Already in that era, the predominant industry in Rus' was agriculture. Its development, of course, was closely related to soil and climate. Meanwhile, in the black earth zone of southern Russia it brought a rich harvest, although it sometimes suffered from drought, locusts, digging animals, worms, etc. enemies; in the northern regions, especially in the Novgorod land, agriculture developed with great difficulty. Early autumn or late spring frosts often destroyed bread and led to years of famine, and only deliveries from other Russian regions or from foreign countries saved the population from pestilence. Meanwhile, in the southern zone, the abundance of free, rich fields, with a relatively small population, made it possible to often plow and sow virgin land, or new land, i.e. virgin soil, and then, in case of depletion, let it go for a long number of years; in the northern zone, the farmer had to wage a persistent struggle with poor soil and impenetrable forests. To get a piece of convenient land, he cleared a plot of forest, cut down and burned trees; the ash that remained from them served as fertilizer. For several years, such a plot yielded a decent harvest, and when the soil was depleted, the farmer left it and went deeper into the forest, clearing a new plot for arable land. Such areas cleared from under the forest were called priterebs. As a result of such mobile farming, the peasant population itself acquired a mobile character. But at the same time, our peasantry spread Slavic-Russian colonization far in all directions and, with their sweat or their suffering (hard work), assigned new lands to the Russian tribe.
Various evidence confirms to us that the cultivation of the land was carried out with the same tools and methods that have been preserved in Rus' to our time. Spring grain was sown in the spring, and winter grain was sown in the fall. But in the south, in the same way, they plowed more with a “plow”, and in the north - with a plow, or “rawl”; they harnessed horses, but, in all likelihood, used them for plows and oxen; the plowed field, or "roly", was passed through with a harrow. The ears were also removed with a sickle and a scythe. The compressed or mowed bread was piled up, and then taken to the threshing floor and placed there in “stacks” and “tables”; Before threshing, they dried it in “barns” and threshed it with “flails.” Threshed grain, or “zhito,” was kept in “cells” and “susekas” (bins), but for the most part they were buried in pits. They ground grain into flour mainly with hand millstones; Mills are rarely mentioned and only about water mills. The hay was harvested in the same way as now, i.e. they mowed the grass in the meadows (otherwise known as “hay harvests” or “stubbles”) and stacked them in stacks. The main item in grain products and folk food even then was rye, as the most suitable plant for Russian soil. Wheat was also produced in the south; in addition, millet, oats, barley, peas, spelt, lentils, hemp, flax and hops are mentioned; We just don’t see any buckwheat in those days.
As for growing vegetables, or gardening, it was not alien to ancient Russia. We have news of vegetable gardens being planted near cities and monasteries, especially somewhere in Bologna, i.e. in a low place near a river. Among garden plants, mention is made of turnips, cabbage, poppy seeds, pumpkin, beans, garlic and onions - all the same ones that still form a common part of the Russian economy. We also have evidence of the existence in cities and monasteries of gardens containing various fruit trees, mainly apples. Nuts, berries and mushrooms, of course, served the needs of the Russian people even then. For wealthy people, trade brought expensive foreign vegetables and fruits brought from the south, from the Byzantine Empire, especially dry grapes or raisins.
Since ancient times, rye bread has been baked sour. During crop failures, poor people mixed in other plants, especially quinoa. There were also wheat breads. Porridge was made from millet, and jelly was made from oats, which was sometimes eaten with honey. They knew how to make sweet pies with honey and milk. Oil was extracted from hemp and flaxseed; butter was also extracted from milk; They also knew how to make cheese. Meat food, apparently, was very common in Ancient Rus' due, among other things, to the abundance of game and constant hunting. Our ancestors not only ate grouse, hazel grouse, cranes, deer, elk, aurochs, boars, hares, etc., but did not disdain bear meat and squirrels, against which the clergy rebelled, classifying them as “filth,” i.e. to unclean animals. The clergy also rebelled against eating animals, even clean ones, but not slaughtered ones, but strangled ones, considering the latter “carrion”; This included black grouse and other birds that were caught with snares. During the famine, commoners, of course, did not pay attention to such prohibitions and ate not only linden bark, but also dogs, cats, snakes, etc., not to mention horse meat, which in pagan times was generally consumed by Russians as food. The main source of ordinary meat food was, of course, supplied by poultry and animals: chickens, ducks, geese, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle; the latter was called "beef" in the old days. Strict observance of fasts, which later distinguished Russian Orthodoxy, in the first three centuries of our Christianity was still just one of the pious customs, and, despite the efforts of the clergy, many Russian people have not yet given up eating meat on fasting days.
Cattle breeding was an occupation as widespread in Rus' as agriculture, but even more ancient. Of course, it did not have significant development in the northern forest belt, but flourished more in the southern lands, where there was an abundance of pastures and even steppe spaces. However, we do not have direct information to what extent these lands abounded in cattle. We come across more indications of the prosperity of horse breeding, but even that of the prince. The size of this latter can be judged from the chronicle news that the Novgorod-Seversk princes grazed several thousand mares on the Rakhna river alone (in 1146). However, the princes had to take special care of the horse herds because they delivered horses not only to their squad, but also to part of the zemstvo army that gathered in wartime. The horses of noble people were usually distinguished by a special brand, or “spot”. Southern Rus' also took advantage of the proximity of nomadic peoples and acquired from them a large number of horses and oxen through trade; and in wartime, herds and herds of steppe inhabitants served as the main prey of Russian squads; but the nomads, in turn, stole Russian cattle during raids. The Ugric pacers and horses, which the chronicle calls “headlights,” were especially famous. In general, the “greyhound” horse was highly valued in Rus' and was the joy of the Russian youth.
Along with agriculture and cattle breeding, fishing occupied an important place in the national economy, with a great abundance of fish lakes and rivers. Since ancient times, it was produced with the same gear and tools as in our time, i.e. a seine, a drag net, a long net, or a snare, and a fishing rod. The most common custom of fishing was through eza, i.e. partitions made of stakes driven across the river, with a hole in the middle, also fenced, where fish enter. Along with squads of animal catchers, the princes had entire squads of fish catchers; when going fishing, they were usually called “vatagami”, and their leader was called “vataman”. By the way, the Novgorodians gave their princes the right to send fishing teams to Northern Pomerania, specifically to the Tersky coast; and they themselves sent their teams to other shores of Pomerania, where, in addition to fish, they also caught walruses and seals. Since ancient times, in especially fishing areas, a whole class of people was formed who were primarily engaged in this fishery. Due to the prohibition of meat for monks, monasteries especially valued fishing grounds; and therefore princes and rich people tried to provide them with waters where fish were found in abundance. The monks themselves were engaged in fishing and received fish rent from the inhabitants who lived on the monastery land. Sturgeon has always been considered the most valuable fish in Rus'. The need to stock up on fish for the winter, especially with the gradual establishment of fasts, taught us to cook fish for future use, i.e. dry it and salt it. Russians already knew how to prepare caviar.
Salt was obtained in Rus' from different places. Firstly, it was mined in the Galician land on the northeastern slope of the Carpathian Mountains; The salt pans in the vicinity of Udech, Kolomyia and Przemysl are especially famous. From Galich, salt caravans were sent to the Kyiv land either by land through Volyn, or in boats they descended the Dniester into the Black Sea, and from there they went up the Dnieper. Secondly, salt was extracted from the Crimean and Azov lakes. Some of it was also transported by sea and the Dnieper, and partly by land on carts. Even then, apparently, there was a special trade of salt carriers (Chumaks), who traveled from Southern Rus' to these lakes for salt. The duty on salt was one of the items of princely income; sometimes trade in it was farmed out. In Northern Rus', salt was either obtained through foreign trade or extracted through boiling. The latter was produced both on the shores of the White Sea and in various other places where the soil was saturated with salt sediments; It was especially mined in large quantities in Staraya Russa. In Novgorod there were a number of merchants who were engaged in salt fishing and were called “prasols”. In the Suzdal land, Soligalich, Rostov, Gorodets, etc. are famous for their breweries. Salt was boiled down very simply: they dug a well and made a solution in it; then they poured this solution into a large iron frying pan ("tsren") or into a cauldron ("salga") and boiled the salt.
Common drinks in Ancient Rus' included kvass, mash, beer and honey, which were brewed at home; and wines were obtained through foreign trade from the Byzantine Empire and Southwestern Europe. Beer was brewed from flour with malt and hops. But a particularly common drink was honey, which served as the main treat during feasts and drinking parties. It was brewed with hops and seasoned with some spices. Rus', as you know, loved to drink both for joy and sorrow, at weddings and funerals. Noble and rich people, along with wine and beer, always kept large reserves of honey in their cellars, which were mainly called “medushas”. We saw what huge reserves the princes had during the capture of the court of the Seversky prince in Putivl in 1146, and this is very understandable, since the princes had to constantly treat their squad with strong honey. In those days when the use of sugar was not yet known, honey served in Rus' as a seasoning not only for drinks, but also for sweet dishes. Such a great demand was satisfied by the widespread beekeeping, or beekeeping. A hollow was called a natural hollow or hollowed out in an old tree, in which wild bees lived; and a grove with such trees was called a boarding area, or “groomed land.” On-board fishing occurs throughout the Russian land, under different soil and climate conditions. The princes in their volosts, along with animal and fish catchers, also had special beekeepers who were engaged in beekeeping and cooking honey. Sometimes these grooms were given to free people with the condition of paying the prince a certain portion of the honey. In addition, honey made up a prominent part of the tributes and quitrents to the prince's treasury. The usual measure for this was a “lukno”, or a certain size box made of splint paper (where our “lukoshko” comes from).
Beekeepers in North-Eastern Russia were also called “tree climbers”: some dexterity and the habit of climbing trees were required, since honey sometimes had to be obtained at a considerable height. In general, on-board fishing was very profitable, because, in addition to honey, it also supplied wax, which was not only used for candles for churches and wealthy people, but also constituted a very significant item in our trade with foreigners.
Belyaev “A few words about agriculture in ancient Russia” (Temporary General. I. and Others XXII). Aristov’s wonderful essay “Industry of Ancient Rus'”. St. Petersburg 1866. In addition to chronicles, there are many indications about agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing and airborne crafts in the Russian Pravda, the Life of Theodosius and the Patericon of Pechersk, as well as in treaty and grant letters. For example, fishing gangs are mentioned in the agreements between Novgorod and the great princes (Collected G. Gr. and Dog. I).
Vikings are not a nationality, but a calling. “People from the bay” - this is how this warlike word is translated from the ancient Norse language - caused a lot of trouble to the civilized world at the turn of the second millennium. Sea nomads kept Europe in fear - from the British Isles to Sicily.
In Rus', statehood appeared largely thanks to the Vikings. Among the Vikings, Scandinavian-Germans predominated. Their notoriety spread from the Caspian to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the Vikings were the Pomor Slavs and the Curonian Balts, who kept the entire Baltic in suspense in the 8th-9th centuries. According to the Roewer genetic laboratory, published in 2008, up to 18% of Russians are descendants of people from Northern Europe. These are owners of haplogroup I1, common for Norway and Sweden, but atypical for Russia. There are descendants of the Vikings not only in northern, but also in southern cities. In Rus', the Scandinavians were known as Varangians, Rus and Kolbyags. At this time, in the West, only the name Normans - “northern people” - was in use. The Rus, according to one hypothesis, the Rus were a Swedish tribe. The Finns still remember this and call them ruotsi, and the Estonians call them rootsi. The Ruothi call themselves Swedish Sami. The Komi and eastern Finno-Ugric tribes already call the Russians rot’s, ruts. This word in both Finnish and European languages goes back to the designation of red or ginger color. We say “Russians”, we mean Swedes. In this form they are mentioned in the documents of Byzantium and European states. Russian names in documents and contracts of the 9th-10th centuries turned out to be Scandinavian. The customs and appearance of the Rus were described in detail by Arab historians and are suspiciously similar to the lifestyle and appearance of the Swedish Vikings. For the “people from the bay,” the Russian lands did not offer much scope for sea voyages. And yet, the riches of the eastern worlds attracted the most adventurous. The Rus' settlements spread along the main waterways - the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina and Ladoga. Ladoga is the first Scandinavian city in Russia. Legends mention it as the Aldeygjuborg fortress. It was built around 753 and was located opposite a successful Slav trading fortress. Here the Rus mastered the Arab technology of making money. These were eyed beads, the first Russian money for which you could buy a slave. The main occupations of the Rus were the slave trade, robberies of local tribes and attacks on merchants. A century after the founding of Ladoga, the Arab Caliphate and Europe learned about the tricks of the Rus. The Khazars were the first to complain. The raids of the Rus harmed their traditional craft - with the help of extortions and duties, they “skimmed the cream” from trade between the West and the East. In the 9th century, the Rus were the most hated tribe. They defeated the Byzantines on the Black Sea and threatened to cause a “storm in the desert” for the Arabs.
The Varangians are mentioned in Russian chronicles, first of all, not as a people, but as a military class of “overseas” origin. Under the name “varangs” (or “verings”) they served Byzantium and helped guard its borders from the raids of their own fellow tribesmen, the Rus. The calling of the Varangians is a striking example of effective management. The overseas prince no longer served the interests of clans, tribes and clans, pursuing an independent policy. Chud, Slovenes, Krivichi and everyone were able to “pause” the constant strife and occupy the Varangians with matters of national importance. The Varangians adopted Christianity when it had not yet become mainstream in Rus'. Pectoral crosses accompanied the burials of soldiers back in the 9th century. If we take the baptism of Rus' literally, then it happened a century earlier - in 867. After another unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople, the Rus, changing tactics, decided to atone for their sins and sent an embassy to Byzantium with the aim of being baptized. It is unknown where these Rus ended up later, but half a century later Helg, who through a misunderstanding turned out to be a pagan, visited the Romans (residents of the Byzantine Empire).
Gardar and Biarmland
In the Scandinavian sagas, Rus' was called Garðar, literally “fence,” the outskirts of the human world, behind which monsters were located. There is also a version that this word meant “guards” - fortified Viking bases in Russia. In later texts (XIV century) the name was reinterpreted as garðaríki - “country of cities”, which more reflected reality. According to the sagas, the cities of Gardariki were: Sürnes, Palteskja, Holmgard, Kenugard, Rostofa, Surdalar, Moramar. In them you can recognize the familiar cities of Ancient Rus': Smolensk (or Chernigov), Polotsk, Novgorod, Kyiv, Rostov, Murom. Smolensk and Chernigov can argue for the name “Surnes” quite legitimately - not far from both cities, archaeologists have found the largest Scandinavian settlements. Arab writers knew a lot about the Rus. They mentioned their main cities - Arzú, Cuiabá and Salau. Unfortunately, the poetic Arabic language does not convey the names well. If Cuiaba can be translated as “Kyiv”, and Salau as the legendary city of “Slovensk”, then nothing at all can be said about Arsa. In Ars they killed all foreigners and reported nothing about their trade. Some see Rostov, Rusa or Ryazan in Ars, but the mystery is far from being resolved.
There is a dark story with Biarmia, which Scandinavian legends placed in the northeast. Finnish tribes and mysterious Biarmians lived there. They spoke a language similar to Finnish, and mysteriously disappeared in the 13th century by the time the Novgorodians arrived in these lands. These lands are described as reminiscent of Russian Pomerania. The Scandinavians left few traces here: in the vicinity of Arkhangelsk they found only weapons and jewelry from the 10th-12th centuries.
The first princes
Historians are confused by one blank spot in the evidence about the first Varangian princes. The texts say that Oleg both reigned in Novgorod and took tribute from it, which contradicts each other. This gave rise to a version about the first capital of Rus' near Smolensk, where there was the largest Scandinavian settlement. At the same time, Ukrainian scientists are also adding fuel to the fire. They claim that they have found the grave of a Varangian prince near Chernigov. The names of the first Russian princes sounded differently in the documents than in the Tale of Bygone Years. If there is almost no news about Rurik, then Igor “according to his passport” was Inger, Oleg and Olga were Helg and Helga, and Svyatoslav was Sfendoslav. The first princes of Kyiv, Askold and Dir, were Scandinavians. The names of the princes of Turov and Polotsk - Tur, Rogneda and Rogvolod - are also attributed to Scandinavian roots. In the 11th century, Russian rulers became so glorified that Scandinavian princely names were rather a rare exception.
The fate of the Varangians
By X-XII, the Rurik State had become very rich and could afford to simply “buy” the Varangians needed for service. They were left in city garrisons and squads. Viking attacks on Russian cities would have been pointless - it would have been easier to get a good salary for service. In the cities, ordinary people often did not get along with the Varangians - there were clashes. Soon the situation began to get out of control, and Yaroslav Vladimirovich had to introduce “concepts” - “Russian Truth”. This is how the first legal document in Russian history appeared. The Viking Age ends in the 12th century. In Rus', mentions of the Varangians disappeared from chronicles already by the 13th century, and the Russes dissolved into the Slavic Russian people.
The destruction of communal-tribal relations and the emergence of specialists in narrow fields - these are the changes that characterize Ancient Rus' in the eighth and ninth centuries. Crafts lead to the emergence of cities, separating part of the population from working on the land. This is due to the appearance of the first specialists - craftsmen in certain types of crafts, which were concentrated in tribal centers - cities.
Cities - craft centers
They tried to build the city in such a way that its geographical position would allow trade to be carried out as best as possible and at the same time successfully defended against enemies. For example, in a place where two rivers merged, or around a hill. Representatives of the authorities also settled in cities. Therefore they were well guarded. Gradually, with the development of crafts, cities began to represent not just military fortifications, but turned into shopping centers.
In the center of the city there was a Kremlin in which the prince settled. This part was surrounded by a fortress wall and surrounded by an earthen rampart. In addition, a deep ditch was dug around and filled with water. All these precautions were needed to protect against enemies. Outside, around the Kremlin, there were settlements of artisans, the so-called settlements. This part of the city was called posad. In many settlements, this part was surrounded by a defensive wall.
Life in the cities was in full swing, artisans created their goods, crafts and trade of Ancient Rus' were actively developing. By the twelfth century there were over sixty craft specialties. Craftsmen specialized in the manufacture of clothing, dishes, and tools that ancient Rus' needed. The crafts of Ancient Rus' developed rapidly and rapidly. Talented professionals from various fields lived and worked in the settlements: masters of blacksmithing, jewelry, pottery, shoemakers, tailors, weavers, stone cutters, and representatives of other crafts. The economic wealth and strength of the ancient Russian state, its high material and spiritual culture were created by the hands of these craftsmen.
Without iron - nowhere
The professional pioneers were blacksmiths. Their work became one of the most important areas into which the crafts of Ancient Rus' of the 9th-12th centuries were divided. This work is mentioned in folk epics and folklore: epics, legends and fairy tales, where the blacksmith is always a model of strength, courage and goodness. In those days, iron was obtained by smelting swamp ore. They mined it in the off-season, dried it and then delivered it to workshops, where they melted it using special furnaces. This is how metal was made. Modern archaeologists during excavations often found slags, which are waste from the metal smelting process, and vigorously forged pieces of iron masses. The found remains of blacksmith workshops preserved parts of forges and furnaces, around which artisans once worked.
The blacksmith will find something to do: goods for warriors and farmers
With the development of metal production, a new round of trade development begins, which the country, which lived on a subsistence economy, had not previously known. in particular, blacksmithing, had a pronounced practical orientation. The products produced by blacksmiths were required by everyone. They were needed by warriors who ordered weapons - arrowheads, sabers, spears, swords - and protective clothing - chain mail and helmets. The production of weapons in Ancient Rus' reached a special level of skill, which can be called real art. Unique armor was discovered in burials and necropolises of Kyiv, Chernigov and other cities.
Forged tools were needed by farmers: without iron scythes, sickles, openers, and plowshares it was impossible to imagine cultivating land. Any household required needles, knives, saws, locks, keys and other household items made in a forge by talented craftsmen. Finds in the form of burials of blacksmith masters showed that their working tools - hammers and anvils, chisels and tongs - were even sent to the graves with the blacksmiths.
Historians believe that Ancient Rus' knew more than 150 types of metal products in the eleventh century. The crafts of Ancient Rus' played an important role in the development of trade between settlements.
Jewelry making skills
Blacksmiths sometimes did minor work, creating small masterpieces - jewelry. Gradually, goldsmithing became a separate industry. This is how jewelry craft appeared in Ancient Rus'. Russian craftsmen mastered the technique of making jewelry so well that one could only wonder how they managed it. The skillful things that have survived to our times - bronze amulets, pendants, buckles, earrings and necklaces - amaze with the fineness of their workmanship. Jewelry was created using the graining technique, with a pattern based on many metal balls soldered on top of it. Another method of making jewelry was filigree. This technique is characterized by the fact that the pattern was created with a thin wire, which was soldered onto a metal surface, and the resulting gaps were filled with enamel of different colors. Jewelers mastered figure casting, as well as the niello technique, which required special art, when a pattern of silver plates was placed on a black background. Beautiful products with gold and silver inlays on iron and copper have survived to this day. Such complex techniques indicate the high level of development of crafts in Ancient Rus'. Thus, the hands of ancient Russian artisans created highly valuable jewelry made using the technique. This was a unique brand of Russian goldsmithing craft. The skill of Russian jewelers was a very complex technique, and their work spread throughout the world and was highly valued and in great demand everywhere.
And bricks and dishes were sculpted everywhere
The pottery craft of Ancient Rus' emerged as an independent industry a little later than blacksmithing. The potter's wheel appeared among our ancestors in the eleventh century. This allowed ancient craftsmen to create beautiful products. The design of the machine was simple, it rotated using a foot drive, but the dishes that the potters of that time were able to create amaze with the skill of their creation and the variety of shapes. Initially, pottery making was a woman's job. However, in the literary manuscript monuments of Kievan Rus there are mentions only of male potters.
They used clay for their products, which they specially processed, moistening it with water and actively kneading it. Of all the pottery products, the greatest demand was for pots and other vessels, which were made in different sizes and were used for different purposes; they could be used to pour water or store food and berries. The pots were placed in the oven and the food was cooked. Such dishes have survived to this day.
What were ancient Russian masters famous for?
Describing the crafts of Ancient Rus' of the 9th-12th centuries, we briefly note that the Russian Slavs of the pre-Christian period knew how to make coinage, produced ceramics, mastered the art of fine embroidery, and were famous for their skill in making enamels. The works of Kyiv artists have survived to this day. These are unique examples of bone carving, blackening, and metal engraving. Old Russian glassmakers and their tiles were famous all over the world.
Ancient Rus' mastered various crafts, but the most skillful of them was wood processing. Outbuildings, dwellings, gates and bridges, fortresses and walls were built from this material. The boats were made of wood, and all household utensils were lavishly decorated with wood carvings. It's no secret that the main souvenir that personifies the artistic craft in Ancient Rus' is the nesting doll - a colorfully painted wooden doll with nothing inside. The same beauties come out of it one after another, and each one is slightly smaller in size than the previous one.
Artistic painting
The decorative and applied crafts of Ancient Rus' were famous far beyond its borders. Since ancient times, our ancestors have delighted the whole world with their paintings. The variety of patterned motifs in Russian ornament has led to the emergence of different schools and directions of this folk craft. Each of them had its own colors and lines.
Gzhel
Bright blue cobalt painting on a white porcelain background was called Gzhel, which comes from the name of the town near Moscow where this trend originated. It was first mentioned in the charter of Ivan Kalita. At first, craftsmen made dishes and toys, but later, with the development of production, the range expanded significantly. Fireplace tiles were especially popular. Gzhel ceramics became popular all over the world. Other paintings of our ancestors also received names from the places of their creation and distribution.
Bright colors on a dark background
An artistic craft in Ancient Rus', which came in the eighteenth century from a village near Moscow with the same name. It is an oil painting on metal trays. It is easy to recognize by its bright colorful flowers, fruits, and birds located on a dark background. The applied patterns are then coated with a special varnish, which is why they have such a shiny appearance. The technique of this painting is quite complex; the image is created in several stages.
Very cheerful shades are pleasing to the eye, so trays were very popular in Rus' and are still a decorative element in many homes and institutions.
Palekh
It came from the regional center in the Ivanovo region. This type of craft consists of paintings on lacquerware. Colorful folklore, everyday, and religious scenes painted over a black background decorate boxes, caskets and other things. It is believed that Palekh lacquer miniatures appeared in the fifteenth century, when Ancient Rus' was distinguished by the flourishing of cities and trade. Crafts originated in different ways. For example, such a direction of ancient craft as Palekh miniature was created by ancient Russian icon painters. Skilled artists lived in Palekh and received invitations from all Russian regions to paint temples and churches. It was they who began to paint the boxes with all sorts of fairy-tale and historical scenes. All images were painted bright on top of a black background.
The technology of this type of craft is quite complex; the process of creating miniatures itself is labor-intensive and multi-stage. It takes a long time to study and master it, but as a result, an ordinary dark box turns into a uniquely beautiful thing.
Khokhloma
Another type of hand-painted wood is Khokhloma, which appeared more than three hundred years ago. Dishes and household items painted with fiery scarlet flowers attract attention with their unusualness. Patterns that form beautiful ornaments are pleasing to the eye even today. There is a secret in creating Khokhloma products, which is that they are varnished several times and then hardened in an oven. As a result of firing, the coating turns yellow, and products made from wood appear to be gilded precious utensils. In addition, as a result of this treatment, the dishes become durable. Its coating allows you to use Khokhloma cups, bowls, spoons for their intended purpose - for storing food, for eating.
Popular prints
Lubok is another type of folk art, representing the crafts of Ancient Rus'. This activity involved creating an impression on paper using a wooden block. Such folk pictures were common in fair trade back in the seventeenth century and until the beginning of the twentieth century they were the most widespread and widespread type of Russian fine art. The subjects depicted by popular prints are very diverse: religious and moralizing themes, folk epics and fairy tales, historical and medical information, which were always accompanied by a small text that could be instructive or humorous and spoke about the customs and life of their time with the wisdom inherent in the people.
Crafts of Ancient Rus', 18th century: Russian samovar
We have the right to be proud of the skill of our Russian craftsmen. Today their works can be seen not only in museums, but also in our own homes. Some types of crafts were especially popular in Ancient Rus'. For example, the Tula samovar can be found throughout our country to this day. In the eighteenth century there were more than two hundred different types of these products. Nowadays, there is even a museum of samovars in the city of Tula.
Who were the first masters for whom Ancient Rus' was so famous? The crafts, unfortunately, have not preserved the names of their creators. But things that have come down to us from the depths of centuries speak to us. Among them there are unique rare items and household utensils, but in each product one can feel the skill and experience of an ancient Russian craftsman.
Under this heading a material was published in the newspaper “Pensioner and Society” ( No. 7 for July 2010). This article shows a world map from 1030 on which Russia covers the territory from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. The map was compiled during the initial stage of Christianization of Rus' in 988. Prince Vladimir.
Let us recall that in the times preceding Christianization, in Rus' they revered pagan gods, honored their ancestors, and lived in harmony with nature as a single state. The most important of the monuments of those times that have come down to us is the “Book of Veles,” which we have repeatedly written about on the pages of our website.
Currently, many have studied history, archaeologists say that in pre-Christian times Rus' had its own high, distinctive culture, as evidenced by numerous artifacts found over the past decades in excavation sites of ancient settlements. But the reasons why it was lost deserve special attention. These circumstances raise uncomfortable questions for representatives of modern academic historical science, which denies the existence of high culture in Rus' in pre-Epiphany times, because “something needs to be done about it.”
"What to do?"
Official historians do not have a clear answer to this question. And the Russian Orthodox Church pretends that the found artifacts simply do not exist. In addition, she is still trying in every possible way to present our pagan ancestors as semi-literate ignoramuses who believed in “some” incomprehensible gods who performed bloody sacrifices. And he tries to convince us that it was the church that brought the light of enlightenment and universal literacy to Rus'.
The material below once again proves that none of this happened. And there was a great culture in Rus'. It was thanks to her that over time the concept of the RUSSIAN SPIRIT appeared, which is inherent only to the Russian person in the broad sense of the word.
Below is the full text of the article published in the newspaper.
Information and analytical service of WFP KPE (IAS KPE)
How did they live in Rus' before the arrival of Christians?
Several hundred years have passed, saturated through and through with the false chronicle history of the Russian people. The time has come for true knowledge about our great ancestors. The main assistance in this is provided by archeology, which, regardless of the will of the church and its individual ministers, obtains accurate data about the life of people of a particular period. And not everyone can even immediately realize how right Patriarch Kirill is when he says that “today Russia, having gone through the bitter experience of being rejected from its own civilizational foundations and roots, is again returning to its historical path.”
Since the second half of the 20th century, new written sources - birch bark letters - began to become available to researchers. The first birch bark letters were found in 1951 during archaeological excavations in Novgorod. About 1000 letters have already been discovered. The total volume of the birch bark dictionary is more than 3200 words. The geography of the finds covers 11 cities: Novgorod, Staraya Russa, Torzhok, Pskov, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, Tver, Moscow, Staraya Ryazan, Zvenigorod Galitsky.
The earliest charters date back to the 11th century (1020), when the indicated territory had not yet been Christianized. Thirty letters found in Novgorod and one in Staraya Russa date back to this period. Until the 12th century, neither Novgorod nor Staraya Russa had yet been baptized, therefore the names of people found in the 11th century charters are pagan, that is, real Russians. By the beginning of the 11th century, the population of Novgorod corresponded not only with recipients located inside the city, but also with those who were far beyond its borders - in villages and other cities. Even villagers from the most remote villages wrote household orders and simple letters on birch bark.
That is why the outstanding linguist and researcher of the Novgorod letters of the Academy A.A. Zaliznyak claims that “this ancient writing system was very widespread. This writing was spread throughout Rus'. Reading the birch bark letters refuted the existing opinion that in Ancient Rus' only noble people and the clergy were literate. Among the authors and addressees of the letters there are many representatives of the lower strata of the population; in the texts found there is evidence of the practice of teaching writing - alphabets, copybooks, numerical tables, “tests of the pen.”
Six-year-old children wrote: “There is one letter where, it seems, a certain year is indicated. It was written by a six-year-old boy.” Almost all Russian women wrote - “now we know for sure that a significant part of women could both read and write. Letters from the 12th century in general, in a variety of respects, they reflect a society that is freer, with greater development, in particular, of female participation, than a society closer to our time. This fact follows quite clearly from the birch bark letters.” The fact that “a picture of Novgorod from the 14th century” speaks eloquently about literacy in Rus'. and Florence of the 14th century, in terms of the degree of female literacy - in favor of Novgorod."
Experts know that Cyril and Methodius invented the Glagolitic alphabet for the Bulgarians and spent the rest of their lives in Bulgaria. The letter called “Cyrillic”, although it has a similarity in name, has nothing in common with Kirill. The name "Cyrillic" comes from the designation of the letter - the Russian "doodle", or, for example, the French "ecrire". And the tablet found during excavations in Novgorod, on which they wrote in ancient times, is called “kera” (sera).
In the Tale of Bygone Years, a monument from the early 12th century, there is no information about the baptism of Novgorod. Consequently, Novgorodians and residents of surrounding villages wrote 100 years before the baptism of this city, and the Novgorodians did not inherit writing from Christians. Writing in Rus' existed long before the Christian invasion. The share of non-ecclesiastical texts at the very beginning of the 11th century accounts for 95 percent of all found letters.
However, for academic falsifiers of history, for a long time, the fundamental version was that the Russian people learned to read and write from alien priests. From strangers!
But in his unique scientific work “The Craft of Ancient Rus'”, published back in 1948, archaeologist Academician B.A. Rybakov published the following data: “There is an established opinion that the church was a monopolist in the creation and distribution of books; This opinion was strongly supported by the churchmen themselves. What is true here is that monasteries and episcopal or metropolitan courts were the organizers and censors of book copying, often acting as intermediaries between the customer and the scribe, but the performers were often not monks, but people who had nothing to do with the church.
We counted the scribes according to their position. For the pre-Mongol era, the result was this: half of the book scribes turned out to be laymen; for 14th - 15th centuries. the calculations gave the following results: metropolitans - 1; deacons - 8; monks - 28; clerks - 19; popov - 10; “servants of God” -35; Popovichey-4; parobkov-5. The Popovichs cannot be considered in the category of clergy, since literacy, which was almost obligatory for them (“a priest’s son cannot read and write—he is an outcast”) did not yet predetermine their spiritual career. Under vague names like “servant of God”, “sinner”, “sad servant of God”, “sinful and daring in evil, but lazy in good”, etc., without indicating affiliation with the church, we must understand secular artisans. Sometimes there are more specific instructions: “Wrote to Eustathius, a worldly man, and his nickname was Shepel,” “Ovsey Raspop,” “Thomas the Scribe.” In such cases, we no longer have any doubt about the “worldly” character of the scribes.
In total, according to our calculations, there are 63 laymen and 47 clergy, i.e. 57% of artisan scribes did not belong to church organizations. The main forms in the era under study were the same as in the pre-Mongol era: work to order and work for the market; Between them there were various intermediate stages that characterized the degree of development of a particular craft. Work to order is typical for some types of patrimonial craft and for industries associated with expensive raw materials, such as jewelry or bell casting.”
The academician cited these figures for the 14th - 15th centuries, when, according to the narratives of the church, she served almost as a helmsman for the multi-million Russian people. It would be interesting to look at the busy, single metropolitan, who, together with an absolutely insignificant group of literate deacons and monks, served the postal needs of the multi-million Russian people from several tens of thousands of Russian villages. In addition, this Metropolitan and Co. must have had many truly miraculous qualities: lightning speed of writing and movement in space and time, the ability to simultaneously be in thousands of places at once, and so on.
But not a joke, but a real conclusion from the data provided by B.A. Rybakov, it follows that the church was never in Rus' a place from which knowledge and enlightenment flowed. Therefore, we repeat, another academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.A. Zaliznyak states that “the picture of Novgorod of the 14th century. and Florence 14th century. in terms of the degree of female literacy - in favor of Novgorod." But by the 18th century the church led the Russian people into the fold of illiterate darkness.
Let's consider another side of the life of ancient Russian society before the arrival of Christians to our lands. She touches the clothes. Historians are accustomed to depicting Russian people dressed exclusively in simple white shirts, sometimes, however, allowing themselves to say that these shirts were decorated with embroidery. Russians seem so poor, barely able to dress at all. This is another lie spread by historians about the life of our people.
To begin with, let us recall that the world’s first clothing was created more than 40 thousand years ago in Rus', in Kostenki. And, for example, at the Sungir site in Vladimir, already 30 thousand years ago, people wore a leather jacket made of suede, trimmed with fur, a hat with earflaps, leather pants, and leather boots. Everything was decorated with various objects and several rows of beads. The ability to make clothes in Rus', naturally, was preserved and developed to a high level. And silk became one of the important clothing materials for the ancient Rus.
Archaeological finds of silk on the territory of Ancient Rus' from the 9th to the 12th centuries were discovered in more than two hundred locations. The maximum concentration of finds is in the Moscow, Vladimir, Ivanovo and Yaroslavl regions. Precisely those that experienced population growth at that time. But these territories were not part of Kievan Rus, on whose territory, on the contrary, finds of silk fabrics are very few. As you move away from Moscow - Vladimir - Yaroslavl, the density of silk finds generally drops rapidly, and already in the European part they are rare.
At the end of the 1st millennium AD. The Vyatichi and Krivichi lived in the Moscow region, as evidenced by groups of mounds (near the Yauza station, in Tsaritsyn, Chertanovo, Konkovo, Derealyovo, Zyuzin, Cheryomushki, Matveevsky, Fili, Tushino, etc.). The Vyatichi also formed the original core of the population of Moscow. Moreover, excavations allegedly indicate that at the end of the 11th century. Moscow was a small town located at the mouth of the Neglinnaya River with a feudal center and a craft and trade suburb. And already in 1147 Moscow was “for the first time” mentioned in the chronicle as the confluence of the Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky. Historians write the same about Vladimir, which was allegedly founded only in 1108 by Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, moreover, to protect Rostov-Suedal Rus' from the southeast. And absolutely the same - nondescript - historians write about Yaroslavl: it was founded only around 1010.
A.A. Tyunyaev,
Academician of AFS and RANS
Any ancient society is dominated by men, and if we step back from the history of Ancient Rus', then, for example, Ancient Rome, Ancient Egypt, the Ancient East or Greece, were also built according to social principles in which women were given a secondary position. Regarding the situation women in ancient Rus', then, for example, in the ancient chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” there are five times fewer messages related to representatives of the fairer sex than those dedicated to men. Women and children in ancient Russian society are viewed as complements to men. It is for this reason that in Rus', before marriage, a girl was often called by her father, but not as a patronymic, but in a possessive form, for example, “Volodimerya.” After marriage, in the same “possessory” form they were called by husband, meaning “husband’s wife,” that is, “belonging to her husband.” Women in Ancient Rus' were limited in their rights, as in all ancient societies. However, this does not mean that women were excluded from participation in government affairs. A striking example is Princess Olga, the daughters of Yaroslav the Wise and the granddaughter of Vladimir Monomakh, who were quite socially active and bright personalities.
Princess Olga (circa 890-969) was the first Christian Kyiv princess. Being the wife of the first Grand Duke of Kyiv Igor (reign: 912-945), after his death she ruled the state until the coming of age of their son Svyatoslav. The custom of blood feud, which existed in early medieval Rus', forced Olga to punish the murderers of her husband. Princess Olga combined energy, extraordinary intelligence and rare statesmanship qualities. For the first time, she created a system of governing the principality, waged a successful fight against the neighboring tribe of the Drevlyans, who often threatened her state, and also sought to expand Rus'’s ties with the strongest powers of that time - Byzantium and the Ottonian Empire. Olga, in fact, carried out the first financial reform in the history of Rus', establishing a fixed amount of tribute, the procedure for its collection and their systematicity
Historical documents indicate that the princesses took part in state affairs. This is how the princesses’ signatures appeared on the most important legislative documents of that time. The signature of the wife of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich (reign: 980-1015) Anna was on the Church Charter. Moreover, without her signature, the document would not have had legislative force, since Anna, being the sister of the Byzantine emperor, acted on behalf of the Byzantine clergy. Another example is a document of a later time (XV century) - the Charter of the Novgorod Prince Vsevolod, where, along with the signatures of the most influential persons of Novgorod, there was also the signature of the prince’s wife, “Princess Vsevolozha”. The participation of princesses in the activities of legislative and executive power is an indicator of the high level of development of the state, social, legal and cultural systems of Ancient Rus'.
The chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" mentions the sister of Yaroslav Vladimirovich (Yaroslav the Wise) - Predslava, who was an active participant in the struggle for his accession to the Kiev throne in 1015-1019.
The daughter of Yaroslav the Wise - Anna Yaroslavna (years of life: about 1024 - not earlier than 1075) married King Henry of France. She was the ruler of France during the childhood of their son Philip. Knowing Latin (the official language of the time), Anna had the privilege of putting her signature on documents of national importance, which was unique for the French royal court of that time.
The granddaughter of Yaroslav the Wise, daughter of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Anna Vsevolodovna, founded in 1086 at the Kiev St. Andrew's Monastery the first school for girls known in the history of Rus'.
Women in Ancient Rus' those belonging to the princely class or having clergy (in particular, abbess) became the founders of monastic schools. The chronicles mention the names of many boyars and princesses who took part in the political life of individual principalities, as well as those who ruled individually.
The Horde yoke significantly changed the overall picture of the social and legal status of women in the Russian appanage principalities. Russian chronicles of the mid-13th century make almost no mention of women's participation in political life. The wives and daughters of Russian princes are mainly presented as objects of capture, violence and captivity. However, even during this period, one can cite as an example the wife of Dmitry Donskoy - the Suzdal princess Evdokia, who played a big role in the history of the Moscow principality.
However, only women from the privileged class could play such a prominent role in history; they could be full representatives in their fiefdom or principality, holders of personal seals that symbolized their power, as well as regents or guardians. Nobles women in ancient Rus' They were distinguished by a high level of education and culture at that time; this is what allowed them to participate in government affairs and management activities. Moreover, the princesses had very serious property rights; they sometimes owned entire princely volosts, which they could dispose of at their own discretion, including deciding what of these lands would go to their sons. As for representatives of the lower classes, the meaning of women was significantly different.
Many historians write about the despotic order that reigned in the ordinary ancient Russian family. The husband, the head of the family, was a slave in relation to the sovereign, but at the same time he was a full-fledged sovereign for his family in his own home. All household members were completely subordinate to him, and above all this concerned the female half of the house. , being not yet married, did not have the right to independently leave the boundaries of her parents’ estate. Her parents were looking for a husband for her; she did not see him before the wedding. After marriage, her husband became her new “master”. could not leave the house without her husband’s permission, including going to church. A woman also had to make acquaintances, have conversations with someone, give gifts and generally communicate outside the home only after asking permission from her husband. The share of female labor in Russian peasant families has always been unusually large; a woman even had to take up the plow. The lot of the youngest daughter-in-law in the family (the wife of the youngest brother) was very difficult, who, having moved to her husband’s family, remained a lifelong servant in the house.
The unwritten laws of society dictated certain behavior of the husband and father. His duties included “educating” his family, which consisted of systematic beatings of his wife and children. In ancient Russian society it was believed that if a husband does not beat his wife, then he “does not care about his soul” and will be “ruined.” Only in the 16th century were attempts made to somehow protect the wife and limit the arbitrariness of the husband. In particular, “Domostroy” (a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of advice, rules and instructions in all spheres of human and family life) introduces some restrictions into the established system of domestic violence. It is recommended to beat your wife “not in front of people, to teach her in private” and “not to be angry in any way” at the same time, and “for any fault” (because of little things) “not by sight, not in the heart with a fist, not a kick, not a staff do not hit, do not hit with any iron or wood.” Apparently, in everyday life women in ancient Rus' were subjected to serious beatings, since the author of “Domostroi”, giving advice to treat wives more gently, explains that those who “beat like that from the heart or from the bones have many stories about this: blindness and deafness, and a sprained arm and leg and a finger , and headaches, and dental disease, and in pregnant wives (which means they were beaten too) and children, damage occurs in the womb.” That is why advice was given to punish a wife not for every, but only for a serious offense, and not with anything or at random, but “take off your shirt, beat it politely (gently) with a whip, holding your hands.”
At the same time, it should be noted that the woman in Ancient Rus' pre-Mongol period had a number of rights. Before getting married, she could become an heir to property 
father. The highest fines, according to ancient Russian legislation, were paid by those guilty of “bruising” (rape) and insulting women with “disgraceful words.” A slave living with the master as a wife received freedom after the death of the master. The appearance of such legal norms in ancient Russian legislation testified to the widespread occurrence of such cases.
Broad property rights woman in ancient Rus' received after the death of her husband. Widows were highly respected in ancient Russian society; they became full-fledged mistresses in their home. In fact, from the moment of the husband's death, the role of head of the family passed to them. Property rights of women in Ancient Rus', especially in the privileged classes, was very significant compared to the legal capacity of their contemporaries in Western European states. However, it cannot be considered equal to the legal capacity of a man, since a woman was in a family under the authority of her husband or father, and men could, with their power, nullify all the advantages prescribed for ancient Russian women in legislation. In cases where a woman was not under the authority of a man, for example, being a widow, she received property rights almost equal to men.
