red crown” of the North. Abydos becomes the sacred capital of the god Osiris, here is the residence of the vizier of Lower Egypt and ten advisers of Upper Egypt. Heliopolis and Nekheb turn into sanctuary cities.
Akha founds the city of Memphis (Lower Egypt) and strengthens the southern borders. His tomb looks like a palace with towers.
Huaji leads an expedition to Sinai.
Udimu officially proclaims the festival of Heb-Sed, marking the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of the pharaoh. Structures made of processed stone with vaulted ceilings.
2,850 years - II Dynasty - Capital Memphis, Lower Egypt - Development of absolutism.
Hotepsekhemui, Neb-Ra, Niniter are the first kings of the dynasty.
Peribsen suppresses the uprising of the nomarchs of Upper Egypt and moves the capital to Memphis, changes his title, declaring Horus instead of Set as his god; buried in Abydos.
Khasekhem proclaims the cult of Horus as the state religion, with the highest religious authority concentrated in Heliopolis. Expedition to the heart of Nubia.
2,770 years – III Dynasty – Capital Memphis – Spread of absolutism in the field of religion.
Djoser combines the cult of the Sun with the cult of the pharaoh and seizes the power of the priest. Imhotep - ruler, vizier, great priest of Heliopolis - the first known physician and architect in history, later deified by the Greeks under the name Asclepius (Aesculapius - among the Romans). The construction of the mausoleum city of Djoser in Saqqara with a large step pyramid in the center. New expeditions to Sinai and the spread of power to the South.
Sekhemkhet begins a funerary complex with a step pyramid larger than Djoser's, but does not complete it. Along all these borders, walls with fortresses are built (12 km long along the Nile bed, at the level of the island of Philae, otherwise Philae, or Philae).
Sanakht, in rivalry with his predecessors, founded, among other things, a mausoleum similar to that of Djoser, but his tomb was simply installed in the place where the mourning temple of Unas later grew.
Khaba, the last king of the dynasty, who may have built the small pyramid at Zawiyat al-Aryan.
2620 years – IV dynasty – Capital Memphis – Strengthening of power.
Snefru goes down in history as a humane and kind pharaoh. Protects borders Sudan opens turquoise mines. Builds the first geometrically correct pyramid.
Cheops (Khufu) appoints his sons as high priests of Nekheb, the holy city opposite Nekhen, and 
Pe - the holy city opposite Butu (the exiled priests will curse his memory). Builds the first Great Pyramid
with a necropolis city around it.
Didufri (Rejedef) usurped power for a short time between the reigns of Cheops and Khafre. Begins construction of the pyramid at Abu Roash, which remained unfinished.
Khafre (Khafra) continues to centralize political and religious power. Builds the second Great Pyramid with a giant tomb temple and a granite temple in the valley.
Mikerin (Menkaura), having returned to the priests part of the possessions confiscated by Cheops, went down in history as a fair and gentle pharaoh.
Shepseskaf returns to the fight against the power of the priests. During his reign, new necropolises with mastaba-type tombs and pyramids grew up.
2,500 years – V Dynasty – Capital Memphis – Crisis of power, flourishing of the cult of the Sun.
Userkaf, Mikerin's nephew, builds a pyramid at Saqqara.
Sahura builds the Bubast Canal (Bubastis), connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea and creates a strong navy. Undertakes the first expedition to the mysterious Kingdom of Punt. Builds several pyramids and a solar temple in Abusir.
Neferirkara loses legal and religious power. Builds a pyramid and several temples in Abusir.
Niuserra interrupts the series of solar temples at Abusir and returns to the construction of the pyramids at Saqqara.
Unas builds a pyramid, decorating its interior with the Pyramid Texts and the Wisdom of Ptah-Hotep, two of the most important Egyptian texts that have come down to us.
2,350 years - VI Dynasty - Capital Memphis - Collapse of absolutism.
Teti tries to restore central power using the services of Nubian mercenaries. Grand viziers, such as Kajemmi and Meri, are practically the bearers of power. The highest flowering of art. Memoirs of the architect Menipta-Hank-Meri-Ra, “the court builder of the double palace.”
Under Pepi (Peopi I), the importance of royal power decreased with the simultaneous growth of the influence of viziers, great dignitaries and priests. Uni, the first minister, restores Egyptian dominance in Sinai and Palestine. The increased level of art is evidenced by the beautiful copper statue of the pharaoh and the amazing decoration of the tomb of Uni.
Pepi (Peopi II) reigned from the age of six until he was 100 years old: the longest reign in history. This was, however, a nominal reign, since power was peacefully divided between clerical and secular rulers.
At the end of the VI dynasty, under pressure from the peoples inhabiting the border areas, especially the Bedouins, central power was divided between the nomarchs.
2,180 years - VII and VIII dynasties - Capital Memphis and Abydos - Purely nominal dynasties.
Heracleopolis remains loyal to Memphis, as the personal possession of the king. The various rulers of Egypt follow each other in an endless succession. The invasion of nomadic tribes from Asia and the plunder of the cities of the Delta. Among the rulers of the South, the following stand out: Idi, the king of Koptos, and Shemai, the ruler of Upper Egypt.
2,160 years – IX and X dynasties – Main capital Heracleopolis, Middle Egypt – Lack of a unified and legitimized government.
Neferkara (2,130 - 2,120 BC) establishes the monarchy as “given by God” (but not deified), where the king for princes is “first among equals.” Not all rulers recognize his primacy.
Dynasty XI - Capital of Thebes, Upper Egypt - Restoration of centralized power.
Sekhertani-Antef (sekhertov) (2,120 - 2,118 BC) - self-proclaimed king, transfers power from Heracleopolis to Thebes.
Montuhotep I, "The God of Montu is Satisfied", (2060 - 2010 BC) extends power to Lower Egypt, supported by the middle strata of society interested in expanding trade throughout the territory. Construction of a grandiose temple-tomb in Deir el-Bahri with a pyramid, colonnade and steps, as well as a necropolis in Thebes.
Montuhotep II and III restore the position of state vizier and chief judge. Shipping in the Aegean Sea resumes. An important caravan route between Koptos and Red Sea equipped with wells, storage facilities and a seaport.
Second millennium BC
1,991 years - XII Dynasty - Capital of Thebes - Expansion of the empire.
Amenemhat I, "Amon on the Top", (1991 - 1962 BC), former vizier of Montuhotep III, supported by the people and the middle classes, gains power over the nomarchs. The power of the cult of the Sun - Amon-Ra. Reclamation of the Fayoum oasis (grand drainage and irrigation works over an area of 2,000 km²). Transfer of borders beyond the third Nile threshold into the depths of Sudan. Construction of many fortifications in border areas.
Sesostris I (Senusret) is the first pharaoh who, in order to continue the dynasty, introduced the institution of regency for his son.
Amenemhet II expands the empire to Megiddo in Palestine and Ugarit on the coast Syria .
Amenemhet III builds a grandiose residence in Fayyum (Fayum), called the "Labyrinth" by the Greeks.
Sesostris III and his followers continue to expand and unify the country. Chains of fortifications grow along the borders, connecting with each other through a system of smoke signals. Revival of science and literature with such famous works as The Book of Two Roads and The Instructions of Amenemhet.
1,785 years - XIII Dynasty - Capital of Thebes - Division of power.
Sekhemra marries the queen regent and assumes part of her power. Nubia separates from Upper Egypt.
1,745 years - XIV Dynasty, almost contemporary with the XIII Dynasty.
Neferhotep restores unity, first of all, throughout the Delta. Restores protectorate over Byblos in Lebanon . The Hyksos, under pressure from Indo-Europeans from Central Asia (Hittites and Kassites), invaded the fertile lands of the Delta, introducing the tradition of using the horse and cart, hitherto unknown to the Egyptians, and the cult of Baal.
1,700 years - XV Dynasty - Capital Avaris, Lower Egypt - Hyksos rule.
Salitis is the first “shepherd king” of the Hyksos, who became the ruler of Lower Egypt. Founds a new capital, Avaris.
Apophis, defeated by the king of Upper Egypt, the last “shepherd king”.
1,622 years - XVI Dynasty - Capital of Thebes - Restoration of power throughout Egypt.
Kamos (Kames) defeats and expels the Hyksos from Middle Egypt.
Ahmes (Amasis) conquers Nubia up to Abu Simbela . Penetrates the Delta, destroys Avaris and pursues the last Hyksos all the way to Palestine. Returning, he suppresses the rebellion of the princes of the North and restores power over all of Egypt.
XVII Dynasty - Phantom monarchy that existed in Lower Egypt during the reign of the Hyksos.
1580 years - XVIII dynasty - The capital of Thebes and Akhetaten - Triumph of the great Egyptian empire throughout the entire ecumene.
Ahmes (1580 - 1558 BC), brother of Ahmes from the 16th dynasty, continues to strengthen and expand power.
Amenophis I, "Amon Satisfied" (1558 - 1530 BC) expands the borders to the Euphrates. First clashes with the Hittites and Mitannians (northwestern Mesopotamia).
Thutmose I (1530 - 1520 BC) leads the cities of Thebes and Abydos to their greatest prosperity. The Temple of Karnak is enriched with pylons and giant obelisks; The Great Columned (Hypostyle) Hall appears. The cult of the sun god Amon is combined with the cult of Thoth.
Thutmose II (1520 - 1505 BC) marries Hatshepsut's half-sister. Calms internal and external resistance to absolute power.
Hatshepsut (1505 -1484 BC), regent for her son, rules for 20 years, dressed in men's dress and even wearing a fake pharaonic beard. Equips the most important trade expeditions to the mysterious kingdom of Punt.
Thutmose III (1505 - 1450 BC) actually reigned for 34 years after the death of his mother, becoming the most famous pharaoh. In Kadesh, beyond Byblos, he defeats the Mitannians; defeats 330 Syrian princes in Megiddo; Karchemisha, in northern Syria, crosses the Euphrates and again defeats the Mitannians, now on their territory (1483 BC). He also victoriously captures fertile lands, as vast as the Delta, with rich trading cities. Extends its power to the “islands of the great circle” (Crete, Cyprus and Cyclades). He generously forgives rebels and preserves the morals and religious traditions of the conquered territories. Egyptian culture and art spread throughout the ecumene (the known world in ancient times).
Amenophis II (1450 - 1425 BC) makes peace by marrying his son, the future pharaoh Thutmose IV (1425 - 1408 BC), to Princess Mithenia, daughter of the Mitannian king Artatama.
Amenophis III (1408 - 1372 BC) maintained peace with neighboring states by marrying Tiu (or Tuya), the daughter of the Mitannian king Sutarnus, and the daughter of the Babylonian king Kalimasin. Tiu has a strong influence on the pharaoh. First clashes with Suppilulima, king of the Hittites.
Amenophis IV, later Akhenaten, “pleasing to Aten,” (1372 - 1354 BC) changes his name when replacing the religion of Amun with the monotheistic and deeply mystical religion of Aten, according to which all people are equal in love for the one God, whose prophet is the pharaoh. In the center of Egypt he creates a new capital - the city of Akhetaten, the “horizon of the Aten”, where he moves the religious authorities from Thebes.
Nefertiti, “the most beautiful of the living,” Mitannian princess and wife of Akhenaten, had a powerful influence on the renewal of customs, art and religion.
Tutankhaten, later Tutankhamun (1354 - 1345 BC), remains in Akhetaten, ruling under the regency of Nefertiti, and then, under the influence of the clergy, returns to Thebes and restores the primacy of the cult of Amun. He dies mysteriously at the age of 18. Nefertita, who married old Ey, manages to retain power for another 4 years. But, with her death, the city of Akhetaten disappears, and with it the memory of the beautiful queen and her burial. Egypt falls into anarchy and poverty.
Horemheb (1340 - 1324 BC), Akhenaten's former friend and powerful military leader, renounces faith in the Aten and destroys all traces of this religion (the memory of Akhenaten, the "heretic pharaoh", is cursed). Due to the plague epidemic in Asia, he makes peace with Mursili II, king of the Hittites. Curbs general impoverishment by cracking down on corruption.
1314 years – 19th Dynasty – Capitals Tanis and Thebes – Permanent wars.
Ramesses (Ramses I) (1341 - 1312 BC), former military leader and vizier of Horemheb, "lord of all the earth", seeks power. Tanis (Per-Ramesses) chooses the capital of the empire, leaving Thebes, the capital of two kingdoms and the place of cult of the god Amun.
Seti I (1312 - 1298 BC) repels the Hittite king Muwatallah, advancing all the way to Sinai. Captures Phenicia and occupies Kadesh, despite stubborn resistance from the Hittites.
Ramses (Ramses II) (1298 - 1235 BC) moves the royal residence to Avaris and strengthens Tanis. In the first military campaign, he again repels the attack of the Hittites (18,000 people, 2,500 war chariots with sickle-shaped knives), but wisely stops in Kadesh. In the second campaign, it repels Palestinian rebels incited by the Hittites. In the face of a growing threat from the Assyrian king Shalmaneser, the Hittites and Egyptians, irreconcilable enemies for more than a century, sign the first international treaty in history, the guarantors of which are: the god Ra of Thebes for the Egyptians and the god Teshub (Teisheba) of Hattusa for the Hittites .
Merneptah (Merenptah) (1235 - 1224 BC) disperses the “sea peoples”: the Achaeans, Etruscans, Siculians, Lycians and Libyans, again threatening the Delta. Exodus of the Jews from Egypt.
Seti II is trying to contain the economic and power crisis. The Delta is again becoming the target of Libyan invasions.
1200 years - XX dynasty - Capital of Thebes - Revival and decline of centralized power.
Setnakht (Setnekht) defeats the Libyan hordes and returns the property they seized.
Ramses (Ramses III) (1198 - 1188 BC) continues to work to restore the power. In the very first military campaign he puts an end to the raids of the “sea peoples”. The Siculi and Etruscans retreat to the distant Italy , the rest - in Libya . Those remaining on Egyptian territory are assimilated or join the army as mercenaries. General conscription for national defense is introduced. Fighting against corruption and betrayal, which spread even in the harem and among the viziers, the great pharaoh becomes the victim of another assassination attempt.
The next 7 pharaohs, under the name Ramesses (Ramses), come to power as a result of endless palace conspiracies.
Ramses (Ramses XI) (1100 - 1085 BC) tries in vain to resist the unlimited power of the high priest of Amun Amenhotep Herihor, who, having become a vizier, practically headed the kingdom.
1085 years - XXI Dynasty - Capitals Tanis and Thebes - Power is divided into 2 branches.
Mendes, successor of Ramesses XI, rules Lower Egypt from Tanis.
Piankhi, son of Herihor, becomes pharaoh of Upper Egypt. He is followed by Pinujem I and his son Menkheperra.
The powerful Libyan family from Heracleopolis, which drove the army of the Palestinian king Solomon all the way to Megiddo, replaced the 21st dynasty.
First millennium BC
950 years - XXII Dynasty (Libyan) - Capital Bubast (Bubastis) - Attempt to achieve the same prestige.
Shoshenq (Sheshenq) I (950 - 929 BC), after the death of King Solomon, resumes the conquest of Palestine.
Osorkon (Userken) I (929 - 893 BC), struggle against the power of the priests of Thebes. Upper Nubia separates from Egypt and, united with Sudan, creates a new state with its capital in Napata.
757 years - XXIII dynasty (Bubastids) - Capital Bubast (Bubastis) - Dynasty parallel to the XXII, with the residence of the rulers in the same capital.
Osorkon (Userken) III (757 - 748 BC) restores relations with the religious authorities of Thebes, establishing the position of “divine servant of Amun” and endowing this title with the princess.
730 years – XXIV dynasty (Sais) – Capital Sais – Brief truce.
Tefnakht (Tefnekht) (730 - 720 BC), king of Sais, conquers Hermopolis and returns part of Lower Egypt. Expelled from the South by the king of Napata, Piankhi. Unites with neighboring peoples to protect against the devastating expansion of the Assyrians.
Bokhoris (Bekenrenef) (720 - 716 BC) seeks peace with the Assyrians. Raises workers and the middle class out of poverty, persecuting the rich priestly caste. Immortalized by the Greeks as an example of a just and generous ruler.
716 years - XXV dynasty (Ethiopian) - Capital of Napata, later Thebes - Contemporary of the XXIII and XXIV dynasties.
Piankhi (751 - 716 BC) annexes Upper Egypt and Nubia.
Shabaka (716 - 701 BC) returns the capital to Thebes, invades Lower Egypt and concludes a friendly peace with Assyria.
Shabataka (701 - 689 BC) suppresses a rebellion led by Hezekiah, king of Judah. Subsequently defeated by the Assyrian king Sennacherib, he nevertheless managed to avoid defeat.
Taharqa (689 - 663 BC), due to the riots of the princes of the Delta and the subsequent invasions of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, flees to distant Napata.
Tanut-Amun (663 - 655 BC) was overthrown as a result of the invasion of the Assyrians, who, taking advantage of the betrayal of the rulers of the North, plundered Thebes.
666 years – XXVI dynasty (Sais) – Capital Sais – Rise of political and economic life.
Necho (Necho, or Nikau), king of Sais, gains power by shamefully submitting to the leadership of Ashurbanipal.
Psamtik I (Psammetich) (663 - 609 BC), son of Necho, with Assyrian help conquers the Delta and strengthens the monarchy of Upper Egypt, giving key posts to relatives. Liberates itself from the Assyrians by uniting with the cities of the Eastern Mediterranean, and thereby encourages the emigration of Greeks to the Delta.
Necho II (609 - 594 BC) reconstructs the canal to the Red Sea. His ships ply the entire Mediterranean Sea, and perhaps even round Cape Horn in Africa.
Psamtik II (594 - 588 BC) conquers Nubia and gold mines. Spreads the culture and ethics of the ancient Egyptian religion in the Mediterranean. Unsuccessful wars against Cyrene, a Greek colony in the western Delta, and loss of prestige in Asia. Pharaoh is no longer the son of Osiris, and his power rests only on the lower classes.
Psamtik III (526 - 525 BC) faces the Persian king Kambinos, who has already captured all his Egyptian lands. He is defeated in Pelusium, tries in vain to take revenge and commits suicide.
524 years – XXVII dynasty (Persian) – Capitals Sais and Memphis – Continuation of the struggle for independence.
Cambyses, having conquered Egypt, is crowned at Sais and consecrated at Heliopolis as a maternal pharaoh. Reigns mercifully and generously.
Darius I (522 - 484 BC) managed to improve the Egyptian economy. Reopens the Red Sea Canal to connect the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea.
Xerxes and his successor Artaxerxes suppress two major revolts in Lower Egypt.
Darius II (424 - 404 BC) suppresses the third rebellion led by Amyrtaeus.
404 years – XXVIII Dynasty – Capital Sais – Liberation from Persian rule.
Amyrtaeus (404 - 398 BC), after the death of Darius II, liberates the country and, basically, restores the power of the Egyptians.
398 years – XXIX dynasty – Capital Mendes – Struggle for power.
Nephritis I, the leader of the Egyptian army, himself takes power into his own hands.
Achoris (390 - 378 BC) reconstructs the navy. Forms an alliance with Athens and Cyprus against Persia and Sparta.
378 years – XXXX dynasty (Sebennite) – Capitals Sebennite and Memphis – Loss of independence. Second Persian rule.
Nectanebo I, ruler of Sebennit, took over the shaky power. The Persian king Artaxerxes II invades the Delta with an army of 200,000 men, but is stopped by the flooding of the Nile.
Nectanebo II, betrayed by Greek mercenaries, flees to Upper Egypt.
Kabbas is declared pharaoh by the priests of Memphis, but 2 years later Egypt is conquered by Darius III. Unsuccessful attempts at resistance; the surviving Egyptians cry out for help from the Macedonians.
Alexander the Great (Macedonian) (333 - 323 BC), having expelled the Persians from Egypt, was greeted as a liberator and the rightful heir of the pharaohs. Declared by the oracle of Luxor as the son of the god Ra. Founds the new city of Alexandria (where he will be buried in 323 BC), which turns into the ideal capital and economic and cultural center of the entire ancient world. His heirs were his half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus and Alexander Aegos, considered the son of Alexander and Roxana.
311 years – Ptolemaic or Lagid dynasty – Capital Alexandria – Return of absolute power. The end of Ancient Egypt.
Ptolemy I Soter (306 - 285 BC), son of Lagus (satrap, or ruler of Egypt, from the time of Alexander the Great), self-proclaimed king of all Egypt. Founds the city of Ptolemais, next to Thebes, destroyed by the Assyrians. Re-conquers Syria and the Aegean Islands.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285 - 246 BC) returns Cyprus, Tire and Sidon. Concludes a treaty of friendship with Rome. Reopens the canal to the Red Sea. Active development of Hellenic-Egyptian culture.
Ptolemy III Euergetes (246 - 221 BC) expands the boundaries and becomes "Lord of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean." Alexandria is developing into one of the most important economic and commercial centers from Spain to India ; The Egyptian stater becomes the international currency.
Ptolemy IV Philopatra (221 - 203 BC), with whom the loss of possessions and the decline of this dynasty began.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes (203 - 181 BC) receives Syria as the dowry of Cleopatra I, given to him as his wife by King Antichos. The luxury and debauchery of the Ptolemies was accompanied by an increase in social and economic poverty throughout Egypt, devastated by the raids of neighboring peoples. Rome acts as an ally and, in the end, interferes in the politics and government structures of Egypt.
Ptolemy XII Auletes (80 BC) returns to Alexandria, thanks to Gabinius, the Roman governor in Syria.
Ptolemy XIII, the "New Dionysus", buys power over Egypt from the Roman Senate. Kills Pompey, seeking the favor of Caesar, the new absolute ruler of Rome. Arriving in Egypt, Caesar marries Cleopatra VII , sister of Ptolemy, and declares himself the son of the god Amon, a descendant of the pharaoh. Caesar and Cleopatra dream of uniting Rome and Egypt into a single empire, surpassing even the empire of Alexander the Great, and leaving it to their son Caesarion.
Cleopatra VII, after the death of Caesar, tries to streamline the economy of Egypt and asks Antony for help, 
successor of Caesar; Anthony comes to Cleopatra in Alexandria, and Caesarion becomes the new pharaoh. The conquest of Asian territories begins, but Rome, under the rule of Octavian, declares war on Egypt. The Egyptian fleet was defeated at Cape Actium (Actium); Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide.
The voice of Ancient Egypt did not completely cease with the Roman conquests. This voice, which has already received a deep resonance in the civilization of the Mediterranean, continues to sound powerfully and magically over the Nile. Even Roman emperors have cartouches with hieroglyphs and worship Egyptian gods with their images in temples, which the Romans restore and build. The cult of Osiris spread widely throughout the empire and in Rome itself.
Nero (54 - 68 AD), in addition to restoring and updating monuments, even organizes expeditions to the upper reaches of the Nile in search of its source.
Trajan (98 - 117 AD) brings back to life the ancient canal from Bubast (Bubastis) to the Red Sea, most of which now coincides with the Suez Canal route.
Hadrian (117 - 190 AD) founded the city of Antinopolis in Egypt, visited the “Colossi of Memnon” and the temples of Thebes, and remained fascinated by them to such an extent that he erected fantastic reconstructions of them in his gigantic Villa Tivoli near Rome.
But these are the last sparks: religious wars and uprisings against foreign domination are becoming increasingly bloody, poverty and despair are destroying everything that remains of the cities. Writing and art end their journey in oblivion and contempt. A heavy blanket of sand spreads over the great past, almost destroying even the memory of it.
Tours to Egypt – special offers of the day
The word "pharaoh" owes its origin to the Greek language. It is noteworthy that it was found even in the Old Testament.
Mysteries of history
As the ancient legend says, the first pharaoh of Egypt - Menes - later became the most popular deity. However, in general, information about these rulers is rather vague. We cannot even say that they all actually existed. The Predynastic period is covered most fully in this regard. Historians identify specific people who ruled Southern and Northern Egypt.
Attributes
The ancient pharaohs of Egypt underwent a mandatory coronation ceremony. The location of the traditional ceremonial event was Memphis. The new divine rulers received symbols of power from the priests. Among them were a diadem, a scepter, a whip, crowns and a cross. The last attribute was shaped like the letter “t” and was topped with a loop, symbolizing life itself.
The scepter was a short staff. Its upper end was curved. This attribute of power originated from such a thing could belong not only to kings and gods, but also to high officials.
Peculiarities
The ancient pharaohs of Egypt, like sons, could not appear before their people with their heads uncovered. The main royal headdress was the crown. There were many varieties of this symbol of power, among which are the White Crown of Upper Egypt, the Red Crown “Deshret”, the Crown of Lower Egypt, as well as the “Pschent” - a double version consisting of the White and Red Crowns (symbolizing the unity of the two kingdoms). The power of the pharaoh in Ancient Egypt even extended to space - so strong was the admiration for each heir of the creator of the world. However, it would be wrong to say that all pharaohs were despotic rulers and sole rulers of destinies.
Some ancient images depict the pharaohs of Egypt with headscarves covering their heads. This royal attribute was gold with blue stripes. Often a crown was placed on him.
Appearance
According to tradition, the ancient pharaohs of Egypt were clean-shaven. Another external distinctive feature of the rulers is the beard, which symbolized male strength and divine power. It is noteworthy that Hatshepsut also wore a beard, albeit a fake one.
Narmer
This pharaoh is a representative of the 0th or 1st dynasty. He reigned around the end of the third millennium BC. The slab from Hierakonpolis depicts him as the ruler of the united lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. It remains a mystery why his name is not included in the royal lists. Some historians believe that Narmer and Menes are the same person. Many people still argue about whether all the ancient pharaohs of Egypt are truly non-fictional characters.
Significant arguments in favor of the reality of Narmer are found objects such as a mace and a palette. The oldest artifacts glorify the conqueror of Lower Egypt named Narmer. It is stated that he was the predecessor of Menes. However, this theory also has its opponents.
Menes
For the first time, Menes became the ruler of an entire country. This pharaoh marked the beginning of the First Dynasty. Based on archaeological evidence, it can be assumed that his reign was around 3050 BC. Translated from ancient Egyptian, his name means “strong”, “durable”.
Legends dating back to the Ptolemaic era say that Menes did a lot to unite the northern and southern parts of the country. In addition, his name was mentioned in the chronicles of Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Aelian, Diodorus and Manetho. It is believed that Menes is the founder of Egyptian statehood, writing and cults. In addition, he initiated the construction of Memphis, where his residence was located.
Menes was famous as a wise politician and an experienced military leader. However, the period of his reign is characterized differently. According to some sources, life for ordinary Egyptians became worse under the reign of Menes, while others note the establishment of worship and temple rituals, which testifies to the wise management of the country.
Historians believe that Menes passed away in the sixty-third year of his reign. The culprit in the death of this ruler is believed to have been a hippopotamus. The enraged animal inflicted fatal injuries on Menes.
Chorus Akha
The history of the pharaohs of Egypt would be incomplete without mentioning this glorious ruler. Modern Egyptologists believe that it was Hor Akha who united Upper and Lower Egypt and also founded Memphis. There is a version that he was the son of Menes. This pharaoh ascended the throne in 3118, 3110 or 3007 BC. e.
During his reign, ancient Egyptian chronicles began. Each year received a special name based on the most striking event that occurred. Thus, one of the years of the reign of Hor Aha is called as follows: “defeat and capture of Nubia.” However, wars were not always fought. In general, the period of reign of this son of the Sun god is characterized as peaceful and calm.
The Abydos tomb of Pharaoh Hor Akha is the largest in the northwestern group of similar structures. However, the most pretentious is the Northern Tomb, which is located in Saqqara. Items with the name Hor Akha carved into it were also found. Most of them are wooden labels and clay seals found on vessels. Some ivory pieces were carved with the name Bener-Ib ("sweet at heart"). Perhaps these artifacts brought to us the memory of the pharaoh's wife.
Jer
This son of the Sun God belongs to the 1st Dynasty. It is estimated that he reigned for forty-seven years (2870-2823 BC). Not all ancient pharaohs of Egypt could boast of a large number of innovations during their reign. However, Jer was one of the ardent reformers. It is assumed that he was successful in the military field. Researchers found a rock inscription on the west bank of the Nile. It depicts Jer, and in front of him is a captive man kneeling.
The tomb of the pharaoh, located in Abydos, is a large rectangular pit, which is lined with bricks. The crypt was made of wood. 338 additional burial sites were found near the main burial site. It is assumed that servants and women from Djer's harem are buried in them. All of them, as required by tradition, were sacrificed after the burial of the king. Another 269 graves became the final resting place of nobles and courtiers of the pharaoh.
Dan
This pharaoh reigned around 2950 AD. His personal name is Sepati (this became known thanks to the Abydos list). Some historians believe that it was this pharaoh who first wore the double crown, symbolizing the unification of Egypt. History says that he was the leader of military campaigns in the region. From here we can conclude that Den was determined to further expand the Egyptian kingdom in this direction.
The pharaoh's mother was in a special position during the reign of her son. This is evidenced by the fact that she rests not far from Den's tomb. Such an honor still needed to be achieved. In addition, it is assumed that Hemaka, the custodian of the state treasury, was a highly respected person. On ancient Egyptian labels found, his name follows the name of the king. This is evidence of the special honor and trust of King Dan, who united Egypt.
The tombs of the pharaohs of that time were not distinguished by any special architectural delights. However, the same cannot be said about Dan's tomb. Thus, an impressive staircase leads to his tomb (it faces east, directly towards the rising sun), and the crypt itself is decorated with red granite slabs.
Tutankhamun
The reign of this pharaoh falls approximately on 1332-1323 BC. e. He nominally began to rule the country at the age of ten. Naturally, real power belonged to more experienced people - the courtier Ey and the commander Horemheb. During this period, Egypt's external positions were strengthened due to pacification within the country. During the reign of Tutankhamun, construction was intensified, as well as the restoration of the sanctuaries of the gods, neglected and destroyed during the reign of the previous pharaoh - Akhenaten.
As it was established during anatomical studies of the mummy, Tutankhamun did not even live to be twenty years old. There are two versions of his death: the fatal consequences of some illness or complications after a fall from a chariot. His tomb was found in the notorious Valley of the Kings near Thebes. It was practically not plundered by ancient Egyptian marauders. During archaeological excavations, a great variety of precious jewelry, clothing, and works of art were found. Truly unique finds were the box, seats and gilded chariot.
It is noteworthy that the aforementioned successors of the king - Ey and Horemheb - tried in every possible way to consign his name to oblivion, classifying Tutankhamun among the heretics.
Ramesses I
This pharaoh is believed to have reigned from 1292 to 1290 BC. Historians identify him with the temporary worker of Horemheb - the powerful military leader and supreme dignitary of Paramessu. The honorary position he held sounded like this: “the manager of all the horses of Egypt, the commandant of the fortresses, the caretaker of the Nile entrance, the envoy of the pharaoh, the charioteer of His Majesty, the royal clerk, the commander, the general priest of the Gods of the Two Lands.” It is assumed that Pharaoh Ramses I (Ramesses) is the successor of Horemheb himself. The image of his magnificent ascension to the throne is preserved on the pylon.
According to Egyptologists, the reign of Ramses I is not distinguished by either duration or significant events. He is most often mentioned in connection with the fact that the pharaohs of Egypt Seti I and Ramesses II were his direct descendants (son and grandson, respectively).
Cleopatra
This famous queen is a representative of the Macedonian. Her feelings for the Roman commander were truly dramatic. Cleopatra's reign is infamous due to the Roman conquest of Egypt. The obstinate queen was so disgusted by the idea of being a captive (of the first Roman emperor) that she chose to commit suicide. Cleopatra is the most popular ancient character in literary works and films. Her reign took place in co-reign with her brothers, and after that with Mark Antony, her legal husband.
Cleopatra is considered the last independent pharaoh in Ancient Egypt before the Roman conquest of the country. She is often mistakenly called the last pharaoh, but this is not so. A love affair with Caesar brought her a son, and with Mark Antony a daughter and two sons.
The pharaohs of Egypt are most fully described in the works of Plutarch, Appian, Suetonius, Flavius and Cassius. Cleopatra, naturally, also did not go unnoticed. In many sources she is described as a depraved woman of extraordinary beauty. For a night with Cleopatra, many were ready to pay with their own lives. However, this ruler was smart and courageous enough to pose a threat to the Romans.
Conclusion
The pharaohs of Egypt (the names and biographies of some of them are presented in the article) contributed to the formation of a powerful state that lasted more than twenty-seven centuries. The rise and improvement of this ancient kingdom was greatly facilitated by the fertile waters of the Nile. The annual floods perfectly fertilized the soil and contributed to the ripening of a rich grain harvest. Due to the abundance of food, there was a significant increase in population. The concentration of human resources, in turn, favored the creation and maintenance of irrigation canals, the formation of a large army, and the development of trade relations. In addition, mining, field geodesy and construction technologies were gradually mastered.
Society was controlled by the administrative elite, which was formed by priests and clerks. At the head, of course, was the pharaoh. The deification of the bureaucratic apparatus contributed to prosperity and order.
Today we can say with confidence that Ancient Egypt became the source of the great heritage of world civilization.
The head of the state was the pharaoh. He had absolute power in the country: all of Egypt with its colossal natural, land, material, and labor resources was considered the property of the pharaoh. It is no coincidence that the concept of “house of the pharaoh” - (nome) coincided with the concept of the state.
Religion in Ancient Egypt demanded unquestioning obedience to the pharaoh, otherwise a person would face terrible disasters during life and after death. It seemed to the Egyptians that only the gods could grant them such unlimited power as the pharaohs enjoyed. This is how the idea of the divinity of the pharaoh was formed in Egypt - he was recognized as the son of god in the flesh. Both ordinary people and nobles fell on their faces before the pharaoh and kissed the footprints of his feet. Pharaoh's permission to kiss his sandal was considered a great favor. The deification of the pharaohs occupied a central place in the religious culture of Egypt.
The religion of Ancient Egypt was a complex layering of beliefs that arose at different times and in different places. The ancient Egyptians worshiped many supreme gods. Almost all the gods had different names, and some were even called differently at different times of the day. Thus, the main god of EGYPT - the GOD of the Sun as the “Rising Sun” was called Khepri, or Kheprer, as the “Sun at its zenith” - Ra, as the “Sun before sunset” - Atum. It is difficult to say how many gods the Egyptians created and worshiped; some researchers suggest that the number was in the hundreds and thousands.
The gods were the personification of various natural phenomena and at the same time phenomena of social order. One of the most important gods was Ptah - the god of water, earth and the world mind, the creator of all things. It was believed that he carried the idea of creation of the world and gave it life with the movement of his tongue - with his word. Ptah was revered as the patron of arts and crafts. One of the few Ptah was depicted only in human form. As the most ancient of the gods, Ptah was known throughout Egypt, but was especially revered in Memphis.
The priests of other cities saw the emergence of the world differently. They taught that first there was the god Nun - the primeval water chaos. From him arose the god Atum, who later turned into Ra. From Atum-Ra arose the first pair of gods - the god of air Shu and his wife, the goddess of humidity Tefnut. From them were born Geb - the god of the Earth and Nut - the goddess of the sky, who, in turn, gave birth to Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys. These were the most important and primordial gods, from whom all other deities and people originated.
Osiris was worshiped as the god of dying and resurrecting nature. Osiris was the embodiment of goodness and was usually called the "good god." The wife and sister of Osiris was Isis (Isis) - the goddess of fertility, water and wind, magic and navigation. She personified marital fidelity and motherhood. Isis was usually depicted as a woman with the head or horns of a cow. The son of Isis and Osiris - the god Horus, the god of the Sun, conquering the forces of darkness, was revered in the guise of a falcon.
The myth of Osiris and Horus occupied an important place in the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. According to myth, Osiris was once the king of Egypt. It was he who taught the Egyptians how to cultivate the land. He was killed by his brother, the evil Set, the god of the desert and dry winds. Horus challenged Set to a duel and defeated him, and after that he resurrected Osiris, allowing him to swallow his eye. However, the resurrected Osiris did not return to earth, but became the king of the dead. Horus became his deputy on earth, the king of the living.
In addition to these gods, everywhere in all areas of Ancient Egypt they worshiped the goddess of truth and order Maat, the goddess of the sky, love and fun Hathor, the god of the Moon and writing Thoth. Thoth was credited with the invention of writing and was considered the divine secretary of the heavenly council under the god Ra. Those studying counting also asked him for help.
The Egyptians recognized the presence of the divine principle “in everything that is on land, in water and air.” Some animals, plants, and objects were revered as embodiments of deity. The Egyptians worshiped cats, snakes, crocodiles, rams, dung beetles - scarabs and many other living creatures, considering them their gods.
Religious ceremonies were often furnished with extraordinary pomp. For example, the cult of bulls was the richest and most solemn cult ever bestowed upon an animal. The Apis bull was considered the “earthly incarnation” and “servant” of the god Ptah, a symbol of fertility.
The Apis bull lived in a special sacred stable at the temple, where he was looked after by priests trained for this purpose. Apis had a harem of cows that were carefully selected for him. The bull lived in complete peace and contentment and his only duty was to demonstrate himself to the believers from time to time. When the bull died, his body was embalmed and buried in a complex ritual in front of a huge crowd of people. The search for a successor like him - the “newborn Apis” - was an extremely difficult matter: Only a black bull, with a white spot on the forehead in the shape of a triangle, with a growth under the tongue in the shape of a scarab beetle, was recognized as Apis. There were about thirty such signs in total.
The Egyptians also worshiped trees and plants, of which they especially singled out the lotus. They believed that lotus flowers were already in primeval chaos, and it was from the lotus flower that the Sun God Ra emerged. The soil and its fertile natural force were also considered God. Of inorganic nature, pointed stones were most revered. By analogy with such stones, obelisks began to be built.
