Geographical material. Definition of geography as a science

A brief explanatory dictionary of geographical terms and concepts

Absolute altitude(in Latin absolutus- unconditional, unlimited) - height calculated from the level of the Ocean. The absolute height of points lying above it is positive (+), points lying below it is negative (-). In our country, the absolute height is calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea.

Absolute maximum- the highest long-term meteorological indicator (temperature, humidity, etc.).

The absolute minimum- the lowest long-term meteorological indicator (temperature, humidity, etc.).

Azimuth(in Arabic as-sumut - direction, path) - the angle between the direction of the meridian at the observer’s point and the direction from this point to some object. Count clockwise from 0 to 360.

Iceberg(in Swedish ice- ice, berg- mountain) is a huge block of ice floating in the oceans and seas. Formed from the edge of a continental glacier that has sunk into the sea in the polar regions.

Antarctic belt- a geographical zone located around the South Pole. It includes Antarctica, islands along the mainland and the southern parts of the oceans.

Arasan- mineral or warm spring.

Arctic belt- a geographical zone in the very north of the globe. It extends from the North Pole to approximately northern latitude.

Artesian water- (from the name of the French province of Artois, in Latin - Artesia) - groundwater of the aquifer, under pressure between aquifers.

Asteroids(in Greek asteroides- star-like) - small planets of the Solar System, located mainly between Mars and Jupiter.

Atmosphere(in Greek atmos-steam, sphere-ball) - a layer of air surrounding the globe. Rotates with the Earth.

Atmosphere pressure- the pressure exerted by the entire atmosphere on the surface of the Earth.

Precipitation - atmospheric moisture entering the Earth's surface in solid and liquid states, hail, snow pellets. Dew, frost, and drizzle are released from the air and settle on the earth's surface.

Beam- a ravine, the bottom of which, after stopping its growth, is leveled, the slopes are covered with vegetation.

Barometer- (in Greek baros- heaviness, meter- measure) - a device for measuring pressure.

Barkhan- a sandy hill in the shape of a sickle or crescent, formed in the desert under the influence of wind.

River basin- a section of the earth's surface from which all water flows into the river.

Bergstrich- a short line on the contours indicating the direction of the slope.

Shore- a narrow strip on the border of land and a water basin (sea, lake, reservoir, river), constantly washed by water.

Biosphere(in Greek bio-life, sphere -ball) - the shell of the Earth, populated and transformed by living organisms.

Biocenosis(in Greek bio-life, cenosis- general) - a set of plants and animals occupying an area with homogeneous natural conditions.

Swamp- a waterlogged area of ​​land that has a layer of peat and is overgrown with particularly moisture-loving plants.

Growing season(in Latin vegetative- awakening, revival) - a period of plant growth and development. Corresponds to the period between the last spring frost and the first frost.

Wind- movement of air above the Earth's surface in a horizontal direction. Occurs due to differences in atmospheric pressure.

Permafrost, permafrost- a layer of the earth's crust where the temperature is constantly lower.

Air humidity- the amount of water vapor in the air. A distinction is made between absolute and relative humidity.

Waterfall- river water falling down from a high ledge.

Watershed- a hill separating adjacent river basins, that is, water flow in two opposite directions, slopes.

Elevation- a section of the earth's surface elevated relative to adjacent areas. Absolute height - from 200 to 500 m.

Air mass- a large part of the troposphere with uniform general properties (temperature, humidity, transparency, etc.).

Weathering- destruction of rocks under the influence of temperature fluctuations, exposure to the atmosphere, water and living organisms.

Altitude zone- a unit of a natural complex, distinguished in the mountains by height.

Geyser(in Icelandic geiza- gush) - a source that periodically throws out a fountain of hot water and steam.

Geography(in Greek geo-Earth, grapho- I am writing) is a science that studies the patterns of distribution of natural and social phenomena on Earth.

Geographical area- latitudinal band, characterizing the commonality of climatic conditions, soil and vegetation cover, and fauna; part of a geographical zone.

Geographic map(in Greek map- a sheet or scroll of papyrus for writing) - an image of the earth's surface on a plane, reduced to a certain scale and shown with conventional signs.

Geographical coordinates- (in Latin co- together, ordinatus- ordered) - quantities indicating the position of a point on the surface of the Earth. Consists of geographic latitude and longitude.

Geographic poles(in Greek and Latin pole- axis) - the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface.

Geographical zone- a large zonal unit of a geographical envelope. Characterized by common thermal conditions.

Hygrometer(in Greek hygros- wet, meter- measure) - a device for measuring humidity.

Hydrosphere(in Greek hydro- water, sphere- ball) - the water shell of the Earth.

Globe ( in Latin globe- sphere) - a model of the globe reduced to a certain scale.

Horizontals(in Greek horizon- delimiting) - lines connecting points on the map with the same absolute heights.

Rocks- an accumulation of natural formations in the earth's crust. There are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Mountain ranges- elongated mountain areas, separated by arcs from each other by opposite slopes.

Mountains- areas of the earth's surface with steep slopes, high above the plains. There are low, medium and high mountains.

Degree grid(in Latin degree- step, step, degree) - a grid on a map and globe at the intersection of meridians and parallels drawn through a certain degree.

Greenwich meridian- the prime (zero) meridian, from which longitudes on Earth are counted. Passes through the Greenwich Astronomical Observatory, located on the outskirts of London in the UK.

Greenwich Mean Time- mean solar time of the Greenwich meridian.

Delta- one of the special types of river mouth. It is formed as a result of a branched flow of water between pumps in shallow areas of a river, sea or lake.

Demography- (in Greek demos- people, grapho- I am writing) - the science of population size, its composition, growth, etc.

Population policy- a set of measures taken by the state in order to regulate population growth.

Population explosion- sharp population growth.

Valley- a long recess with a flat bottom. There are river and mountain valleys.

Dunes- the name of the forms of accumulation of squeaks created by the wind on the coasts of rivers, lakes, and seas.

Gutter- a deep, long, narrow depression in the ocean floor.

Bay- part of the ocean, sea, lake, protruding into the land.

Frost- a sharp drop in air temperature below with a constant positive average daily temperature.

Earthquake- tremors with oscillatory movements of the earth's surface, occurring during displacement and rupture of the earth's crust or upper part of the mantle.

Earth's crust- the surface solid shell of the Earth, the main part of the lithosphere.

Zoogeography- a science that studies the patterns of distribution of animals on the earth's surface. One of the branches of physical geography.

frost- tiny snow-like ice crystals that settle on frosty nights in winter on tree branches, wires and other objects on the leeward side.

Frost- a snow-white crystalline ice layer that forms on a windless autumn night and winter, sometimes even during the day, on the surface of the soil, on grass and various objects when their temperature decreases compared to the air temperature.

Evaporation and volatility. Evaporation is the transition of water from a liquid state to a gaseous state, i.e., into steam, and its distribution into the atmosphere. Volatility - the possibility of evaporation from an unlimited number of water sources.

Condensation- (in Latin condensation- compaction, condensation) - the transition of a substance from a gaseous state to a liquid or solid.

Crater- a bowl-shaped or funnel-shaped depression at the top of a volcano after its eruption.

Lava(from Italian lava- pour out) - a fiery thick mass pouring onto the surface of the Earth during a volcanic eruption, in other words, magma, devoid of gases, after reaching the surface of the Earth.

Glacier- a mobile accumulation of ice that forms during prolonged accumulation on land.

Glacial zone- a natural zone in the polar regions of the globe, covered with snow and ice all year round.

Forest areas- natural zones found in all zones between the temperate and equatorial zones. The main place is occupied by forests.

Forest-steppe zones- natural areas where forests alternate with steppes. Distributed in temperate and subtropical zones.

Forest-tundra- transition zone between forest and tundra. Open woodlands alternate with tundra.

Lithosphere- (in Greek litos- stone, sphere- ball) - the upper solid shell of the Earth, covers the earth's crust and the upper layer of the mantle.

Magma(in Greek magma- mash, thick ointment) - a molten, gas-rich fiery-thick mass that forms deep in the bowels of the Earth at high temperature and high pressure.

Earth's mantle(in Greek mantle- cover) - a layer between the earth's crust and core.

Scale(By – German masses- measurement, headquarters - stick) - the degree of reduction in the measured distance of the earth's surface for depiction on a plan or map.

Mainland- a large massif of the earth's crust, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.

Meridian(in Latin meridianus- midday) is a line conventionally drawn on the surface of the Earth from one pole to the other.

Metamorphic rocks(in Greek, metamorphosis - transformation) - rocks that transform in the bowels of the Earth from one type to another at high temperature and high pressure.

Meteorology- the science of atmospheric pressure.

Meteora(in Greek meteoris - atmospheric phenomenon) - celestial bodies that penetrate the Earth’s air layer at high speed and burn when they come into contact with air. A meteor that reaches the earth's surface and does not completely burn up in the atmosphere is called a meteorite.

World Ocean- the totality of all oceans and seas.

Monsoon(in Arabic mausim - season) is a constant wind that blows from land to sea in winter, and from sea to land in summer.

Highlands– a massive high mountainous country, uniting mountain ranges and leveled areas.

Lowland – plain with an absolute height of up to 200 m.

Cloud- an accumulation of small droplets of water and ice crystals in the atmosphere high above the Earth's surface.

Shell of the Earth– the outer shells of the Earth, differing from each other in material composition. They include the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.

General geographical maps – maps depicting objects of the earth's surface without specially highlighting any of them. The relief of the Earth, seas, oceans, surface waters, vegetation, populated areas, etc. are shown in equal detail.

Ravine – an oblong depression formed by a temporary watercourse (rainfall, melt water).

Lake- accumulation of water in a natural depression on land.

Ozone layer(in Greek ozone – smelling) – the layer in which ozone is concentrated is located in the stratosphere at an altitude of 10 - 50 km.

Ocean- huge expanses of water, bounded on all sides by continents. Oceans and their parts, connecting with each other, make up the World Ocean.

Ocean (sea) currents – a large volume of ocean or sea water constantly moving in one direction from one place to another. There are warm and cold currents.

Landslide – separation and sliding of rock layers down the slopes of mountains, hills, on the shores of seas, lakes, and along river slopes.

Earth's orbit(in Latin orbit - track, road) - the path of the Earth around the Sun.

Orientation– determination of the sides of the horizon on the ground.

Island- a small piece of land surrounded on all sides by water.

Relative height– the difference between two points on the earth’s surface relative to each other.

Protection of Nature– a set of measures that, to a certain extent, limit the impact of human economic activity on the environment, improve its condition and restore natural conditions.

Earthquake source- a place in the earth's crust or upper mantle where an earthquake occurs.

Flood– a sudden and short-term rise in river level. Unlike floods, they occur irregularly.

Parallel(in Greek parallelos – walking nearby) is a line conventionally drawn on the surface of the Earth parallel to the equator. The latitude of all points along one parallel is the same.

Cave- an underground cavity in water-soluble layers of rocks, formed under the influence of groundwater.

Plan(in Latin planum – plane) – an image on paper using symbols of a small part of the earth’s surface, reduced to a certain scale. Unlike maps, the spherical shape of the Earth is not taken into account. Drawed on a large scale (1:2000 and larger).

Planet(from Greek planetes - wandering) - a celestial body revolving around the Sun and visible due to its reflection of sunlight.

Plateau – a vast mountainous country with a flat or slightly hilly surface.

Coast- a strip between land and sea or lake, the relief of which is characterized by the distribution of modern and ancient coastal landforms.

Weather – state of the atmosphere over a short period of time.

Underwater ridges- linearly elongated mountains with steep slopes on the ocean floor. Sometimes the tops of the ridges protrude from under the water in the form of islands.

The groundwater– water accumulated in crevices, cracks and joints of rocks located in the upper part of the earth’s crust.

Floodplain- part of the bottom of a river valley that is flooded during the flood period.

High water– annually recurring high and prolonged rise in water level. Usually the floodplain part is flooded with water.

Peninsula- a piece of land jutting into the sea, a lake surrounded on three sides by water.

Semi-desert– transition zone between steppe and temperate desert.

polar night– the period when the Sun in the polar regions of the Earth does not rise during the day. Just as with the polar bottom, the duration varies from one day at the polar circles to six months at the poles.

Arctic Circles(in Greek polaris – related to the pole) – parallels drawn through the latitudes 66º33" of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Lines that limit the areas where there are polar days and polar nights.

Polar belts– geographic zones located around the North and South Poles and consist of the Antarctic and Arctic belts.

Polar day– the period when the Sun in the polar regions of the Earth does not go below the horizon during the day. The duration ranges from one day in the polar circles to six months at the poles.

Surf – wave forming on the seashore. When a wave approaches the seashore, its lower part, as a result of friction with the bottom, reduces its speed. In this case, the upper part of the wave overturns and hits the shore.

Natural ingredients(in Latin component – component) – components of the geographical envelope: rocks, air, water, soil, flora and fauna.

Natural complex – an integral system of closely interconnected natural components.

Strait- a relatively narrow body of water between land areas, connecting individual parts of the oceans and seas with each other.

ppm, ppm(in Latin about millet – per thousand) – one thousandth of any value. Shows how many grams of salt are dissolved in 1000 g of ocean and sea water.

Desert- a territory of the Earth with a very dry climate and sparse and sparse vegetation. Evaporation is tens of times greater than the amount of precipitation.

Plain – significantly flat or hilly areas of the earth's surface. The height of individual parts of the plain differs little from each other.

Developing countries– countries with backward socio-economic development, former colonies for a long time.

The developed countries - countries in which industry, transport and agriculture are well developed, and the achievements of science and technology are widely used in production.

Races – historically formed groups of people who are divided by origin and similarity of hereditary characteristics (skin color, face shape, hair, etc.). There are Caucasian, Mongoloid and Negroid races.

River system – a river and a set of its tributaries, united with each other, flowing through one mouth into the sea or lake.

River flow – the amount of water flowing through a river at a certain time (day, month, season, year).

Rose of Wind– a diagram showing the frequency of winds for a certain time (month, season, year) in a given area.

Dew – moisture released when air comes into contact with the cooled earth's surface, plants and various objects at night.

Savannah(from Spanish) - plains with grassy vegetation with individual trees, groups of trees and bushes. Distributed in the subequatorial and tropical zones.

Seismic zone – area prone to earthquakes.

Mixed forest– a forest consisting of coniferous and broad-leaved trees. Forms a subzone of the temperate forest zone.

Snow line – the boundary above which it does not melt in the mountains throughout the year.

Solar system - a collection of planets, asteroids and comets orbiting the Sun and its environs.

Steppe – flat terrain covered with grassy vegetation.

Wastewater– water contaminated during use in industrial production, agriculture and municipal services.

Stratosphere ( in Latin stratum – layer , sphere - sphere) - a layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere with an upper limit of 50-55 km.

Subantarctic belt ( in Latin sub - under, near, subantarctic - circumantarctic) - a geographical zone located in the Southern Hemisphere between the temperate and Antarctic zones.

Subarctic belt– a transitional natural zone between the temperate and arctic zones of the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical zone– a transitional natural zone between the tropical and temperate zones.

Subequatorial belt– a transitional natural zone between the equatorial and tropical zones.

Taiga – temperate coniferous forests.

Typhoon ( in Chinese – tai feng - big wind) is a hurricane that occurs near the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Thematic maps – maps intended for certain types of natural and social phenomena (climatic, soil, vegetation maps, political maps, etc.).

Thermal phenomena – belts, which are divided depending on the amount of solar heat distributed across the globe.

Peat - a brown combustible mineral formed by the accumulation of plant remains that have undergone incomplete decomposition in swamp conditions.

Tropics(in Greek tropikos – rotary) – parallels drawn through 23º.07" northern and southern latitudes of the globe.

Tropical zones - natural zones located between approximately 20º and 30º latitudes in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The middle of the belt of each hemisphere is crossed by the tropic line.

Troposphere(in Greek tropos – rotation, measurement, sphere – ball) – the lower layer of the atmosphere near the surface of the Earth.

Fog - accumulation of tiny droplets of water in the surface layer of the atmosphere.

Tundra(in Finnish tunturi – treeless, flat top) - a space dominated by moss-lichen vegetation, as well as perennial grasses and low-growing shrubs. Distributed as a natural area mainly in the Northern Hemisphere.

Temperate zone - geographic zone of mid-latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Estuary – the place where a river flows into another river, lake, sea. Small rivers of desert regions, which, without reaching other sources of water, form dry estuaries.

Gorge – narrow deep mountain valley with steep slopes.

Physical geography ( in Greek physics - nature) is a science that studies the natural conditions of the geographical envelope of the Earth.

weather vane ( in German flugel - wing) - a device used at meteorological stations to determine the direction and strength of the wind.

Hill - a small hill of round or oval shape with gentle slopes. The relative height does not exceed 200 m.

Tsunami ( in Japanese tsunami - large water flooding the bay) - a destructive powerful wave that occurs during an earthquake at the bottom of the Ocean.

Shelf – leveled part of the underwater continental margins; adjacent to the shores of land and characterized by a common geological structure with it.

Equator ( in Latin equator – equal, equalizer) – a circle conventionally drawn at the same distance from both belts of the Earth.

Equatorial belt - natural belt located between 8º N latitude. and 11º S. on both sides of the equator.

Ecology ( in Greek oikos – house, dwelling, logos – science) is a science that studies the relationship of organisms with each other and the environment.

Ecological crisis – irreversible changes in the habitat of organisms in a certain area of ​​the globe caused by human activity.

Epicenter of the earthquake ( in Greek epi - on, above, with, after, in Latin centrum – tip, center) - the center of the circle, the point on the earth's surface directly above the source of the earthquake.

Ethnography ( in Greek ethnos - people, grapho - I am writing) is the science of the composition, origin, distribution of cultural and historical ties of peoples.

Aborigines– indigenous inhabitants of a territory or country.

Iceberg– a large block of ice breaks off and falls into the ocean

Alpine terrain(Russian - high mountains and French relevo - lift) - a type of relief formed by the action of glaciers, snowfields - “eternal” snow above the permanent snow line.

Anthropogenic impacts- the impact of human production and non-production activities on the structure and functioning of ecosystems (landscapes).

Anthropogenic natural complex– natural complexes that have undergone significant changes as a result of human activity.

Anthropogenic deserts- deserts formed as a result of anthropogenic impacts on nature.

Anthropogenic factors- the influence exerted by man and his activities on organisms, biogeocenoses, landscapes, the biosphere (as opposed to natural, or natural, factors).

Archipelago- a group of islands lying at a short distance from each other, with a homogeneous geological origin and similar in structure.

Atoll- a ring-shaped coral island in the form of a narrow ridge, surrounding or semi-surrounding a shallow lagoon (no deeper than 100 m).

Benthos(Greek benthos - deep) - a set of plant and animal organisms that live on the ground and in the ground of seas, lakes and rivers.

Swamps- a natural complex with excessive soil moisture, moisture-loving vegetation and animal populations, with the accumulation of rotted organic matter (sapropels) and not completely peat.

Wadi(Arabic, wad - wide valley) - dry valleys in the deserts of North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. They are created by temporary streams during rainstorms or ancient watercourses.

Willie – Willie– dust storms and tornadoes.

The internal drainage basin includes a significant part of the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus, and almost entirely the territory of Central Asia

Ocean water masses- large volumes of water with the same temperature, salinity, plankton characteristics and fauna, different from the surrounding waters. Water masses are distinguished by the regions of their origin: polar, tropical and equatorial.

Air masses and their types are a large volume of troposphere air with homogeneous properties. There are four types: equatorial air masses or equatorial air (EA), tropical (TV), temperate (TC), Arctic or Antarctic (AB).

High altitude zones–zones are located in the mountains in the form of belts at different altitudes.

high desert- highland landscape above 3500 m in sharply continental longitudinal zones and mainly in Asia (Tibet, Mongolian Altai, Eastern Pamir), where eternal snow is common in coastal and temperate continental zones.

Volcanic Islands- islands that arose as a result of underwater volcanic eruptions and islands that appeared above sea level from erupted volcanic rocks.

Garua– cool “blind” fogs

Geographical envelope of the Earth- a complex dynamic self-regulating system, including the Earth’s geospheres: atmosphere (air envelope), hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (solid, rocky), biosphere (inhabited by living organisms).

Geographical environment- a set of natural conditions, part of the earth’s nature with which human society directly interacts in its life and production activities at a given stage of historical development.

Geosyncline(Greek geo - Earth, sinklino - bending) - an area of ​​​​long-term and intense folding of the earth's crust.

Geochronology- a branch of geology that studies the sequence of development of life on Earth, the absolute age and relative age of rocks. The age and duration of geological systems are summarized in a single geochronological table accepted for the whole world.

Geosynclinal islands– islands formed in the collision zone of two lithospheric plates.

Hylaia forest, hylaea(Greek hyle - forest) - a tropical forest mainly in the Amazon River basin (South America) - a concentration of the most ancient flora of the Earth.

deep sea trench- long narrow depressions of the ocean floor with depths of over 5000 m, located in the transition zone between the continent and the ocean.

Ice, frost- a layer of ice formed on the surface of the earth, trees, wires, poles, houses and other objects by freezing drops of supercooled rain or fog. Ice is observed at temperatures from 0 to -3°C.

Guano(Spanish) - valuable nitrogen-phosphorus organic fertilizer. Well-preserved droppings of seabirds in dry climates, mainly in places where they gather (in bird colonies). The largest deposits of guano are located on islands off the coasts of Chile, Peru, South Africa, and the islands of the Caribbean Sea.

Western winds- winds, under the influence of the Earth’s rotation around its axis, bend to the right in the direction of their movement in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Earth's crust- the outer shell of the globe is the part of the lithosphere lying above the mantle. The thickness of the continental crust ranges from 35 km under lowlands to 80 km under mountain systems, the folds of which are embedded in the lithosphere mantle.

Isobar(Greek “iso” - even, “baros” - pressure, weight) - lines on the map connecting points with the same pressure.

Isohyene(“gietos” - rain) - lines connecting points with the same amount of annual precipitation.

Isotherm(“therma” - heat) - curved lines connecting points with the same temperature.

Campos, Campus(Portuguese campo - field, plain) - this is the name of the savannas of Brazil. This is an elevated plain with complex terrain. The predominant herbaceous vegetation is feather grass and South American species of hard-leaved turf grasses.

Climate zones- the largest climatic divisions of the geographical envelope in the form of wide stripes, generally stretching parallel to the equatorial plane across the land and oceans around the globe.

Climate-forming processes- processes in the atmosphere that shape the climate of the Earth, a natural zone or a separate region.

Climate-forming factors– geographic latitude or height of the Sun above the horizon, movement of air masses, relief, proximity of oceans and their currents, nature of the underlying surface, etc.

Coral Islands– between two tropics, where the water temperature is high all year round.

Creoles- descendants of immigrants from Spain and Portugal who arrived in the south-east of South America in the 19th century.

Creeks are riverbeds that dry up during the dry season (temporary streams) in Australia. The term is also included in place names, such as Cooper's Creek. In some riverbeds, when they dry out, isolated bodies of water - lakes - remain.

Xerophiles(Greek xeros - dry and phileo - love) - animals adapted to long-term anhydrity. In deserts and semi-deserts, some animals can do without water, being content with its content in plants (turtles, some rodents).

Xerophytes(Greek xeros - dry and phyton - plant) - plants of dry habitats in steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, capable of withstanding overheating and dehydration with water losses of up to 20-50%.

Forest-steppe- a landscape in which, in the interfluves, meadow-steppe or steppe areas alternate with forests, “selecting” more moist soils.

Llanos(Spanish llanos plural from llano - plain) - landscape, subequatorial zone. Local name for savannas in northeastern South America, the Orinoco Basin and some other places.

Igneous rocks- the result of solidification of magma. Frozen in the thickness of the earth's crust, they are called intrusive and have a fully crystalline structure (granites, syenites, dunites and others). These rocks erupted onto the surface are called effusive (basalts, andesites and others).

Marches(German: Marsch) - a low-lying coastal strip of the coast above the Wadden, flooded with water only during high tides and surges of water.

continental slope- part of the ocean floor deeper than the shallow plain of the continental shallows (shelf) from about 200 m to depths of 2000 m or more.

Migration(Latin migratio - relocation) - the term is applied to the population, animals, plants and natural substances.

World Ocean- the water part of the surface cover of the globe, excluding the land waters of rivers, lakes and swamps.

Permafrost soils- underground glaciation (cryolithozone). A surface layer of the earth's crust that has year-round negative temperatures (below 0°C) and preserves ice in the ground for hundreds and even thousands of years.

Moraines- loose, unsorted rocks deposited or transported by moving glaciers.

Monsoon(French monsoon - season) - natural, periodically variable by 120-180°, movement of air masses in the lower part of the troposphere depending on changes in atmospheric pressure.

National Park- a special environmental institution and territory (or water area) with recreational and educational functions in intact natural complexes and unique natural objects (waterfalls, canyons, rare trees, etc.).

Nekton(Greek nektos - floating) - all organisms that actively swim in the water column of reservoirs, capable of resisting the current and moving independently over significant distances.

Oasis(Latin oasis - originally - the name of several populated places in the Libyan Desert). An area covered with woody, shrub and herbaceous vegetation in deserts or semi-deserts, where groundwater or artesian water is available and sufficient for their growth.

Sedimentary rocks- rocks formed by sediment. Their accumulation and formation mainly occur in the aquatic environment (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers), to a lesser extent as a result of the accumulation of weathering products, glacier activity and winds.

Pampa, pampas(Spanish ratra - plain, steppe) - subtropical steppes on the loess plains of South America, mainly in Argentina and Uruguay. Longitudinal zoning is well expressed. Humidification in the eastern regions is sufficient - 800-1000 mm of precipitation per year, to the west it decreases to 300-500 mm in the foothills of the Andes, which affects the aridity of the landscapes.

Trade winds(German Passat from Gol. passaat) - constant year-round transfer of air masses from subtropical regions (25-30° north and south latitude) of high atmospheric pressure towards each other to the area of ​​low atmospheric pressure above the equator.

Plankton(Greek planktos - wandering) - plant (phytoplankton) and animal (zooplankton) aquatic organisms in suspension, passively moving along with water in the seas, lakes and rivers.

Platform(French Plate-forme from plate - flat and forme - form) - vast, sedentary areas of the earth's crust - the most stable blocks that create its solid frame.

Plate- deeply subsided folded-metamorphic bases of platforms with a very thick (up to 10-16 km) sedimentary cover - the upper tier (West Siberian, Turanian).

The groundwater- an important mineral located in the upper thickness of the earth's crust in liquid, solid and vapor states.

Polonina- in the Carpathians, subalpine meadows above the forest line, pasture. Often slightly hilly and flat ridges and mountain peaks are called meadows.

Poles of cold(Greek polos - axis) - areas with the lowest temperatures of a given hemisphere.

Nature management- use of the resources of the Earth, each landscape and its parts separately for the existence of humanity in general and each of its collectives for its management, cultural and health purposes.

Pushcha(Russian: deserted place, land overgrown with forest) - dense forest, impenetrable forest thicket, wilds, large tract of reserved forest. The famous Belovezhskaya Pushcha on the border of Belarus and Poland is known.

Relief(French relief - from Latin relevo - lift) - irregularities of the land and underwater earth's surface - positive (convex) and negative (concave), different in shape, size, origin, age and history of development, which is studied by the science of geomorphology.

Rifts(English rift - crack, fault) - the largest fault in the horizontal stretching of the earth's crust, associated with its arched rise, extending hundreds and thousands of kilometers.

Reefs(Dutch) - underwater rocks, shallows, spits that rise little above the level of the reservoir, seas that impede navigation. They are formed in shallow water during the destruction of a rocky shore, bottom, or the construction of colonial corals.

Simoom(Arabic) - a sultry dry wind (“breath of death” among local residents) in the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa, carrying hot sand and dust. Raised “clouds” of sand obscure the Sun. Samum occurs when the earth is strongly heated in cyclones and mainly during western and southwestern winds.

Seismic belts of the Earth(Greek seismos - earthquake). There are two vast belts - the Pacific and the Mediterranean-Trans-Asian - areas of modern mountain building.

DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS

Like any academic discipline, geography has many terms, concepts, specific expressions, and phrases, without which it is impossible to appreciate the essence of the material presented by geographers.

Every civilized person needs a dictionary of geographical names. It contains information about numerous countries, lost corners of the planet, peoples inhabiting the Earth, etc.

The dictionary contains terms and concepts that reveal the meaning of words that are often found not only in geography lessons and extracurricular activities, but also in the everyday life of students.

Geographical concepts and terms are combined into sections for basic courses in physical and economic geography.

The publication is addressed to students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, and colleges. Can also be used by teachers, parents, educators. The Geographical Dictionary is an excellent universal reference book for applicants when preparing for entrance exams.

The dictionary includes terms and concepts necessary for successfully passing exams both in the traditional form (translated) and in preparation for the Unified State Exam and Unified State Exam.

The source documents for compiling the dictionary were geography textbooks for grades 5-9, corresponding to the educational and methodological complex of the line of textbooks from the Drofa publishing house, edited by V.P. Dronov, as well as the textbook “Geography of the Samara Region”. Authors V.V. Voronin, V.A. Gavrilenkova. A manual for students in grades 8-9 of secondary school. Samara: GOU SIPKRO, 2010.

Physiography

Absolute altitude

– vertical distance from sea level to a given point. Those located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.

Azimuth

– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.

Iceberg

- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.

Antarctic belt

– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.

Anticyclone

– an area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere. Habitat is the area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon or group of living organisms.

Arctic belt

– descends from the North Pole to 70° N latitude.

Archipelago

- a group of islands.

Atmosphere

– the air shell of the Earth.

Atoll

– a coral island in the shape of a ring.

Beam

- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.

Barkhan

- an accumulation of loose sand blown by the wind and not secured by vegetation.

Pool

– an area of ​​depression that has no drainage on the surface.

Shore

– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.

Biosphere

- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.

Breeze

– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Daytime (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night B. (or coastal) - from land to sea.

“Brocken Ghost"

(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.

Wind

– the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the east is determined by the side of the horizon from which it comes. Air speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots, or approximately on the Beaufort scale. Air humidity is the content of water vapor in it.

Watershed

– the boundary between drainage basins.
Hill - an area raised above the surrounding area.

Waves

- oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).

Highlands

– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, sharp peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, the peak of Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).

Altitudinal zone

– a change in natural zones in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the altitude above sea level.

Geographical coordinates

– angular values ​​that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.

Geospheres

– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.

Hydrosphere

- the water shell of the Earth.

Mountain

1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.

Mountains

– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.

Mountain system

- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.

Ridge

– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in rows merging at their bases.

Delta

- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.

Longitude geographical

– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.

Valley

– negative linearly elongated relief shape.

Dunes

- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.

Bay

- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.

Earth's crust

– the upper shell of the Earth.

Swell

– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.

Ionosphere

– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.

Source

– the place where the river begins.

Canyon

– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst is the dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.

Climatic zone (or zone)

- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.

Scythe

- a sandy or pebble shaft stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a promontory far into the sea.

Crater

- a depression created after a volcano explosion.

Ridge

- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.

Avalanche

- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.

Lagoon

- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.

Geographical landscape

– a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographical envelope.

Glacier

- a mass of ice slowly moving under the influence of gravity along a mountain slope or along a valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.

glacial period

- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.

Forest-steppe

- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.

Forest-tundra

- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.

Liman

– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.

Lithosphere

- one of the shells of the Earth.

Mantle

- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.

Mainland

- a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.

Australia

- in South hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents); North and South America - to the West. hemispheres, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;

Antarctica

– in the central part of South. polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet); Africa - to South. hemisphere (second largest continent);

Eurasia

- all in. hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).

Meridians geographical

– imaginary circles passing through the poles and intersecting the equator at a right angle; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.

World Ocean

- the entire body of water on Earth.

Monsoons

- winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.

Highlands

– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet is in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.

Lowlands

- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from the north to the south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500m.
Lowland is a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in the South. America.

Lake

- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.

Oceans

- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; The Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.

Landslide

– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.

Island

- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The world's largest island is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.

Geographical parallels

– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.

Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect)

– protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.

Trade winds

– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.

Plateau

1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain peak. P. underwater - an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.

Plyos

– a deep section of the river bed between the rifts.

Plateau

- a vast area of ​​land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.

Floodplain

- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.

Semi-desert

- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.

Earth's hemisphere

- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20° W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles are the points of intersection of the Earth's rotation axis with the earth's surface. Magnetic poles of the Earth are points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.

Polar Circles (Northern and Southern)

– parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.

Threshold

– a shallow area in a river bed with a large slope and fast current.

Foothills

– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.

Prairies

- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.

Ebbs and flows

- periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.

Deserts

– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.

Plains

– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of ​​more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​about 3 million km2.

River

- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; the Mississippi is the largest river of the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River is 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).

Relief

– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface (forms of R.) of various origins; they are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth’s surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.

Bed

- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.

Savannah

- a tropical and subtropical landscape in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or groups of trees.
The North Pole is the point of intersection of the Earth's axis with the Earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.

Sel

- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.

Smerch (American name for tornado)

– vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.

Srednegorye

– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.

Slope

- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward North - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward North - facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.

Steppe

– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by grassy vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining the savannas of the tropical belt in the south.

Stratosphere

– layer of the atmosphere.

Subtropical zones (subtropics)

– located between tropical and temperate zones.

Subequatorial belts

– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.

Taiga

– zone of coniferous forests of the temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.

Typhoon

- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Takyr

- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.

Tectonic movements

– movements of the earth’s crust that change its structure and shape.

Tropics

1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23°30° north and south of the equator: tropics of Capricorn (Northern t.) - tropics of North. hemispheres and tropics of Cancer (Southern t.) - tropicsSouth. hemispheres; 2) natural belts.

Tropical zones

– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.

Troposphere

– lower layer of the atmosphere.

Tundra

– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.

Temperate zones

– located in temperate latitudes.

Temperate latitudes

– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.

Hurricane

– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.

Estuary

– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.

Atmospheric front

- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.

Fjord (fjord)

- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.

Hill

– a small height and gently sloping hill.

Cyclones

– area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.

Tsunami

- Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Parts of the world

– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.

Shelf

– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).

Latitude geographical

– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.

Squall

– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.

Calm

- calm, calm.

Storm

– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.

Equator

- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.

Exosphere

– layer of the atmosphere.

Ecosphere

- an area of ​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.

Erosion

– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.

South Pole

– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the South. hemispheres.

Earth's core

– the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave

A part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.

Urban agglomeration

A group of nearby cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.

Trade balance

The difference between goods exported from a country (country exports) and goods imported (imports).

Population reproduction

The set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.

Geographical environment

Part of the earth's nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.

Geopolitics

Dependence of the state’s foreign policy on geographical location and other physical, economic and geographical factors.

Global Population Issues

A set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.

Population policy

A system of administrative, economic, and propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural population growth in the direction it desires.

Demographic revolution

Transition from one type of population reproduction to another.

Demography

Spider about population, patterns of its reproduction.

Natural population growth

The difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.

Immigration

Entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.

Import

Import of goods into the country from other countries.

Industrialization

Creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, transformation of the country from agrarian to industrial.

International economic integration

The process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.

Intensive development path

Increasing production volumes through additional capital investments in existing production facilities.

Infrastructure

A set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision of daily life of the population.

Conversion

Transfer of military production to civilian production.

Megalopolis

The largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.

Intersectoral complex

A group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.

Population migration

Movement of population across a territory associated with a change of place of residence.

National economy

Interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.

Science intensity

The level of costs for research and development in the total costs of production.

Scientific and technological revolution (STR)

A radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.

Nation

A historical and social community of people, formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of an industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.

Special economic zone

A territory with a favorable EGP, in which, in order to attract foreign capital, preferential tax and customs regimes and special pricing conditions are established.

Industry

A set of enterprises that produce homogeneous products or provide homogeneous services.

Socio-economic region

The territory of the country, including several units of ADU, differs from others in terms of historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, and economic specialization.

Zoning

Dividing the territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.

Regional policy

A set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.

Resource availability

The relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use.

Production specialization

Enterprises produce individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, and perform one or more technological operations.

Territory specialization

Concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or certain services

Structure of the national economy

The relationship between various areas and industries in terms of product value, number of employees, or value of fixed production assets.

Suburbanization

The process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.

Territorial division of labor

Specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.

Labor resources

The part of the country's population that is capable of working and has the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.

Urbanization

The process of urban growth and the spread of the urban lifestyle throughout the entire network of populated areas.

Service

Work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.

Economic-geographical location (EGP)

The position of the object in relation to other geographical objects that have economic significance for it.

Economically active population

Part of the country's population, comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.

Export

Export of goods to other countries.

Extensive development path

Increasing production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.

Emigration

Departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.

Power system

A group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.

Ethnos

A historically established stable community of people with a unique internal structure and an original pattern of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.

The fascinating subject of geography is a scientific field that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means “description of the earth.” Below is a general definition of the term geography:

“Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and the environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.”

Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today this is a relatively distinct specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical study: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps of the surrounding area, but also explained the differences in people and natural landscapes in different places on Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the brightest Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed amazing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their innovative discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid base for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also contributed instrumentally to the development of early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A new interest in geography arose in the European world. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant and traveler, led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main impetus for travel in those times. Europeans advanced in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and... Geography's enormous potential for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized and, in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the flourishing of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed the science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in Earth space, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: deals with the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in the physical characteristics of the Earth's appearance.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological studies.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all the water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine flora, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition of sea waters and their effects on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the planet's rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the Earth's surface, through.
• Soil Science: branch of science that studies different types of soils in their natural environment on the Earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the distribution of living organisms in the geographical space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (study of factors influencing individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: a branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at various points in time in the Earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics, determined through the study of paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important branch of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that influence local and global weather.
• Environmental Geography: explores the interactions between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape changes. The study also seeks to understand the impacts of coastal communities on coastal topography and ecosystems.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Earth's Quaternary period (the geographic history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes that occurred in the planet's recent past. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• Landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human Geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the focus of the research:

• Geography population: studies how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle, and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. Although this section is considered as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how, and when places and regions of the Earth change and the impact they have on human society.
• Cultural Geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it studies the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographical space.
• Political geography: examines the political boundaries of countries around the world and the divisions between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subdisciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on people's health and well-being.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the world's human population and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary across places and spaces.
• Geography of settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between people and animals.

Absolute altitude– the height of any point on the earth’s surface above ocean level.

Azimuth – the angle between the direction north and the direction towards a given object.

Icebergs, ice mountains- large fragments of continental glaciers that float in the ocean.

Artesian waters– pressure interstratal waters.

Archipelago- a group of islands in the ocean or sea, having the same origin and located close to each other.

Atoll– a ring-shaped coral island with a shallow pool located inside it.

river basin, river basin- the area from which the river collects water.

Endorheic lakes – lakes that do not have river flow. Rivers do not originate from such lakes.

Inland seas– seas that cut deep into the land; connected to the ocean or adjacent sea by straits.

Waterfall– water falling from a ledge created in the river bed.

Watershed– the border between river basins.

Reservoirs – artificial lakes on rivers created by building a dam.

water sushi- These are the waters of rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and water in the upper part of the earth's crust. They are divided into surface and underground.

Hills– flat areas of land that are located at absolute altitudes from 200 to 500 m.

depressions– closed areas of land located below sea level.

Volcanism– a set of processes associated with the introduction of magma into the earth’s crust or its release onto the earth’s surface.

Volcanic lakes, crater lakes– lakes in volcanic craters.

Volcanoes- mountains that are formed when magma and other volcanic products rise from the depths of the Earth and erupt on its surface.

Weathering- mechanical and chemical change of rocks on or near the earth's surface under the influence of fluctuations in temperature, air, water and organisms. It can be physical, chemical and biological.

Geyser– periodically gushing hot spring.

Geographic longitude– distance in degrees from the prime meridian to the west or east to a given point. There are Western and Eastern.

Geographic map– a reduced, generalized image of the earth’s surface on a plane using conventional signs.

Geographic latitude– the distance in degrees from the equator north or south to any point. It happens northern and southern.

Geographic poles– points of intersection of the imaginary earth’s axis with the surface of the globe.

Geography– the science of the natural conditions of the earth’s surface (physical geography), the population of the Earth and its economic activities (economic geography).

Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth. Its main components are the World Ocean and land waters.

Deep sea trenches– long narrow depressions of the ocean floor with depths of over 6000 m.

Horizontals– lines on the map that connect points with the same absolute height.

Mountainous country, mountains- a vast area of ​​the earth's surface that is elevated above sea level above 500 m and is characterized by significant and sharp fluctuations in elevation over relatively short distances. Based on absolute height, mountains are classified into low, medium and high.

Mountain glaciers– glaciers in the mountains; have a variety of shapes.

Rocks– natural mineral formations that make up the earth’s crust. They are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Mountain rivers– rivers of mountainous countries with narrow rocky valleys and fast currents.

Degree grid– a grid of parallels and meridians on the globe and map.

Groundwater– groundwater of the first permanent aquifer from the surface, which is not covered from above by a continuous waterproof layer.

Delta– the mouth of the river in the form of a triangle. Usually formed in shallow areas of the sea or lake at the confluence of a river that carries a large amount of sediment.

Valley mountain glaciers– glaciers in the mountains, shaped like ice streams moving from feeding areas down mountain valleys.

Volcano mouth- a channel through which magma erupts onto the Earth's surface.

Environmental pollution– changes in the properties of the environment as a result of anthropogenic (man-made) input of various substances.

Bay- a part of the ocean or sea that protrudes into the land, but has a free exchange of water with the rest of the water space and differs slightly from it in natural conditions.

Dammed lakes, platinum lakes– lakes that arose as a result of blocking, damming, or cluttering a valley with a mountain collapse, lava flow, glacier or its deposits.

Earthquakes– sharp tremors and vibrations of the earth’s surface.

Earth's crust- the upper solid rock shell of the Earth.

Isobaths- lines on the map that connect points of equal depths of the bottom of oceans, seas and lakes.

Artificial lakes– lakes created by man (ponds, reservoirs).

Source of the river- the place where the river begins.

Source, spring, key– natural outlet of groundwater to the earth’s surface.

Karst– a set of processes associated with the dissolution of rocks by surface and groundwater.

Karst lakes– lakes formed as a result of the dissolution of limestone, gypsum, and dolomite by water.

Oscillatory movements of the earth's crust– slow rise and fall of the earth’s crust.

Crater- a bowl-shaped depression at the top of a volcano or on its slope through which volcanic products (magma, gases, etc.) erupt.

Lava- magma that spilled onto the earth's surface.

Map legend– a set of symbols used on the map with explanations.

Glacier- a natural accumulation of ice on the earth's surface that has independent movement.

Glacial lakes- lakes formed by glaciers.

Lithosphere– the upper shell of the Earth, covering the earth’s crust and the upper part of the mantle.

ocean bed- the actual ocean floor with an oceanic crust.

Magma- a molten fiery mass that is saturated with water vapor and gases. Formed in the depths of the Earth.

Earth's mantle - the Earth's shell located between the Earth's crust and the Earth's core.

Scale– the ratio of the length of a line on a drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line on the ground.

Continents, continents- large areas of land surrounded on all or almost all sides by oceans and seas.

Continental shoal, shelf– an underwater slightly inclined shallow-water plain up to a depth of 200 meters.

continental slope- part of the bottom of the World Ocean, located between the shelf and the ocean bed at a depth of 200 to 2500-3000 m.

Low water– the period with the lowest stable water level in the river. It happens in summer and winter.

Interformational waters– groundwater that lies between impermeable layers.

Meridians– lines on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the Earth and connecting the poles.

World Ocean- all the water space of the globe outside the land.

Monitoring – observation and control of the state of the natural environment, its individual components and their changes by humans.

Sea- a part of the ocean, separated by land and underwater rises from the rest of the ocean's water space and having its own natural conditions.

Moraine– hard debris that is transported and deposited by a glacier.

Sea currents, ocean currents- horizontal movement of water masses in the oceans and seas in the form of huge flows that move along certain paths.

Flood– flooding with water of an area located in a river valley above the floodplain.

Highlands- a large part of a mountainous country, which includes both mountain ranges and sections of plateaus.

Lowland– a plain with an absolute height of up to 200 m.

ravines- deep potholes (ditches) with steep slopes, formed by temporary water flows - storm and melt water.

Lake- a natural closed depression of land filled with water. They differ in the origin of lake basins, flow and salinity.

Oceans- large parts of the World Ocean, separated by continents.

marginal seas- seas that cut shallowly into the land, are widely connected to the ocean and are separated from it by islands, peninsulas and underwater rises.

Landslides– shifts, sliding downwards of rock masses on steep slopes under the influence of gravity.

Location orientation– determination of one’s position in relation to the sides of the horizon and local objects.

Islands- small, compared to continents, areas of land, surrounded on all sides by water. By origin they are continental, volcanic and coral.

Height and depth marks– numbers on maps and terrain plans showing the absolute heights of land and depths of oceans, seas, lakes.

Relative height – the elevation of one point on the earth's surface over another.

Flood– a rapid but short-term rise in the water level in the river.

Parallels– lines conventionally drawn on the Earth’s surface parallel to the equator.

Rifles– shallow areas of the river bed.

Isthmus- a relatively narrow strip of land in a body of water. Connects different land areas.

River feeding- flow of water into rivers. There are rain, glacial, underground and mixed feeding of rivers.

Site plan– a reduced conventional image of a small area of ​​the earth’s surface in a drawing, made to a certain scale.

Plyos– deeper parts of the river bed between shallower ones.

Plateau – a large flat area of ​​land with an absolute height of over 500 m.

Surface water– water carried by streams and rivers, concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, swamps and glaciers.

Underwater continental margins- part of the ocean floor that includes the continental shelf and slope.

The groundwater– water located in the pores, voids and cracks of rocks in the upper part of the earth’s crust (to a depth of 12-16 km).

Floodplain- a lower part of a river valley, flooded with water during floods.

Ice sheet glaciers, continental glaciers– glaciers in the form of domes or shields covering the surface of the land, regardless of the relief.

Minerals, mineral resources– natural mineral formations in the earth’s crust that are mined and used by humans.

High water– a high and prolonged rise in the water level in the river, accompanied by flooding of the floodplain.

Polynyas– non-freezing sections of the river in winter.

Peninsula – a piece of land jutting into a body of water, surrounded on three sides by water.

Thresholds– shallow rocky or rocky areas in a river bed with a fast current. Formed as a result of the release of hard rocks.

Fresh lakes– lakes in which the content of dissolved salts is less than 1 g per liter of water.

Ebbs and flows– periodic rises and falls in water levels in oceans and seas. Caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun.

Strait- a relatively narrow body of water that separates land areas and connects individual parts of the World Ocean.

Pond- a small artificial lake in the valley of a river, ravine, ravine and other depressions in the relief, which was formed by building a dam or digging a pit.

Plains– large areas of land and ocean floor with relatively small fluctuations in relative heights. By nature, the surfaces are flat and hilly, and by absolute height they are represented by lowlands, hills and plateaus.

Lowland rivers– plain rivers with wide river valleys and a smooth, calm current.

River regime is a change in the state of the river over time (changes in water level, flow speed, water temperature, etc.). Usually there are high water, low water, and floods.

River- a natural water stream that constantly flows in the same place.

Land reclamation is the restoration of lands disturbed by human economic activity.

Relief– a set of irregularities on the earth’s surface.

river valley- a longitudinally elongated depression from the source to the mouth, created or modified by the river.

River system- a river along with its tributaries.

River plains– plains formed by river sediments.

Riverbed- a depression in a river valley through which river waters flow.

Snow border (line)– the absolute height above which snowfall exceeds its melting. Snow accumulates and turns to ice. At the snow line, as much snow falls as can melt.

Salinity of water– the total amount of all salts in grams contained in 1 liter. Or 1 kg of water.

Salt lakes, mineral lakes– lakes containing more than 24 g of dissolved substances per liter of water.

Brackish lakes– lakes in which the content of dissolved salts is from 1 to 24 g per liter of water.

Mid-ocean ridges– powerful mountain structures at the bottom of the World Ocean with volcanism and earthquakes.

oxbow lakes– lakes in old river beds, usually crescent-shaped.

Sewage lakes– lakes with river flow. Rivers originate from them.

Tectonic lakes– lakes formed as a result of movements of the earth’s crust, its descent along cracks or troughs.

A waste heap is a cone-shaped dump of waste rock near mining openings (for example, a coal mine).

Mouth of the river– the place where a river flows into another river, lake or sea.

Gorge- a narrow and deep mountain valley with steep slopes.

Tsunami- large sea waves that arise as a result of powerful underwater earthquakes, sometimes underwater volcanic eruptions.

Parts of the world– continents or parts thereof and islands located near them.

Scale of heights and depths – a color scale on physical maps and globes that helps determine heights and depths.

Equator – a line on the globe and maps, conventionally drawn on the surface of the globe at the same distance from the geographic poles.

Earth's core– the central part of the Earth, located below the mantle.

APPLICATIONS Lesson topic

: Geography is the science of earth. Main goals and objectives

: to form in 5th grade students an understanding of what geography is about, to form an initial interest in this science and a desire to study it.:

1. Lesson Plan
2. Definition of Geography
3. Subsections of Geography

Where do geographers get information from?

During the classes

1. Definition of geography

The development of geography paralleled the development of humanity. Remember, from the very beginning, people believed that the Earth stood on three elephants, which, in turn, were placed on a huge turtle? Then the description of the Earth was different. Ancient man, without sufficient tools, described what he could see with the naked eye - forests and fields, rivers and lakes, people and their customs. Since it was proven that the Earth is a round planet, the methods of studying it have changed dramatically. Modern geographers cannot live without various artificial assistants, which allow them, first of all, to cover significant distances (for example, off-road vehicles). In addition, they will need binoculars, rangefinders, but also microscopes.

Where will the study of geography begin for you, 5th grade students? Of course, this will be general geography. You will learn about the peculiarities of the nature of your native land, study what relief features are present here, what plants grow and what animals live. Starting next year, you will go further - and now you will find out what the geographical envelope is, what it consists of, how it was formed. Surely you will be interested to know what the lithosphere or atmosphere is. Maybe you can guess for yourself what the hydrosphere is needed for and what the biosphere includes. And you will also learn that humanity lives precisely in the geographical shell, and its influence on it is enormous.

So when we talk about geography, we will mean a complex of sciences that studies the geographical envelope within which the interaction between nature and man living in society occurs.

2. Subsections of geography

Like any other science that studies phenomena in a complex and system, geography has several subsections, each of which deals with its own separate issues. In total, more than 80 interrelated sciences that relate to geography are known. The most famous and popular among them:

• Oceanology is a science that studies the processes that take place in the World Ocean.
• Demography - studies the population of the globe, its qualitative and quantitative composition. It is this science that says that there are currently 7.5 billion people living on Earth. Unfortunately, demography cannot answer the question of how much population our planet can support.
• Engineering geography - within the framework of this science, the soils on which various structures are erected are subject to study. Experts in these matters ensure that a constructed building, for example, does not slide into the sea due to unstable soils.
• Climatology is, as the name suggests, and very simply, the science of the planet's climate. The main question is whether the greenhouse effect exists or was invented by evil scientists.
• Geology - studies the earth's crust, its structure and composition. What if the place where the construction of a skyscraper is planned is located in a seismically dangerous zone and there is a high probability of earthquakes?
• Geomorphology - deals with the study of the relief of the earth's surface.
• Medical geography - important for it are the issues of the influence of various features of territories on the health of the people who live there.
• Cartography is the science of creating maps and reading them.

Like biology, the efforts of geography and scientists working in this field are aimed at preserving nature in its original form, as well as economically and carefully using the wealth that it provides us.

All sciences working under the auspices of geography belong to one of two classes:

• Physical geography - they are devoted to the study of the surface of our planet.
• Socio-economic - its focus is on the diversity of manifestations of the world in which people live, as well as the economic activities they conduct.

Practical task:

Divide the above subsections of geography between these two classes.

3. Where do geographers get information from?

Studying geography at the initial stage is not very difficult - there are a lot of geographical maps, dictionaries, textbooks and encyclopedias that tell about geographical achievements of various ages. First of all, you need to learn how to read a geographical map - this skill can also have practical applications, for example, it will help you on a hike or when traveling.

In addition, watching TV and a computer with an Internet connection is more than welcome in this case - today many television channels in the world (for example, the BBC) have their own programs devoted to geography issues. Well, you shouldn’t forget about books (primarily textbooks) - they contain the quintessence of the knowledge that is now available to you.

Assessment: Since there were few practical tasks within the lesson, students must be assessed based on a final test of their level of mastery of the material. You should ask several of the questions listed in the Lesson Summary section to help you understand how the lesson was learned.

4. Lesson summary:

During the lesson, students became acquainted with:

• What is geography? What differences can you note in the study of our planet in the past and in the present?
• What are the divisions of geography and what does each of them do? What is physical and socio-economic geography?
• What is the source of information for studying geography?

Homework:

As part of a creative task, you can advise students to:

• Add to the list of geography divisions - given in paragraph 3 is not final.
• Understand how theoretical research in the field of geography influences practical human activities - for example, they help in construction or medicine.
• Find one video on the Internet dedicated to geographic issues, watch it and retell in writing what was discussed there in your own words.