How stress appears in the speech stream depends largely on the language. In some languages, stressed syllables have a higher or lower tone than unstressed ones - this is the so-called tone, or musical stress. In other languages, they may be pitched higher or lower than surrounding syllables (tone deviation), depending on the type of sentence. There is also dynamic (noisy, forceful) stress, qualitative (qualitative) stress (lack of vowel reduction) and quantitative stress (quantitative - an increase in the length of the sound, known in music theory as agogics). An accent can have several of these characteristics at the same time. In addition, stress can be implemented to varying degrees on different words in the same sentence; in some cases, the difference between the acoustic signals of stressed and unstressed syllables may be minimal.
The reverse process is also observed, when some historical changes affect the place of emphasis. So, for example, in the Russian language over the last hundred years there has been a process of shifting the emphasis to the root or to the beginning of the word, as its most significant parts, which carry the main semantic load. For example, roll, call, salt and other verbs in -it in all forms except the 1st person singular present and future tense ( you roll, rolls, they're rolling, we're rolling; take a ride, will roll etc.). Linguists explain this trend by saying that over the past hundred years the pace of our lives has accelerated significantly and resulted in faster speech, so such changes in stress allow us to more effectively grasp the meaning of what we hear.
Stress levels
Some languages distinguish between primary and secondary stress. English is traditionally thought to have two stress levels, as in the words cóunterfòil [ˈkaʊntɚˌfɔɪl] and còunterintélligence [ˌkaʊntɚ.ɪnˈtɛlɪdʒəns], and some work has even suggested that it has four stress levels, but these studies are often contradicted to each other.
The evolution of stress rules in Russian
- Each morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending) can be self-accented (or like a), right-impact (or type b) and unstressed (or type c).
- The unit of stress is a word with prepositions, conjunctions, particles. At the same time, auxiliary words standing before a word are always unstressed, and after a word they are always self-stressed.
- Old Russian also had reduced vowels (they are usually denoted by the letters ъ And b). They were strong and weak; the latter is always weak. If there is another reduced one in front of a weak reduced one, that one will be strong. The weak reduced ones have now disappeared, the strong ones have turned into O And e (end → end, the end → end).
- We find the first stressed morpheme. If it is self-accented, the emphasis is on it, if it is right-accented, the emphasis is on the syllable to the right.
- But if the emphasis falls on a weak reduced one, we shift it to the left.
- If all morphemes are unstressed, the stress is on the first non-weak syllable.
For example, root hand- unstressed, ending -A self-impact, ending -y and preposition on unstressed, and it comes out hand, hand, in your hand, on the hand.
Modern stress shifts to other, more complex rules, with some words working according to the old rules, others according to the new ones. Phrases on hand And on hand mean completely different things. Unconditional stressed morphemes appeared - for example, the suffix -iv-(y) (happy). The accent took on the function of distinguishing cases - wives broke up into wives(r.p. unit) and wives(i.p. plural). In words on -er/-er the emphasis makes it clear whether it is a mechanism or a person: rope starter, starter with flag.
Phonetic words are combined into speech beats. Speech tact is a connection of an even higher rank. It consists of one or a group of phonetic words united by bar stress. Bar accent - This is an increase or decrease in the tone of the voice on the stressed syllable of one of the words, highlighting the accented word against the background of neighboring ones.
Speech beat is a sound shell syntagmas – semantic unity of the explanatory and the explained.
Phrase consists of one or more speech beats. A phrase is a segment of speech flow that is characterized by intonation completeness.
Note that offer relates to a phrase in the same way as a measure relates to a syntagma.
Creates a phrase phrasal stress. If a phrase consists of several measures, then the emphasis of one of them turns out to be the most significant. Most often, the most significant word in a phrase is characterized by the longest duration of the stressed word. There is not always only one phrasal stress in a phrase. For example, each component of a homogeneous series must have phrasal stress.
B.I. Osipov emphasizes that phrasal and bar stress have much in common: first of all, they are united by a function - highlighting the most important words in meaning, designing the actual division. Therefore, there is a need for a common name for both types of stress - logical stress (it is in this sense that this term is used by R.I. Avanesov, school grammar).
Unlike logical, emphatic stress is not just highlighting a word, but its special, deliberate underlining.
The textbook by B.I. Osipov (§14) makes it possible to study in more detail the issue of the disorder of terminology associated with logical stress, as well as what subtypes emphatic stress is emphasized by the author of this manual.
So, let's summarize. Our speech is not linear, but “two-linear”: on the first “floor” of spoken speech there are sounds and their sequence; on the second - supersegmental means (syllable-forming character of the sound, stress, diermes, beat stress, intonation), which, layered on chains of sounds, form supersegmental units (syllables, phonetic words, speech beats, phrases).
In speech, the second “floor” is impossible without the first.
It is interesting that the same segment of speech can have different status (being a syllable, a word, a speech tact). The status does not depend on the length of the segment, but on the number of supersegmental means imposed on a given segment: [ bra"t -kə]– stressed syllable; [ mo"jbra"t ] – phonetic word with verbal stress; [ bra""t / pr’ije"həl dΛmo"j] – speech beat with beat stress.
Questions and tasks:
Task 1. What units are called supersegmental? Name the supersegmental means that form them. What supersegmental means is involved in the creation of a phonetic word? Does a phonetic word always coincide with a word in the lexical sense?
Transcribe, highlighting enclitics and proclitics. What parts of speech words usually play this role? Can function words carry word stress?
October has already arrived - the grove is already shaking off the last leaves from its naked branches.
Round, not a month, yellow, not butter, with a tail, not a mouse (riddle).
Task 2. Match the phonetic word and the beat. What is the qualitative difference between word and bar stress? How is a phrase divided into speech beats? How arbitrary is this division? Name formally the grammatical features of such a division. Are the statements true that a) the boundaries of speech beats are always marked by pauses; b) how many tone changes there are in a phrase, how many speech beats there are in it; c) is bar stress the same as syntagmatic stress? Divide the sentences into bars. Make sure that the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the location of the boundary.
Allow cannot be prohibited.
How his brother’s words struck him.
He remembered every minute of that day very clearly.
On this warm, quiet evening I didn’t want to talk about anything, just be silent, silent and think.
Task 3. What role does logical stress play? Think of contexts in which logical stress will fall on the highlighted words, for example:
I'm always pleased to see you.
Task 4. What is intonation in the narrow and broad sense? What semantic load does intonation carry in Russian speech? Prove that intonemes are units of the phonological system of the modern Russian language.
A) Read the statements, intonating them correctly:
He returned (1).
And his comrades? (4)
Where can we keep up with them! (6)
When did he return?(2)
Is he back?(3)
When did they all have time? (7)
How much they saw! (5)
B) Come up with contexts that would justify the use of the phrase Who doesn't know this with IR – 1, IR – 2, IR – 3, IR – 4.
B) Transcribe the text. Fill in the missing phrase boundaries. Define the types of IR. Highlight the boundaries of speech beats. Mark the possible pronunciation options for individual sounds.
Who did not curse the stationmasters, who did not quarrel with them, who in a moment of anger did not demand from them a fatal book in order to enter into it their useless complaint about oppression, rudeness and malfunction, who does not consider them monsters of the human race equal to the late clerks, or at least the Murom robbers However, we will try to be fair in their position and perhaps we will begin to judge them much more leniently.
LESSON 7
SYLLABIC PRINCIPLE OF RUSSIAN GRAPHICS*
Literature:
Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. – L., 1987.
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. – M., 1991. P. 10-77. section "Graphics".
Osipov B.I. History of Russian writing. – Omsk, 1990. P. 18 – 40 (“History of graphics”).
Russian language. Encyclopedia. – M., 1997. P.339 – 344. Article “Letter”.
Reference materials:
1. The concept of writing. Types of writing.
Writing arose from a person’s need to communicate something in a situation where this cannot be done with sounds or gestures. The letter had to not only replace the oral form of speech, but also reflect it.
The letter, writes Zinder, is type of code, allowing you to convert an acoustic signal into an optical one. The set of elements of this code is called the alphabet, and the elements themselves are called letters. A mandatory property of a code is convention: the code is created deliberately as a result of an agreement, and it can be changed arbitrarily (now, for example, the issue of translating the Tatar language from Cyrillic to Latin is being seriously discussed).
In other words, letter - This is a symbolic system for recording speech using graphic elements, which allows you to transmit information at a distance and consolidate it over time.
Depending on What is the object of a graphic sign (undifferentiated speech, word, syllable, phoneme); two types of writing with several subtypes are distinguished.
The oldest type of writing is pictography, those. picture letter. Pictography conveys the content of the message in total, not through individual linguistic units, and does not communicate anything about the sound side of the language, does not reflect the grammatical relationships between words. The pictogram can be read as a word. A proposal, several proposals. All these facts allow some scientists, for example I.M. Dyakonov, to deny pictography the right to be called writing. We cannot completely agree with this opinion, because... The reasons for the appearance of pictography are the same as for other types of writing: the inability to use the oral form of speech. At the same time, of course, in a picture letter a certain idea is conveyed beyond even the primitive speech design.
Pictography has been replaced by hieroglyphic letter, or logography. It is similar to pictography in that it does not in any way reflect the plane of expression, but differs in that it correlates with the plane of content, the concept.
For example, the character for "sun" reflects the concept of "sun" in both Chinese and Japanese, but does not indicate How read it, so the Japanese and Chinese pronounce it in their own way. If a hieroglyph or the concept designated by it is unknown to a person, then he will not be able to read such a hieroglyph and will not be able to perceive it as a concept.
Hieroglyphics appeared during the period of language development when speech word.
In place, both pictography and logography are called ideography(translated from Greek - “I write the meaning”).
Currently, of the most famous hieroglyphic systems (ancient Egyptian, Sumerian, Cretan, ancient Chinese, Mayan), there is the Chinese and its derivative Japanese. Chinese writing also spread in Korea, but it turned out to be inconvenient due to a different grammatical system. Therefore, in Korea there is also a “kunmun” (letter) letter, along with hieroglyphic.
Hieroglyphics have some advantages: the international nature of logograms, a smaller number of characters in a piece of text compared to alphabetic writing. Among the disadvantages of hieroglyphs are the large number of characters (up to hundreds of thousands) and the difficulty in mastering reading.
The second type of letter is phonography ( translated from Greek - “I write sound”). This type of writing conveys not only the content, but also the sound side of significant linguistic units (words, morphemes).
Phonographic writing arose at that stage of language development when words were divided into syllables and sounds.
Phonographic writing, depending on what is the object of the graphic sign, is divided into syllabography(this is an earlier type of writing, its object is a syllable) and phonemography(its object is a phoneme, this is an alphabetic letter). Interestingly, the term "phonography" is used as a synonym for the term "phonemography" due to its simplicity.
So, let's draw a conclusion from the above.
There are two types of writing - ideography and phonography. Ideography is divided into pictography and logography (hieroglyphics). Phonography is divided into syllabography and phonemography.
3. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
Alphabet - this is a set of graphic signs arranged in a certain order - letters used when writing in a particular language (definition by V.F. Ivanova).
Another definition is given by L.R. Zinder: an alphabet is an inventory of letters used in the written code of a given language. Zinder believes that the ordering of the alphabet is not theoretically necessary, so he does not include it in the definition. In fact, orderliness is only needed for vocabulary and for learning letters when studying.
Each letter in the modern alphabet is presented in four versions: two printed (lowercase and uppercase) and two handwritten (lowercase and uppercase). These “variants” of letters (more precisely, the letters themselves) are called allographs one graphemes(compare: allophones of one phoneme).
Grapheme is an abstract unit of the alphabet that has four forms of expression.
Letter, or grapheme, is a sign (as opposed to a phoneme) that has signified(phonemes or combinations of phonemes transmitted in writing) and meaning(style), the connection between which conditional
A letter, as a rule, has several sound meanings, i.e. conveys several different phonemes in writing. This is a consequence of the discrepancy between the number of letters of the alphabet and the number of phonemes.
The meanings of the letters are not equal. Some meanings are primary, others are secondary, or additional (A.N. Gvozdev calls them “substitute”). For example, the letter “Be” has four meanings: fight - [b], run -, timid - [p], swell -.
How to find out which of the meanings of a letter is basic and which is not? Zinder writes about this: “The main meaning is indicated by the name of the letter, which is associated with its function in the strong position.” Osipov offers a “reliable” way to determine the basic meaning of a letter: the basic meaning is the meaning that it retains regardless of the nature of the rule. The meaning provided by the rule is additional.
For example, in the words “fight” and “run” the spelling is not determined by the rules, therefore, the main meanings of the grapheme “Be” are presented here. But the words “timid” and “swell” obey the rule, therefore, these are non-basic meanings.
By using 33 letters Russian alphabet (10 vowels, 21 consonants, ъ and ь signs) are indicated 42 phonemes Russian language (if we consider Ш as a separate phoneme).
In the alphabet they highlight unambiguous letters letters (ts, y, th), double digits(i, l, m, y, etc.). They only count basic the meanings of the letters, otherwise the letters could have multiple meanings.
A serious theoretical question for any alphabet is the question of the necessary and sufficient number of letters of the alphabet.
It is believed that the ratio “one phoneme - one letter” is not always desirable and uneconomical.
So, in Slavic languages, letters would be needed to designate hard, soft, voiced, and voiceless consonants.
This main question is resolved within the framework of the second category of the letter - graphics.
4. Limitations and violations of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
Graphics(from the Greek “I write”) is a set of general rules about the purpose of written characters (letters), a system of relationships between letters and phonemes in the text.
The question of the necessity and sufficient number of letters of the alphabet was already raised by Baudouin; he intended to derive a mathematical formula for the rational construction of the alphabet, but did not derive it. The formula was derived by Nikolai Fedorovich Yakovlev (1926, published in 1928) and called it “the formula for constructing the most economical (in terms of pure letters) alphabet.”
This formula is universal. You can learn more about this formula from the book by V.F. Ivanova “Modern Russian Orthography” (pp. 38 – 40).
The economy of constructing the Russian alphabet is achieved by the fact that the differential signs of softness and hardness in consonant phonemes are indicated by subsequent vowels.
This method of Russian writing is called syllabic (term by V.A. Bogoroditsky), or syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
So, the graphic syllable acts as a unit of reading and writing.
The combination of a consonant and a vowel is an integral graphic element, a “letter combination”, both parts of which are mutually determined. Both vowels and consonants are written and read taking into account neighboring letters.
The syllabic principle of Russian graphics in relation to consonants: the hardness and softness of a consonant is indicated in writing by the subsequent vowel letter (pena, penya). At the end of words and before a consonant, softness is indicated by “ь” (kon, horse).
In the Russian language there are softening (indicate the softness of the consonant - ya, e, e, yu, i) and non-softening (indicate the hardness of the consonant - a, o, u, e, y) vowels. Thus, 4 “extra” vowels exist in the Russian language instead of 16 special consonants.
The differential sign of hardness at the end of words and between consonants is indicated by the absence of “b” at the end of a word or after a hard consonant.
The syllabic principle of graphics in relation to vowels is carried out as follows: vowels are read taking into account adjacent letters. So, the letters e, e, yu, i, and not only softening, but also iotized. There are positions where the vowels e, e, yu, i, and denote two phonemes:
And after b: nightingale;
E, e, yu, i: a) at the absolute beginning of a word (yula, spruce, fir-tree, pit)
b) after vowels (reading, clown, sings, sing);
c) after ъ and ь (congress, tenant, blizzard, withdraw).
The letter th indicates the minor shade of the phoneme
So, the vowels e, e, yu, i, and are two-valued, a, o, e, u, y are single-valued.
There are limitations and deviations in the application of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
Restrictions, according to V.F. Ivanova, these are those cases of violation of the syllabic principle when it is powerless as a law: it cannot prevent the inevitability of variant spelling.
Restrictions include:
a) choice of a//ya, u//yu, e//e after sibilants and c;
b) choice y//i after hissing and q;
c) choice e//o after hissing and c.
Let us explain these restrictions.
a) Reading unpaired hard zh, sh, ts and unpaired soft ch, shch does not depend on the subsequent vowel.
Ch, sh are already soft, they do not need additional designation of softness, zh, sh, c are always hard, and it is irrational to write I, Yu after such consonants. Therefore, chosen rational option– a, y (compare the borrowed Saint-Just, Jury, Zurich, where “yu” denotes softness of pronunciation).
The choice of e after sibilants and c from the pair e//e is also rational. Consonants before the sound [e] in Russian are usually soft; according to the laws of the Russian language, hard consonants in borrowed words can also become soft. Therefore, the letter e turns out to be more “aimed” at a special function. She emphasizes a firmness unusual for the Russian language: plein air. But x, w, c do not require a special hardness indicator, so it is logical to write the more commonly used letter e.
b) The letters ы//и indicate alternating phonemes. At the same time, after zh.sh,ts you can write both “y” and “i” - only “y” will be read, but the spellings “chin, swords, cabbage soup” are almost unreadable. Thus, after h, sch you can only write “and”. And since h, sh are already combined in the spelling with a, y, e with zh, sh, it is advisable to choose from the pair y//i the spelling with i (the spelling “zhi//shi” does not interfere with the correct pronunciation).
Complete analogy in spelling and after c is hindered by certain morphological correspondences (for more details, see Ivanova, p. 107).
c) In the case of e//o after sibilants and c, the choice of letter is dictated by spelling rules. Their appearance is a necessity caused by the special position of sibilants and c in the system of consonant phonemes (their unpaired hardness/softness). The syllabic principle here is not able to “dictate” the conditions of writing, and the issue is resolved within the framework of spelling.
Now let's turn to retreats from the syllabic principle.
Deviations are those cases of violation of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics, when it can be observed, but is not observed.
These actual violations include:
a) The designation of iota in borrowed words (the internationally accepted graphic form of the word is preserved): iod, iot, New York, Yemeni, major, district, mayonnaise, foyer, fireworks (compare: major, rayon).
Or: writing “o” instead of “e” after “b” (broth, chignoe, guillotine).
b) Writing e after letters denoting hard sounds (in borrowed words not assimilated into the Russian language - spelling “advance”): requiem, muffler, cafe, highway. Compare already assimilated words with soft pronunciation: theme, plywood, cream, pioneer.
Before 1956, there were many fluctuating spellings in print (adequate, bacon). After the reform of 1956, the spelling with “e” was left in only three common nouns (peer, sir, mayor) and those with the same root.
Special question: new borrowings like “happy ending and happy ending are options; common nouns from proper names - Thatcherism; words formed from the names of letters - kaveen, menees, chepe.
c) Writing e after vowels and at the beginning of a word without indicating iotation due to fluctuations in pronunciation: project, diet, ekanye (pronounced either with j or without it).
d) The syllabic principle does not apply in the writing of complex abbreviated words: village executive committee, svyazizdat, glavyuvelirtorg, ministry of justice, foreign language.
These words are read as a chain of individual words, preserving the laws of reading at the junctions of words.
Thus, we can conclude: the syllabic principle of Russian graphics operates only within words, but even at the border of abbreviated words it does not operate.
So, graphics– the second component of writing as a whole (the first component, let me remind you, was the alphabet).
Task 1. Find in the text deviations from the syllabic principle of Russian graphics. Give spellings that would match it.
1) Even an aesthetic specialist is amazed by your erudition in the field of impressionistic painting.
2) During the search, the police confiscated books and brochures of revolutionary organizations that were not permitted by censorship.
3) Only an iron will to live gave the young man the strength to fight a serious illness.
4) Your works in pastel and gouache look more interesting than overly meticulous pencil drawings.
Task 2. There are two ways to read abbreviations: 1) read as an ordinary word, that is, by letter; 2) create a word by adding the names of letters, i.e. read each letter in the abbreviation as a syllable. For example, the name of the Moscow Art Theater (Moscow Art Theater) used to be read more according to the second method, although not completely (it should have been read as em-ha-te), but after the theater was awarded the title of academic, its name, retaining the old sound, began to be read according to the first method (as the Moscow Art Theater).
Find in these abbreviations those that are read like ordinary words, and those in which the letters have become syllabary signs. What is usually associated with the difference in reading abbreviations? Give a phonetic transcription of abbreviations and show the division into syllables using syllable divisions. Does it match the letter names?
USSR, Komsomol, GUM, MTS, Housing Society, Moscow State University, Vocational School, Youth Theater, MIPT, MIMO, RUDN, MGPI, MISS, NEP, HPP, KVN, USA.
Task 3. A. In these poetic lines by I. Annensky, find all cases of realization of the phoneme
B. In example 2, explain the use of b. What “work” does this letter do here? Is its use dictated by the rules of graphics in all cases?
1. I loved your crazy impulse,
But it’s impossible to be you and me at once,
And, revealing the hieroglyphs of material dreams
I clearly write the phrase in a pattern.
2. You say... Here happiness beats
A wing clinging to a flower,
But a moment - and it will soar upward
Irreversible and bright.
And maybe dearer to the heart
The arrogance of consciousness
Flour is sweeter if it contains
There is a subtle poison of memory.
LESSON 8
RUSSIAN SPELLING AND ITS PRINCIPLES*
Literature:
Gvozdev A.N. Basics of Russian spelling. – M., 1954.
Gvozdev A.N. Selected works on spelling and phonetics. – M., 1963, pp. 213 – 251.
Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. – L., 1987, pp. 89 – 111 (sections “Spelling”, “Problem of improving writing”).
Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian spelling. – M., 1991.
Osipov B.I. History of Russian writing, - Omsk, 1990 (chapter 2 “History of spelling”).
Reference materials:
1. The concept of spelling, spelling.
Spelling(from the Greek “I write correctly”) is a set of rules for writing that corresponds to the norms of the literary language.
Russian spelling is divided into 5 sections:
1) rules for transmitting sounds (phonemes) by letters in words and morphemes;
2) rules on continuous, semi-continuous (hyphenated) and separate spellings of words;
3) rules for the use of uppercase (capital) and lowercase (small) letters;
4) rules for transferring words from one line to another;
5) rules for graphic abbreviation of words.
Spelling- this is a spelling, chosen or still sought, in the case where the writer is given a choice of letters to denote a particular sound (phoneme).
Phonemes in weak positions can be designated in different ways, but, firstly, the choice of letters to designate them is limited to a certain framework, and secondly, this choice is made on the basis of guidelines principles, those. guiding ideas for the choice of letters by a native speaker where a sound (phoneme) can be designated variably.
In strong positions, sounds (phonemes) are designated each his letter, we are not solving spelling problems here. An exception is the designation of vowels after sibilants and c.
2.Principles of Russian spelling. Morphological principle.
So, possible principles of Russian spelling:
A) phonetic– letters are written according to pronunciation (this principle prevails in Serbo-Croatian orthography);
B) traditional- write as they wrote before (example - English spelling);
IN) morphological– a consequence of understanding the structural division of a word into its constituent significant parts (morphemes). This principle results in a uniform representation of these parts in writing.
In addition to these principles, it can be used differentiation writing ( ideographic principle), for example burn - burn. A.N. Gvozdev calls this not a principle, but specifically writing.
Leading the principle of Russian spelling that determines most spellings is morphological, or, in Zinder's terminology, morphematic principle. Its definition is given by V.F. Ivanova: “This is a principle of designating positionally alternating phonemes, in which the graphic uniformity of the morpheme is preserved; to achieve this goal, phonemes in weak positions are designated by letters that are adequate to phonemes in strong positions” (On the history of the formation of the morphological principle, see Ivanova, pp. 93 – 108).
In addition to the designation of phonemes of weak positions, the morphological principle sometimes regulates the designation of phonemes of strong positions in cases where in strong positions the graphics provide the opportunity to select letters. This happens when designating vowels after sibilants and ts, and the choice itself is made on the basis of graphical alignment of morphemes with sibilants and ts to morphemes with non-sibilants of identical meaning. For example: black, not black, because... turn black; protects, but does not protect, because carries, etc.
3. Violations and limitations of the morphological principle.
Nevertheless, there are cases in Russian violations And restrictions morphological principle of spelling.
Violations:
1. Two instead of three consonants, one instead of two consonants:
A) the junction of a prefix and a suffix: quarrel and get angry are written the same way, because In Russian there are only two degrees of longitude. Long consonants in writing convey double letters. Identical consonant sounds can be conveyed by different letters (sew, compress), perhaps the morphological spelling is emphasized (burned).
B) the junction of the root and the suffix: bathtub - bathroom is written in the same way as long, although there should be -nnn- in the word “bathroom”. At the junction of a root and a suffix, truncation to one consonant is possible, for example, five-ton, crystal, finka, etc.
2. They do not correspond to the morphological principle tabular, krupitchaty, dobytchik (tch is written instead of tsch, chch, since this combination of letters is not accepted in Russian words (cf. foreign language capriccio).
3. A violation of the morphological principle is the presence of spellings that correspond to the phonetic principle.
It is necessary to distinguish from violations of the morphological principle writings that also do not preserve the unity of the graphic appearance of morphemes, but do not preserve this unity in an absolutely irresistible way. They are called restrictions morphological principle (they were identified by A.N. Gvozdev). These include:
A) spellings associated with historical alternations such as run - run, friend - friends, laugh - funny, look - look;
B) spellings caused by the syllabic principle of Russian graphics, for example ash - earth, solemn - quiet.
So, in these examples, the uniform spelling of morphemes is not observed, but in neither case there are spellings; these are cases that are beyond the competence of orthographic principles.
4. Other principles of Russian spelling (general characteristics).
Phonetic principle -“Write as you hear.” Another definition is this principle of designating phonemes, when phonemes of weak positions are designated by letters that are adequate to these phonemes. Baudouin called such spellings “phonemography”; the term “phonemic principle” is used by Maslov, Zinder, Selezneva.
The phonetic principle is opposed to the morphological; if deemed appropriate, you can always replace phonetic spellings with morphological ones. Consequently, spellings based on the phonetic principle are violations of the morphological principle. The following spellings correspond to the phonetic principle:
A) spelling of prefixes in z/s (morphologically always “z”). This principle is not completely preserved even within the framework of this spelling, see the words “tasteless”, “ruthless”, “reckless”;
B) spelling of the prefixes “roz/raz” - “ros/ras”. There was an exception for “wanted, wanted”, but the 1991 dictionary already gives “wanted, wanted”;
C) ы in place and at the root after prefixes ending in a hard consonant, for example unideal. The exception is words with foreign prefixes, with the prefixes “between” and “over”. Until 1956, y was written only in Russian words, so there was an idealess, uninteresting prehistory.
The spelling reform of 1956 streamlined these spellings.
D) O in suffixes after sibilants in a strong position (morphologically there should be “e” - owlet, little mouse).
We emphasize that spellings such as bitches, country, gender, hold, etc. are not phonetic, because in some of them there are simply no spellings (hold, floor), and in others the spelling is based on morphological comparisons (bitches - bitches, country - countries).
Traditional the principle of orthography in the Russian language is a principle in which phonemes in weak positions are designated by one of a number of letters that are phonologically possible to denote a given phoneme (phonemic-traditional principle).
Traditional spellings include:
B) alternating roots o//a, e//i;
C) traditional hieroglyphic writings, where phonemes of strong positions are indicated not by pronunciation, for example, the ending -ого//-и in place - wa; -chn in place -shn.
In Russian, you need to know where to write –shn and where –chn, for example gorodoshnik, but trivial - assistant instead of writing pomoshnik;
D) traditional historical writings: kind, brittle, quiet, strict, although according to the morphological principle - expensive, raw (for a historical commentary on this writing, see Ivanova, pp. 123 - 124);
E) traditional etymological spellings - preserved etymologically, but in modern Russian they are archaic, unsystematic, and conflict with similar but systematic spellings: “ь” (jump, see. You do) – here “ь” is etymological; cheboty, bangs - there are no examples of alternations in modern Russian, but etymologically there are the words “chelo”, “chebotar”.
Peripheral is the principle of graphic-morphological analogies. This includes the spellings: “b” to equalize the paradigms of the 3rd declension (shoals - quiet); imperative mood (suspension - cut off); infinitive (do - take care). Read more about this principle in the specified literature.
Task 1. Give examples of Russian words whose spelling respects: 1. phonetic spelling principle; 2.morphemic-phonemic principle of writing (4-5 examples).
Task 2. If in a number of words there is an exchange of phonemes within the same morpheme, then What In this case, Russian spelling conveys:
Identity of morphemes or change of phonemes? Give examples of such words.
Task 3. A. Which of these words do not correspond in their spelling to the rules of Russian graphics? The leading principle of Russian spelling? B. Based on what principle of spelling are these words written? Which letters violate the phonemic principle of Russian spelling here? How can one explain the specificity of such writings?
Mine, major, adjutant, New York, mayonnaise, May Day, Maya, broth, lighthouse, yogi, south, iotized, happiness, scatter, July, find, transcription, match, grammar, gallop, black, today, sewed.
QUESTIONS FOR THE PHONETICS EXAM
1. Subject of phonetics. The connection between sound and meaning. Sound and phoneme. Phonetics and phonology.
2. Articulatory classification of vowels and consonants.
3. Sound, allophone, phoneme. Strong and weak positions. Neutralization. Differential and integral features of phonemes.
4. Composition and system of vowel phonemes. The question of phonemic independence of the phoneme<у>.
5. Vowels in the flow of speech. Vowel reduction. Degrees of reduction. Potebnya formula. The concept of vowel accommodation.
6. Composition and system of consonant phonemes.
7. Consonants in the flow of speech.
8. The concept of alternation. Alternations are positional (neophonetic) and historical (paleophonetic).
9. Positional alternations of vowel and consonant phonemes in modern Russian.
10. Historical alternations of vowel and consonant phonemes.
11. Supersegmental units of language. Syllable.
12. Phonetic word. Tact. Phrase. Verbal, tact, phrasal stress. Logical and emphatic stress.
13. Intonation. Types of intonation structures in the modern phonetic system.
14. Russian graphics. The principle of Russian graphics (syllabic).
15. Deviations and limitations of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics.
16. Russian spelling. Principles of Russian spelling.
17. Violations and limitations of the morphological principle of Russian orthography.
Question No. 2: SegmentalAndsupersegmentalphoneticunits. Phrase, speechtact, phoneticword, syllable, soundHowsegmentspeechflow. Our speech is a stream of sounds, a sound chain. This chain is divided into segments, separate units, distinguished by various phonetic means. In the Russian language, such units are a phrase, a phonetic syntagm, a phonetic word, a syllable and a sound. A phrase is a segment of speech united by a special intonation and phrasal stress and concluded between two fairly long pauses. The phrase corresponds to a statement that is relatively complete in meaning. However, a phrase cannot be identified with a sentence. A phrase is a phonetic unit, and a sentence is a grammatical one; they belong to different tiers of language and may not coincide linearly. A phrase can be divided into phonetic syntagms. Phonetic syntagma is also characterized by special intonation and syntagmic stress, but pauses between syntagmas are not required, and they are shorter than interphrase pauses. The division of the speech flow into phrases and syntagmas is determined by the meaning, the meaning that the speaker puts into the utterance. Phonetic syntagmas consisting of more than one word are characterized by semantic and syntactic integrity. Thus, the phrase and phonetic syntagma are distinguished by rhythmic and intonation means; the division of the speech flow into phrases and phonetic syntagmas is associated with meaning and syntactic division. A phonetic syntagma can consist of one or more phonetic words. A phonetic word is a segment of a sound chain united by one verbal stress. A phonetic word can correspond to one or more lexical units. A phonetic word is divided into syllables, and syllables are divided into sounds. A sound, a syllable, a phonetic word, a phonetic syntagm, a phrase are different segments of the speech stream. Such linear segments are called segmental units. Sound is the smallest segmental unit. Each next largest segmental unit consists of smaller ones: a syllable of sounds; phonetic word - made of syllables; phonetic syntagma - from phonetic words; phrase - from syntagmas.
Question No. 3: Syllable, emphasis, intonationHowsupersegmentalunits. The supersegmental units of speech include stress and intonation. They serve to combine segmental units in the speech stream. Stress is an essential feature of a word. Can be verbal. Verbal stress is the selection, using phonetic means, of one of the syllables in a word, a stressed syllable. Russian accent is quantitative, i.e. the stressed syllable is characterized by a longer duration. This feature forms the basis of the methodological technique used by teachers in primary schools. In addition, Russian stress is characterized as dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, stress can be called quantitative-dynamic. Russian stress is free, it can fall on any of the syllables. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. There are words with fixed stress. As language develops, the placement of word stress may change. There are options when the stress depends on the style of pronunciation. The word has one accent, but there are compound words. They can have two stresses: one is the main one, the second is a secondary one (d O skein A ny) In addition to verbal stress, there is logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the speaker’s point of view, word. This is essentially new information that sounds in the phrase - rhemma, and that which is already known and is not new is theme. In addition to logical stress, there is: Emphatic - the transfer of emotions. It makes words emotionally rich. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound that is under stress is pronounced more elongated and longer. With negative emotions, the consonant sound at the beginning is lengthened. Intonation is a set of means in the organization of sounding speech or the rhythmic and melodic pattern of speech. The elements of intonation include: Melody - movement of the fundamental tone of the voice. Speech tempo - the speed of speech in time. Speech timbre - the sound coloring of speech , conveying emotionally expressive shades. The intensity of speech is the strength of pronunciation associated with the strengthening or weakening of exhalation.
Question No. 4: AcousticAndarticulatorycharacteristicssounds. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language. Acoustic phonetics studies the physical features of speech sounds. In acoustics, sound is understood as the result of vibrational movements of a body in a certain environment, accessible to auditory perception. The speech apparatus is a set of organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of speech. The speech apparatus in a broad sense covers the central nervous system, organs of hearing and vision, as well as speech organs. Based on their role in pronouncing sounds, the speech organs are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce certain movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus particularly important for their formation. The active organs of speech include: vocal cords, tongue, lips, soft palate, uvula, and the entire lower jaw. Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech include the teeth, alveoli, hard palate and the entire upper jaw. To form each speech sound, a complex of work of the speech organs is required in a certain sequence, that is, a very specific articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce sounds. The complexity of sound articulation also lies in the fact that it is a process in which three phases of sound articulation are distinguished: attack (excursion), endurance and retreat (recursion). An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state.
Question No. 5: ClassificationvowelssoundsByplaceAnddegreesriselanguage, Byavailabilityorabsencelabialization. IN basis classifications vowels sounds lie following signs: 1) participation of the lips; 2) the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically in relation to the palate; 3) the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or pushed back horizontally. Accordingly, vowels are divided into the following classification groups: 1) rounded (labialized): y [o], y [y]; unrounded - [a], [e], [i], [s]; 2) according to the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate, the following groups are distinguished: a) vowels of the upper rise (narrow): [i], [s], [ u];b) mid-rise vowels [e], [o]c) low-rise vowels (wide): [a3) according to the degree of the tongue moving forward or moving it back horizontally, the vowels differ: a) front row: [i], [e]; b) middle row [s], [a]; c) back row [y], [o]. Along with sounds, open and closed vowels are distinguished - “shades” of sounds that are pronounced with greater openness or closedness, with a lesser or greater rise of the tongue. They can be more or less advanced forward or backward. For example: 1) vowel sounds [ä], , [ö], [ÿ] - front-medial, pronounced between soft consonants 2) vowel [e¬] pronounced under stress after hard consonants ;3) vowels [ie], [ыъ], [аъ] are only in an unstressed position; 4) vowel – mid-back; 5) vowels [ä], [аъ], – mid-low, etc. An even more subtle analysis of vowels is possible.
Question No. 6: ClassificationconsonantssoundsByplaceeducation. According to the place of formation, consonant sounds are divided into labial and lingual. Labial consonants are those consonants in which an obstruction is formed with the help of the lips. In some cases, when only the lips are involved (the lower lip moves closer to the upper), labiolabial consonants are formed, for example, [b], [p], [m]. In other cases, when the lower lip comes close to the upper teeth, labiodental consonants are formed: for example, [v], [f]. Lingual consonants are those consonants in which, when pronounced, an obstruction is formed using different parts of the tongue in different places in the oral cavity. All consonants of the Russian language are lingual, except for labial ones. Depending on which part of the tongue and in which part of the oral cavity forms an obstruction, the consonants are distinguished as front-lingual, posterior-lingual and middle-lingual. Front-lingual consonants are those in which an obstruction is created in the front part of the oral cavity by bringing the front part of the back of the tongue and its tip closer to the teeth (lower or upper), alveoli or anterior palate. These include most linguistic consonants: for example, [d], [t], [z], [s], [zh], [sh], [ts], [h], [n], [r]. Rear lingual consonants are consonants, in the formation of which an obstruction occurs in the back of the oral cavity as a result of the convergence of the back of the tongue with the palate. This is, for example, [g], [k], [x]. Midlingual consonants include consonants, during the formation of which a barrier is created in the middle part of the oral cavity, where the middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the palate. The middle language is, for example, the sound [j].
Question No. 7: ClassificationconsonantssoundsBywayeducation. An obstacle to the air flow during the formation of a consonant sound is created by different articulatory organs (they determine the place of sound formation), but the obstacle can be formed in different ways and the air flow can also overcome it in different ways. One of the key characteristics of a consonant in the Russian language - the method of sound formation - depends on how the air overcomes an obstacle in its path. To produce a consonant sound, three main methods of articulation are used: 1) bowing, when, with the help of the articulatory organs, the air flow is completely blocked for some time, and then, under air pressure, the barrier formed by the articulatory organs opens and the air pushes out. To the ear, such a sound is perceived as a very short noise, or an explosion. This is how stop or plosive consonants are formed [p], [p"], [b], [b"], [t], [t"], [d], [d"], [k], [k "], [g], [g"]; 2) a gap when the entire air flow comes out through a narrow channel, which is formed by the organs of articulation, while the air stream passes between them with force and due to friction and air turbulence between the walls of the formed sound arises from the cracks; To the ear, such a sound is perceived as hissing. This is how fricative, or fricative, sounds are formed [f], [f"], [v], [v"], [s], [s"], [z], [z"], [sh], [sh "], [zh], [zh"], [j], [x], [x"]; 3) vibration, when the tip of the tongue vibrates in the outward air stream (in the Russian language, only one type of consonant sounds is formed in this way - trembling sonorants, or vibrants, [p] / [p"]). The first two methods of articulation (bow and gap) can be combined with each other: when the bow is opened, a gap appears through which air passes for some time - this is how bow-clefts are formed consonants, or affricates [ts] and [h"]. The closure of the organs of articulation can be accompanied by the release of part of the air stream through additional channels: through the nose for nasal consonants (this is how nasal sonorant consonants are formed [m], [m"], [n], [n"]) and on the side of the tongue between its edges and the upper teeth (this is how only one type of sounds is formed in the Russian language - consonants [l] / [l"], also called lateral, or lateral consonants).
Question No. 8: ClassificationconsonantssoundsBylevelnoise, participationornon-participationvoteVeducationsound, Byhardness – softness. By noise level: a) sonorous: [p], [l], [m], [n], and their soft pairs, [j]; b) noisy: [b], [c], [d], [ d], [g], [z], [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [c], [h], [w], etc.; Based on the participation or non-participation of the voice in the formation of sound, dull and voiced tone (voice) are distinguished; tone (voice) is characteristic of the pronunciation of voiced sounds; their articulation requires the obligatory work of the vocal cords. All sonorants [р], [л], [м], [н], [j] are voiced. Among noisy consonants, the following sounds are considered voiced: [b], [c], [d], [d], [zh], [z] and their soft pairs. b) voiceless consonants are pronounced without voice when the vocal cords remain relaxed . Voiced voices of this type include only noisy ones: [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [sh] and their soft pairs [ts], [ch']. According to availability or lack of voice, many agree to form pairs. It is customary to distinguish 12 pairs of consonants contrasted by deafness and voicedness: b-p, v-f, d-t, z-s, zh-sh, g-k and their soft pairs. Hard unpaired consonants include the consonants [ts], [sh ]. All of them are either hard doubles or soft doubles: [b] - [b'][c] - [c'][g] - [g'][d] - [d'][z] - [z' ] [p] - [p'] [f] - [f'][k] - [k'[t] - [t'][s] - [s'] [m] - [m'][n ] - [n'][r] - [r'][l] - [l'][x] - [x']
Question№ 9: Syllable from articulatory and acoustic points of view. Various syllable theories. Types of syllables. Phonetic words are divided into syllables. There are various definitions of a syllable, which are based on attention to its articulatory or acoustic features. The most common articulatory definition of a syllable is the following: a syllable is a part of a phonetic word consisting of one or more sounds pronounced by one impulse of exhaled air. Articulatory definition of a syllable proposed by L .IN. Shcherboy, based on pulsation theory. According to this theory, a syllable is a segment of speech corresponding to the alternation of pumping and releasing muscular tension of the speech apparatus. In this case, the syllable is formed by each rise followed by a fall; at the beginning of the chain there may be no rise, and at the end there may be a fall. In other articulatory definitions, a syllable is characterized as a sequence of speech movements that is formed by one respiratory impulse (R. Stetson) or is the result of one control command (L.A. Chistovich). Acoustic definition syllable connected with sonorous theory, proposed by the Danish linguist O. Jespersen and in relation to the Russian language developed by R.I. Avanesov; this theory is the most recognized in modern Russian linguistics. In accordance with this theory, a syllable is a segment with a peak of sonority and a less sonorous environment, a wave of increasing and decreasing sonority. There are more than a dozen theories or interpretations of the syllable. Let's look at the most famous of them. Expiratory or aspiratory. As the name itself suggests, this theory is based on the physiological process of exhalation when speaking. German phonetician Eduard Sievers calls a syllable that part of a word that is pronounced with one impulse of exhaled air. According to this theory, speaking does not occur as a uniform "flow" of air and uniform production of sounds one after another, but in the form of portions of exhaled air, which produce not a single sound, but a group of sounds more closely related to each other than the sounds produced by the next one. a push of air. This theory is the oldest and, perhaps, the most understandable and close to us. Priscian also gave a similar definition (“with one accent and one exhalation”), and we ourselves often observe this phenomenon when we need to pronounce a word separately, i.e. by syllables, as well as during group speaking, chanting, etc. Ballistic theory, or theory of motion. This theory was proposed by R. Stetson. The ballistic theory of the syllable is based on the position that all movements regularly performed by a person, after some time become automated and are performed without control from the corresponding center of higher nervous activity. Moreover, once automated, these movements are no longer subject to conscious control or, at best, are very difficult to correct.
Question№ 10: Syllable division in Russian. The structure of a syllable in the Russian language obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in a syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous. The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words below, if sonority is conventionally designated by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorant consonants, 1 - noisy consonants. Water: 1-3/1-3; boat: 2-3/1-1-3; ma-slo: 2-3/1-2-3; wave: 1-3-2/2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of syllable division is implemented at the beginning of a non-initial syllable. The initial and final syllables in the Russian language are built according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: summer: 2-3/1-3; glass: 1-3/1-2-3. The syllable division when combining significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase: us Turkey - us-Tur-tsi-i; nasturtiums (flowers) - na-stur-tsi-i. A particular pattern of syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: odessite [o/de/sit]; art [i/sku/stvo]; part [ra/become/xia]; from the wall [ste/ny], therefore more often - [so/ste/ny].
Question№ 11: Emphasis. Word stress. Phonetic nature of Russian stress. Place of stress in a word. Stress - highlighting (a syllable, a word) with the strength of the voice or raising the tone. Stress is an essential feature of a word. It can be verbal. Verbal stress is the emphasis, using phonetic means, of one of the words in a word of a stressed syllable. What is the phonetic nature of the stress?, Russian nature, i.e. stressed syllable. This feature is the basis of a methodological technique that is used by teachers in elementary school. In addition, Russian stress is characterized by dynamic or forceful, because the stressed syllable is pronounced with greater force. Combining both characteristics, the stress can be called quantitative-dynamic Russian stress is free It can be initial, middle or final. Russian stress can move from syllable to syllable when the form of the same word changes. For example, stol (stress falls on O) - tables (stress falls on Y) - such stress is called movable. There are words that have a fixed stress - chair (the stress falls only on U). With the development of language, the placement of verbal stress may change. For example, in the 19th century A.S. Pushkin wrote music (with emphasis on Y). There are options for setting verbal stress, which depend on the style of stress. A word, as a rule, has one stress, but there are complex words. In addition to verbal stress, they distinguish: logical stress - highlighting the most significant, from the point of view from the point of view of the speaker. This is essential, as a rule, new information in a rheme phrase. And that information that is known and is not new is the topic. Aliphatic stress is the transfer of emotions, it makes words emotionally rich. If the emotions are positive, then the vowel sound is pronounced longer. If the emotions are negative, the consonant sound is pronounced longer.
Question№ 12: The semantic distinguishing function of Russian stress. Fixed and movable stress. Clitics. Meaning-discriminating function is the ability of linguistic means to serve to distinguish lexical units and statements. The semantic-distinguishing function in the Russian language can be performed by sounds (the semantic-distinguishing role of sound) (house - volume), stress (flour - flour), intonation (This is your computer. - This is your computer?). The different place stress of the Russian language in some words is fixed, i.e. .e. when forming grammatical forms of a word, it remains on the same syllable, and in others it is mobile, i.e. When different grammatical forms of a word are formed, it is transferred from one syllable to another (inflectional mobility of stress). Wed. different forms of two words like head and head: head, head, head, head, head, head, head and head, head, head, head, head, head, head; the first of them has a fixed stress, the second - a movable one. Another example: strigý, cut, cut, cut (fixed stress), mogý, can, mógat, mógut (movable). A clitic is a word (for example, a pronoun or particle), grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent. By definition, clitics are, in particular, all words that do not form a syllable (for example, the prepositions in, to, with). Clitics can be attached to the stressed word form of any one part of speech (for example, Roman pronominal forms in indirect cases - only to the verb) or to word forms of any part of speech (these are Russian particles); the latter are called transcategorial.
Question No. 13: Phrase, tact and logical stress.
Phrase stress - Emphasizing one word in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagm): There is a short, / but wondrous time in the initial autumn //. Beat stress - Isolating one of the words in a speech beat (syntagm) by strengthening the verbal stress that unites different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech beat: There is a short, / but wonderful time in the initial autumn //. The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - the beat stress: On a dry aspen / gray crow /... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. A speech beat is sometimes called syntagma. The main means of dividing into syntagmas is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma). The phrase usually stands out and contains several speech beats, but the boundaries of the phrase and the beat can coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy // (Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine and Field/behind the ravine. Word stress - A type of stress defined within a word and consisting of highlighting one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (beat), syllabic stress. S. u. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish. Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions - logical and emphatic.
Question№ 14: Intonation. Intonation structures, their types. Functions of intonation: rhythm-forming, phrase-forming, meaning-distinguishing, emotional. Intonation (Latin intonō “pronounce loudly”) is a set of prosodic characteristics of a sentence: tone (melody of speech), volume, tempo of speech and its individual segments, rhythm, phonation features. Together with stress, it forms the prosodic system of the language. Intonation construction (IC), intonation, phoneme of tone is a set of intonation features sufficient to differentiate the meanings of statements and convey such parameters of the statement as communicative type, semantic importance of its constituent syntagmas, actual division. Being a type of linguistic sign (namely a suprasegmental unit), it has a plane of expression and a plane of content. Differential features for distinguishing intonation structures are the direction of tone on the vowel center and the ratio of tone levels of the component parts of the IC, as well as the duration of the vowel center, increased verbal stress on it and the presence or absence of a vocal cord stop at the end of the pronunciation of a vowel in the center of the IC, perceived as a sharp break sound. An intonation structure is realized on a speech segment, which can be a simple or complex sentence, the main or subordinate part of a complex sentence, a phrase, a separate word form of an independent word or a function word. In practice, intonation structures are types to which the whole variety of melodic patterns of utterances is reduced .Types of intonation structures In the Russian language, there are seven types of intonation structures (IC): IC-1 (lowering the tone on the center vowel): After the conversation, he became thoughtful. IK-2 (on the vowel of the center the tone movement is smooth or descending, the verbal stress is increased): Where should I go? IK-3 (a sharp increase in tone on the vowel of the center): How can I forget? IR-4 (on the vowel of the center, the tone decreases, then increases; the high tone level is maintained until the end of the structure): What about dinner? IK-5 (two centers; on the vowel of the first center there is an increase in tone, on the vowel of the second center there is a decrease): I haven’t seen her for two years! IK-6 (increasing tone on the vowel of the center, the high level of tone remains until the end of the structure; IK-6 differs from IK-4 by a higher tone level on the center vowel, for example, when expressing bewilderment or assessment): What an interesting film! IR-7 (raising the tone on the center vowel, for example, when expressing expressive negation): Did you complete the task? – Completed! Intonation plays a phrase-forming role: the tone movement characteristic of a specific intonation structure is completed - the phrase is completed. Intonation is one of the most important phonetic means of language, performing the following functions in speech.1. Provides phonetic integrity of the utterance or its part.2. Serves to divide a whole coherent text into parts that have signs of semantic and phonetic integrity.3. Conveys the most important communicative meanings - such as narration, question, motivation, etc.4. Indicates certain semantic relationships between the units forming a statement and between statements.5. Conveys the speaker’s attitude to the content of his statement or the statement of his interlocutor.6. Carries information about the emotional state of the speaker.
Question№ 15: Phonology. Sounds of speech and sounds of language. The concept of phoneme. The concept of alternation. Phonology (from the Greek φωνή - “sound” and λόγος - “teaching”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in the language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is the oppositions (oppositions) of phonemes that together form the phonological system of the language. A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish significant units of language (words, morphemes). Therefore, a phoneme is sometimes defined as a series of positionally alternating sounds. Phonemes are able to distinguish significant units of language due to the fact that they are material expressed, have known acoustic and articulatory properties, and are perceived by the human hearing organs. In speech, the implementation of phonemes occurs through sounds. Position is the condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. A strong position is the position of distinguishing phonemes, i.e. the position in which the largest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to best perform its functions. For Russian vowels, this is the stressed position. For voiceless consonants, the position is before all vowels. For hard and soft, this is the position of the end of the word. Weak position is the position of non-discrimination of phonemes, i.e. a position in which a smaller number of units are distinguished than in a strong position, since phonemes have limited opportunities to perform their distinctive function. In this position, two or more phonemes coincide in one sound, i.e. their phonological opposition is neutralized. Neutralization is the elimination of differences between phonemes under certain positional conditions. Phonemes, like other linguistic units (sign and non-sign), perform certain functions in the language. Usually, two main functions of phonemes are distinguished: the function of forming other (more complex) units of language, or structure function, and the function of distinguishing significant units of language (morphemes, words), or distinctive function. In speech, phonemes can change, i.e. used in the form of different sounds. A modification of a phoneme in speech is called its variation, and specific sounds representing one or another phoneme in the speech stream are called phoneme variants. Sound is the most important unit of the phonetic level of a language. The concept of speech sound can be explained based on the closest generic concept - sound as an acoustic phenomenon. The sound of speech is an element of spoken speech formed by the speech organs. With the phonetic division of speech, a sound is a part of a syllable, the shortest, further indivisible sound unit pronounced in one articulation. Vowel. Consonant sound. The sound of speech can be defined as a sound created with the help of the human speech organs, serving as a means of communication between people, devoid of linguistic meaning. Every phoneme is a sound of speech, but not every sound of speech is a phoneme. Phonemes are those speech sounds that not only form more complex units of language, but are also capable of distinguishing these units and contrasting them with each other. Speech sounds, like all other sounds, are characterized by a number of acoustic features: 1) the presence of tone or noise 2) strength , volume 3) pitch 4) longitude, duration 5) timbre The presence of tone or noise depends on the nature of the vibration of the elastic body that produces the sound (for example, the vocal cords). On this basis, sounds differ between tones and noises. Tone is formed when the vibration is of an ordered, rhythmic nature, i.e. is uniformly periodic. Tones include, for example, sounds produced by a musical instrument. Noise occurs when there is no rhythm or periodicity in the vibrations. Noises are the sounds that occur when a car wheel moves. The strength of the sound varies depending on the scope and amplitude of vibrations of elastic bodies, including the human vocal cords. The amplitude of body oscillations, in turn, depends on the size of the oscillating body and the force of influence on it.
The pitch of the sound is determined by the frequency of vibration.
Question№ 19: Phonetic alternations of consonant sounds, differing in deafness and voicedness, hardness and softness, place and method of formation. Voicelessness/voicing of consonants remains an independent, independent feature in the following positions: 1) before vowels: [sud]d court - [zu]d itch, [ta]m there - [da]m dam; 2) before sonorants : [layer] layer - [evil] oh evil, [tl']i aphid - [dl']i for; 3) before [v], [v']: [sw']ver ver - [zv'] er beast. In the indicated positions, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found, and these sounds are used to distinguish words (morphemes). The listed positions are called strong in deafness/voicedness. In other cases, the appearance of a dull/voiced sound is predetermined by its position in the word or the proximity of a particular sound. Such deafness/voiceness turns out to be dependent, “forced”. Positions in which this occurs are considered weak according to the indicated criterion. In the Russian language, there is a law according to which voiced noisy ones are deafened at the end of the word, cf.: du[b]a oak - du[p] oak, má[z']i ointments – ma[s'] ointment. In the given examples, the phonetic alternation of consonants in deafness / voicedness is recorded: [b] // [p] and [z’] // [s’]. In addition, positional changes concern situations when voiceless and voiced consonants are nearby. In this case, the subsequent sound affects the previous one. Voiced consonants in front of deaf people are necessarily likened to them in terms of deafness, as a result a sequence of voiceless sounds arises, cf.: ló[d]ochka boat - ló[tk]a boat (i.e. [d] // [t] before the deaf), prepared c']), change to voiced ones, assimilation occurs in terms of voicing, cf.: molo[t']i´t to thresh – molo[d'b]á threshing ([t'] // [d'] before the voiced), pro[s']i´t to ask - pro[z'b]a request (i.e. [s'] // [z'] before a voiced one). Articulatory likening of sounds of the same nature, that is, two consonants (or two vowels), is called assimilation (from Latin assimilatio 'likening'). Thus, assimilation in deafness and assimilation in voicedness were described above. The hardness / softness of consonants as an independent feature, and not one arising due to positional changes, is fixed in the following strong positions: 1) before vowels, including [e]: [lu]k bow - [l'u]k hatch, [but]s nose - [n'o]s carried, past [t'e']l pastel - after [t'e']l bed; Paired soft consonants before [e] are pronounced in native Russian words, paired solid ones - in borrowed ones. However, many of these borrowings have ceased to be recognized as rare: antenna, cafe, sausage, stress, mashed potatoes, prosthesis, etc. As a result, in common words it has become possible to pronounce both hard and soft consonants before [e]. 2) at the end words: ko[n] kon - ko[n'] horse, zha[r] heat - zha[r'] fry; 3) for sounds [l], [l'] regardless of their position: vo[l]ná wave - vo[l']ná is free; 4) for consonants [c], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'] (for front-lingual speakers) – in the position before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x' ] (before back-linguals): gó[r]ka gorka - gó[r']ko bitterly, bá[n]ka bank - bá[n']ka bathhouse; – in position before [b], [b'], [ p], [p'], [m], [m'] (before labials): i[z]bá izba - re[z']bá carving; In other cases, the hardness or softness of the consonant will not be independent, but caused by the influence sounds at each other. Similarity in hardness is observed, for example, in the case of connecting soft [n'] with hard [s], cf.: kó[n'] horse - kó[ns] horse, Spain [n']ia Spain - spain [ns] cue (i.e. [n'] // [n] before hard). The pair ju[n’] June – ju’[n’s]ky June does not obey the indicated pattern. But this exception is the only one. Assimilation in softness is carried out inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants and is not observed by all speakers. The only thing that does not know the indentation of deviations is the replacement of [n] with [n'] before [h'] and [w:'], cf: drum [n] drum - drum [n'ch']ik drum, go[n]ok races – gó[n' sh:']ik racer (i.e. [n] // [n'] before soft). The place and method of formation of consonants can only change as a result of the influence of sounds on each other. Before anteropalatal noisy ones, dental ones are replaced to the anterior palatines.
Question№ 22: The subject of orthoepy. The meaning of spelling norms. “Senior” and “junior” norms. Pronunciation styles. Reasons for deviations from literary pronunciation. The term orthoepy (from the gr. orthos - correct, epos - speech) is used to designate: 1) a set of rules of normative literary pronunciation; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the functioning of literary norms and develops pronunciation recommendations - orthoepic rules. The subject of orthoepy is the composition of the basic sounds of a language, phonemes, their quality and changes in certain phonetic conditions, i.e. the same as phonetics. But phonetics considers these issues in terms of describing the sound structure of a language; for orthoepy, it is important to establish norms of literary pronunciation. The need to establish such norms is determined by the fact that when listening to oral speech, we do not think about its sound, but directly perceive the meaning. Every deviation from the usual pronunciation distracts the listener from the meaning of the statement. Orthoepy is a branch of linguistics that has an applied nature. Orthoepic norms are very important in speech activity, since incorrect pronunciation or stress distracts attention from the meaning of the statement, complicates understanding, and often simply makes an unpleasant impression on the listener. In Russian orthoepy, it is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “ junior" norm. The “senior” norm preserves the features of the Old Moscow pronunciation of individual sounds, sound combinations, words and their forms. The “younger” norm reflects the features of modern literary pronunciation. There are high, neutral and colloquial styles outside the literary norms of the colloquial style. High is a slow and careful pronunciation (theater). Neutral is our everyday speech in compliance with all orthoepic norms at a faster pace of pronunciation .Colloquial is characterized by great emotionality, an even faster pace and less strict adherence to the rules of literary pronunciation.1.The main source of deviations from the norms of literary pronunciation is the native dialect of the speaker. For example, speakers of southern Russian dialects often violate the literary norm by pronouncing the fricative [Ɣ] instead of the plosive [g]. ]. 2. The second reason for deviation from literary pronunciation is writing, since we become familiar with the literary language through writing, through reading literature, which leads to the emergence of pronunciation in accordance with what is written. For example, as a result of letter-by-letter pronunciation, you can hear [ch"] in words: what, so, boring, of course. But on the other hand, deviations can win the right to exist and then become a source of development of variants of norms: I dare [s] and I dare [s "]. 3. Deviations from literary pronunciation are also caused by the influence of the phonetic system of another language: Ukrainian people [dm]i .
Question№ 24: The importance of writing in the history of Russian society. Origin and main stages of development of Russian writing. The invention of writing by man, as a system for recording speech for transmitting it in space and time, was one of the most important discoveries that largely determined the progress of modern society. The main advantage of writing is that it allows one to overcome the barrier of time, makes it possible to communicate between different generations, pass on their knowledge about the world to their descendants. With the help of writing, people created various business papers (documents), recorded their knowledge and experiences in books. Despite the enormous achievements, scientific and technological progress in the field of accumulation, storage and transmission of information, humanity has so far and has not come up with another system equal to writing and capable of performing these functions to the same extent. Writing is an additional means of communication. It arose out of the need to convey ideas to another tribe and descendants. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of mankind. Writing helps people communicate in cases where communication in audible language is either impossible or difficult. 1) The first historical type of writing was pictography, i.e. picture letter. Pictograms - units of such writing were scratched out and then drawn on the walls of caves, stones, rocks, animal bones, and on birch bark. In pictography, the symbol is a schematic drawing of a person, a boat, animals, etc. 2) Ideogram. Ideography is a writing in which graphic signs convey not words in their grammatical and phonetic design, but the meanings that stand behind these words. The transition from pictography to ideography is associated with the need to graphically convey something that is not visual and cannot be depicted in pictures. So, for example, the concept of “wakefulness” cannot be drawn, but one can draw the organ through which it manifests itself. i.e. through the image of an eye. In the same way, “friendship” can be conveyed by the image of two hands shaking one another, “enmity” by the image of crossed weapons, etc. The drawing in these cases appears figurative, and thereby in the conventional meaning. Hieroglyphs – “sacred writings” – were carved on bones and other materials. 3) phonography - a type of writing that reflects the pronunciation of words. Sound alphabet for writing; phonetic writing system. A) syllabic (each written sign denotes a specific syllable) b) vocal-sound (letters mainly designate the sounds of speech) Stages of development of writing: As a result of the evolution of the pictogram, ideogram and syllabogram, a letter appears - a sign of vocal-sound writing. (example: ancient Greek. The letter A was called “alpha” and denoted the vowel [a]). But the history of writing is not only the history of writing letters, at the same time it is also the history of the formation of modern alphabets and graphics.
Question№ 26: Composition of the modern Russian alphabet. Letter names. Phonetic and positional principles of Russian graphics. Designation on the letter of the phoneme [j]. Russian alphabet - (alphabet) - a set of graphic signs - letters in a prescribed sequence, which create the written and printed form of the national Russian language. Includes 33 letters: a, b, c, d, d, f, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, f, x, ts, ch, sh, sch, ъ, s, ь, e, yu, i. Most letters in written form are graphically different from printed ones. Except ъ, ы, ь, all letters are used in two versions: uppercase and lowercase. In printed form, the variants of most letters are graphically identical (they differ only in size; cf., however, B and b); in written form, in many cases, the spelling of uppercase and lowercase letters differs from each other (A and a, T, etc.). The Russian alphabet conveys the phonemic and sound composition of Russian speech: 20 letters convey consonant sounds (b, p, v, f, d, t, z, s, zh, sh, ch, ts, shch, g, k, x, m, n, l, p), 10 letters - vowels, of which a, e, o, s, i, u - only vowels, i, e, e, yu - softness of the preceding consonant + a, e, o, u or combinations j + vowel (“five”, “forest”, “ice”, “hatch”; “pit”, “ride”, “tree”, “young”); the letter "y" conveys "and non-syllabic" ("fight") and in some cases the consonant j ("yog"). Two letters: “ъ” (hard sign) and “ь” (soft sign) do not denote separate independent sounds. The letter “b” serves to indicate the softness of the preceding consonants, paired in hardness - softness (“mol” - “mol”), after the hissing letters “b” it is an indicator in writing of some grammatical forms (3rd declension nouns - “daughter”, but “brick”, imperative mood - “cut”, etc.). The letters “ь” and “ъ” also act as a dividing sign (“rise”, “beat”). Russian graphics are based on two basic principles - phonemic and positional. The essence of the phonemic principle of Russian graphics comes down to the fact that a letter denotes not a sound, but a phoneme. But there are more phonemes in the Russian language than letters. Another principle helps to smooth out such a discrepancy - positional (syllabic, letter combination), which allows you to clarify the sound meaning of a letter by means of another letter following it. The positional principle of Russian graphics is its great advantage, since thanks to it the transmission of hard and soft consonants in writing is halved (for example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there are special letters to indicate soft consonants: zh - soft l, sh - soft n). The positional principle is used to convey the hardness/softness of consonant phonemes and to indicate lt;jgt. The positional principle for conveying hardness/softness of consonant phonemes is implemented in the following way:
at the end of a word, the softness of a consonant is indicated by a soft consonant, and hardness by a space: coal_- angle_softness of a consonant before a hard consonant is conveyed by a soft sign: free - wave; the softness and hardness of a consonant before vowels differs using these vowels: single-digit letters indicate the hardness of the consonant phoneme, and multi-valued vowels - for softness: mayor, mor, bow, varnish, bast, but chalk, chalk, mil, crumpled. Designation on the phoneme letter [j]
In modern Russian there are two variants of pronunciation of the sound [j]. The first (and main) meaning of the sound [j] appears in the position before the vowel: fir-tree - lka, understand - understand. But at the end of a word or at the end of a syllable, the sound [j] is reduced, becomes short, approaching the sound of the vowel sound [i]. It must be remembered that [j] does not coincide with e [i]: loaf, wait. In writing, the letter y denotes only the second variant of pronunciation of the sound [j]. In some borrowed words, the initial syllable [j] is denoted by this letter y: iod, yogi, etc. The phoneme [j] is not denoted by an independent letter when it is before a vowel. Since in this position (at the beginning of a word between vowels, before a vowel) in writing, the combination of the sound [j] and a vowel is conveyed by one letter ya-ma; spruce; Christmas tree; yu--la. When the phoneme [j] comes after a consonant sound before a vowel, then the letters ъ and ь are written before the letters e, e, yu, i: six, drinks, otzd. You should not think that in this case the letters ъ and ь indicate the sound [j]. The letters ъ and ь are only indicators that the following letters e, ё, yu, i should be read not as [e, o, y, a], but as .
Question№ 27: Designation in writing of the hardness and softness of consonants. Vowels after sibilants and Ts. Meanings of vowel letters. Meanings of the letters b and b. The softness of consonants is indicated as follows. For paired consonants in terms of hardness/softness, softness is indicated: 1) by the letters i, e, e, yu, and: small - crumpled, mole - chalk, per - pen, storm - bureau, soap - milo (before e in borrowing, a consonant can be hard: mashed potatoes); 2) a soft sign - at the end of a word (horse), in the middle of a word at [l'] before any consonant (polka), after a soft consonant standing before a hard one (very, before) , and in a soft consonant standing before soft [g'], [k'], [b'], [m'], which are the result of changes in the corresponding hard ones (earrings - cf. earring) - see positions strong in hardness / softness .In other cases, a soft sign in the middle of a word to indicate the softness of paired consonants is not written (bridge, song, perhaps), because positional softness, like other positional changes in sounds, is not reflected in the letter. For unpaired consonants there is no need for additional designation of softness , therefore, graphic rules “cha, sha write with a” are possible. The hardness of paired consonants is indicated by the absence of a soft sign in strong positions (kon, bank), writing after the consonant the letters a, o, y, y, e (small, they say, mule, soap, peer); in some borrowings, a hard consonant is pronounced before e (phonetics). The hardness of unpaired hard consonants, as well as unpaired soft consonants, does not require additional designation, therefore it is possible that there may be a graphic rule about writing zhi and shi, orthographic rules about writing i and ы after c (circus and gypsies), o and e after zh and sh (rustle and whisper). Spelling of vowels after hissing and Ts. After the hissing consonants zh, ch, sh, shch the vowels a, u, i are written, and the vowels i, yu are never written , ы (thicket, bold). This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and complex abbreviated words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interjury Bureau). Under stress after sibilants it is written in, if you can find related words or another form of this word where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then o (clink glasses, rustle) is written. It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words. A fluent vowel sound under stress after sibilants is indicated by the letter o (sheath - nozho "n). Spelling of vowels after c. At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsy, on tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognate words. The letters i, yu are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich). Under stress, after ц it is written o (tso "kot). The choice of vowels; and or e. In foreign words it is usually written e (adequate); exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives. If the root begins with the letter e, then it is retained and after prefixes or cut by the first part of a complex word (save, three-story). After the vowel and is written e (requiem), after the remaining vowels - e (maestro) is written at the beginning of foreign words (yod, yoga). MEANINGS OF VOWEL LETTERS. VOWELS. - these are sounds that consist only of the voice; in the formation of vowels, the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstacle in the oral cavity are required. The exhaled air passes through the mouth without encountering any obstacles. 10 letters are intended to indicate vowel sounds and are conventionally called vowels (a, y. , o, y, e, i, yu, e, i, e) There are 6 vowel sounds - [A] [O] [U] [Y] [I] [E]. In the Russian language there are more vowels than vowels. sounds, which is associated with the peculiarities of the use of the letters i, yu, e, ё (iotized). They perform the following functions: 1) denote 2 sounds ([y"a], [y"y], [y"o], [th". "e]) in the position after vowels, separating marks and at the beginning of a phonetic word: pit [y"aìma], my [may"aì], embrace [aby"at"]; 2) indicate the vowel and the softness of the preceding paired consonant sound in terms of hardness/softness: chalk [m"ol] - cf.: mole [mol] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, which does not indicate the softness of the preceding consonant - puree [p"ureì ]; since a number of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become commonly used in the modern Russian language, we can say that the letter e in the Russian language has ceased to denote the softness of the preceding consonant sound, cf.: pos [t "e] l - pas [te] l. ) ; 3) the letters e, e, yu after a consonant unpaired in hardness/softness indicate the vowel sound [e], [o], [u]: six [shes "t"], silk [silk], parachute [parachute]. In modern Russian, the letters b and b do not denote sounds, but perform only service functions. b performs three functions in the language: Denotes the softness of consonants, except for the hissing ones at the end of the word: mole, distance, free and in the middle: I’ll take, coat V. in such words it is also preserved before soft consonants: take, spit. A soft sign always denotes the softness of L before other consonants: ring, soap dish. Before soft consonants in the middle of a word, the softness of the consonants is not always indicated in writing. b is not written: chk barrel; chn night light; nch strum; nsch mason; rsch welder; shn assistant; st bones; nt cog. Used as a sign of a number of forms: nouns (3 cl. zh.r. singular): night, mouse. verbs (2nd person, singular) look, say, verbs in the forms of the imperative mood: cry, hide .Together with Kommersant acts as a separator. They separate the vowel and the consonant preceding it: beat, enter, eat. Ъ as a separator is written before the letters i, ё, yu, e after the prefixes ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, super-, trans-: trans-European.
Question№ 28: Sections of Russian spelling. Spellings. Types of spellings. Spelling is a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of spelling is spelling. Spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or established in a dictionary order, that is, a spelling of a word that is selected from a number of possible ones from the point of view of the laws of graphics. Spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2 or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling that follows the rules of spelling. A spelling rule is a rule for spelling the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on language conditions. Spelling consists of several sections: 1) writing significant parts of a word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, designating with letters the sound composition of words where this is not determined by graphics 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated writing; 3) the use of upper and lowercase letters; 4) hyphenation rules; 5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words. Principles of Russian spelling: 1. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single outline in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. Its essence is that phonetically positional changes - reduction of vowels, deafening, voicing, softening of consonants - are not reflected in writing. In this case, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants as in a strong position, for example, a position before a vowel. Also, based on the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a specific grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.2. The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are written the same way they are heard. This principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in s/s (mediocre - restless, break - crucify), the spelling of the vowel in the prefix roz / raz / ros / ras (schedule - painting,) and the spelling of roots starting with and , after prefixes ending in a consonant (history - background).3. There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (noun) - burn (verb)) of the roots with alternations (add - fold) traditional spelling ().4. The traditional principle regulates the writing of unverifiable vowels and consonants (dog, pharmacy or letter and I after the letters Zh, Sh, Ts - live, sew), i.e. involves memorizing words. As a rule, these are foreign words and exception words. Let's look at other types of spellings: 1. Integrated, separate and hyphenated spelling Integrated, separate and hyphenated spelling is regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Individual words are written mostly separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions (not with anyone) and some adverbs (in an embrace), parts of words are written together or with a hyphen (cf.: in my opinion and in my opinion). 2. Use of capitals and lowercase letters The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by a lexical-syntactic rule: proper names and denominations (MSU, Moscow State University), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence, are written with a capital letter. The rest of the words are written with a lowercase letter. Transfer rules: The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the following rules: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic division of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, raz-bit, and not *vo-yn, *ra-zvit. One letter of the word is not carried over or left on the line. Identical consonants at the root of words are separated when transferred: kas-sa. Rules for graphic abbreviations of words: Abbreviation of words in writing is also based on the following rules: 1) only an integral, undivided part of a word can be omitted (lit-ra - literature, v/o - higher education); 2) when abbreviating a word, at least two letters are omitted; 3) you cannot shorten a word by throwing out its initial part; 4) the shortening should not fall on a vowel or the letters й, ъ, ь. Spelling analysis involves oral or written analysis of spelling patterns in a word. When performing a spelling analysis, you need to correctly write down a word given with a letter missing, or open the brackets, highlight the place of the spelling in the word, name the spelling and determine the conditions for its selection. If necessary, indicate a test word and give examples of this spelling.
Question№ 29: Representation by letters of the phonemic composition of words and morphemes. The principles of this section: phonemic, traditional, phonetic, morphological. Differentiating writing. The basic principle of spelling. The area of orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In the process of transmitting phonemic composition by letters, several principles of Russian orthography operate: 1) the phonemic principle, implemented in the case when the weak position of a phoneme can be verified by a strong position in the same morpheme; is based on the fact that the same letter denotes a phoneme in significatively strong and weak positions; 2) the morphematic (or morphological) principle of orthography is based on the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes; covers those cases when the same morpheme in different words or forms of the same word has a different phonemic composition; 3) the traditional principle of Russian orthography is that a spelling is used that is fixed by tradition, which must be remembered; in school practice, such words with a hyperphoneme are fundamentally called dictionary words; 4) the phonetic principle, which lies in the fact that the letter does not denote a phoneme, but a sound appearing in a perceptually weak position: scatter - scatter. In the process of applying different principles, differentiating spellings arise, delimiting word forms in writing that coincide in phonemic composition: burn - burn, ink - ink, etc. Differentiating spellings (from the Latin differens - different) - different spellings that serve to distinguish homonyms in writing. Arson (noun) - set fire (past tense of the verb). Burn - burned. Overburned - overburned. Ball - point. Campaign - company (the origin of the words affects).
Like. Sometimes the term “intonation center” is used in this meaning. In most languages, it is realized in the zone of the last stressed syllable of a phrase; is formed by different types of combinations of intonation means - melody, intensity, duration. In a neutral pronunciation, the zone of F. u. is not perceived as particularly highlighted or marked, therefore F. at. sometimes called neutral or automated (“The weather is good today,” “The east is burning with a new dawn”). Initially F. u. called logical(i.e. semantic), however, such an idea of \u200b\u200bF. did not allow us to distinguish between a neutral utterance and an utterance with deliberate emphasis: “Please give me a coat” and “Please give me coat"(not a hat). In Soviet linguistics, the term “logical stress” is usually assigned to the underlined emphasis of a word in a phrase. The following types of logical stress are distinguished: contrastive and emphatic. Example of contrastive stress: “U me there are no these problems" (but others do), "He will arrive today Masha"(and not someone else). Emphatic stress conveys the speaker’s attitude towards what is being communicated: “I Very I liked your daughter." Sometimes only the presence or absence of such an emphasis helps to assess the meaning of a phrase, cf.: “We send teachers there every month” and “We monthly we send teachers there” (often, obviously).
When analyzing the content side of F. u.’s statement. often associated with the expression of any meaningful categories: certainty/uncertainty, novelty, actual division, importance. However, the attachment of F. at. makes it insufficient for expressing these categories, therefore, for example, in the Slavic languages F. u. correlates with neutral word order, in which new, indefinite names are located at the end of the utterance, cf.: “A woman told me an extraordinary story” → “A woman told me an extraordinary story” (the uncertainty of the object remains) → “A woman told me an extraordinary story” "(the subject becomes definite).
A special type of stress is presented in phrases like “Hush, grandmother sleeping!", " Dad came!", " Chaplin died!”, where emphasis does not mean either contrast or emphasis on this particular word, but refers to the entire statement as a whole. This kind of stress can be called stress of “extraordinary introduction to a situation” and such phrases can be considered a communicative inversion of neutral phrases with F.u.
Logical stress helps to distinguish the diverse semantic shades of a message, for example: John amused Mary ‘John entertained Mary’ (one-time event), John amused Mary (effectively and repeatedly); "Bill's actions tired of him” (“he” = “Bill”), “Bill’s actions bothered him” (“he” ≠ “Bill”). The question of whether logical stress is imposed on the F. is debatable. (then, in the case of a non-finite position, a shift of the function takes place), or they exist independently. In the latter case, it remains unresolved how many logical stresses there can be in one phrase and how (quantitatively and qualitatively) the functional expression is expressed. The relationship between phrasal and syntagmatic stress remains unclear; the main question is about their quantitative expression.
In the English-language tradition, the term “phrase” (phrase) does not correspond to the Russian term “phrase” (meaning “statement”), but rather to a Russian full-valued phonetic word or phrase, so terminological misunderstandings are possible: for the phrase “Today I have no peace” in the English tradition we can talk about three F.u. (in the words “today”, “no”, “peace”), in Russian - about one F. u. on the word “peace” in a neutral pronunciation.
Ugh. is known in almost all languages, but its expression varies not only depending on the communicative type of utterance, but also from language to language. The degree of expression of phrasal prosody also differs: in those languages and constructions where it is more clearly expressed, verbal prosody is more subordinate to phrasal prosody, and phrasal intonation is more grammaticalized.
- Shcherba L.V., Phonetics of the French language, M., 1963;
- Bryzgunova E. A., Sounds and intonations of Russian speech, M., 1969;
- Torsueva I. G., Intonation and meaning of statements, M., 1979;
- Svetozarov N. D., Intonation system of the Russian language, Leningrad, 1982;
- Nikolaev T. M., Semantics of accent marking, M., 1982;
- Schmerling S. F., Aspects of English sentence stress, Austin, 1976.
Phrase stress
Emphasizing one word in a phrase by increasing word stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech bar (syntagm): There is in the initial autumn / short, /But wonderful time //.
Clock emphasis
Isolating one of the words in a speech beat (syntagma) by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech bar: In the original autumn there is / a short, / but wonderful time //.
The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - - bar accent: On dry aspen / hoodie/… Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. Speech tact is sometimes called syntagma.
The main means of dividing into syntagms is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and pace of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma).
A phrase usually stands out and contains several speech beats, but the boundaries of the phrase and the beat may coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy //(Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine And Field/behind the ravine.
Word stress
A type of stress defined within a word and consisting in highlighting one of its syllables, in contrast to phrasal, rhythmic (beat), syllabic stress. S. u. can be free, as in Russian, or fixed, as in Czech, Hungarian, Polish.
Inside a bar (less often a phrase) there are two types of bar (phrase) stress, depending on the functions -- logical And emphatic .
Stress logical (semantic)
Emphasis, which consists of highlighting a certain part of a sentence (usually a word), on which the speakers focus their main attention. Logical stress is observed in cases where the content of speech requires special emphasis on certain parts of the statement. With the help of logical stress, one or another word is usually highlighted in a sentence, important from the logical, semantic side, on which all attention should be concentrated
The appearance of logical stress is caused by the transfer of syntagmatic (beat) stress from the last word in the syntagma (speech beat) to another word; compare: Is in the autumn of the original / short, / but it’s a wonderful time/ And There is in autumn the initial / short / but marvelous it's time Logical stress can serve as a means of distinguishing the meaning of sentences that are outwardly homonymous, but have different syntactic structure: He was very pleased / his brother’s letter And I was very pleased with / his brother’s letter.
Accent emphatic(Greek emphatikos "expressive"), emotional.
Isolating part of a word using phonetic means to emphasize the emotional side of the word: long pronunciation of stressed vowels (blue-o-bchik), long pronunciation of consonants (r-r-revolutionary). Emphatic stress reflects the speaker’s emotions, his affective state. Its variety is contrastive emphasis: I (!) don’t have these problems [but others do].
Accent functions
- culminating, that is, ensuring the integrity and isolation of a word by highlighting its apex (just as the syllabic nucleus represents the apex of a syllable at a lower level of the hierarchy of prosodic units, and a phrasal accent, highlighting one of the words in the syntagm, at a higher level);
- significative(meaning-distinguishing), that is, distinguishing identical segmental sequences (sushý - sýshu, etc.);
- delimitation(discriminating). Stress can be an indicator of word boundaries, especially in languages where it always falls on the same syllable of the word - for example, last, as in French, first, as in Czech, or penultimate, as in Polish. However, sometimes in the Russian language stress can perform this function, since it is it that sets the pattern of reduction of vowels in a word: in particular, the sequence SACЪSA33 can be divided into words only as SACЪ#SA, since the vowel [ъ] can be in an overstressed syllable, but does not happen in the first pre-stroke).
- word-forming function: phonetic combination of words. Russian words have only one main (acute) stress, but complex words can have, in addition to the main one, a secondary, side (gravity) stress: cf. rural And agricultural. The recognition function of word stress is also associated with the word-forming function, which allows you to recognize the word, since the word is characterized by non-two-stress.
- differentiating function (the same semantic distinction): stress serves as a means of distinguishing words (flour And flour, castle And lock) and their different meanings (chaos And chaos), word forms (hands And hands), as well as stylistic variations of the word (you call and decomposition you call, it's cold and dial. cold, alcohol and prof. alcohol,
