Andalusia-Muslim Spain

In the 8th century, Muslims conquered Spain. The word “conquest” hurts the ear. Horrible pictures appear before our eyes: fires, murders of civilians, robberies and robberies, violence and vandalism, uncontrolled export of material and natural wealth of the conquered country, enslavement of local residents, suppression of national culture and education, widespread impoverishment and degradation.

The history of mankind shows the inevitability of such consequences for conquered peoples, but it also shows that Islamic conquests were fundamentally different from the conquests of non-Muslims.

With the spread of Islam, the population saw in the Arabs, as the Soviet orientalist I. Belyaev wrote, “deliverers from the heavy yoke of their rulers. In addition, the Arabs offered more tolerable conditions of existence in case of submission to their rule.” It is known that the inhabitants of the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon (Madain) opened the city gates to the Arabs after the flight of Yazdegerd. For the Syrians, as a professor at the University of Paris, the famous French orientalist A. Masse writes, “It was a joy to throw off the Byzantine yoke.” He also noted: “We saw that the Arabs were greeted almost as liberators by the Egyptian Copts...” And the famous Russian orientalist-Arabist O. G. Bolshakov noted: “The Arab conquest took place relatively peacefully. Perhaps the reports of historians that residents of some cities greeted the Arabs with music are somewhat embellished, but one cannot help but admit that most cities in Syria, Egypt and Mesopotamia avoided the cruelty of the assault by concluding treaties with the Arabs on very favorable terms.”

Christian historians, recalling this time, note fair rule and observance of the rule of law by the conquerors. Mikhail Syriac wrote: “We thank God that through the Arabs he delivered us from the Byzantine yoke.” And one of the most striking examples of this is the conquest of Spain by Muslims.

Less than a hundred years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), the Islamic community founded by him in Medina turned into a world superpower that stretched from India through Asia and Africa to the Atlantic Ocean.

And in 710, the Muslims, in their victorious march, crossed Gibraltar and conquered Spain. The word “conquered” must be put in quotation marks, since the local population, driven to desperate poverty by their feudal lords, voluntarily came under Muslim rule. The leader of the Muslim army, Tariq ibn Ziyad, was greeted as a liberator. The toleration of Muslims provided them with the full support of Christians and especially Jews, who expected any day a forced conversion to Christianity, after which they would lose their rights to own property. As Lion Feuchtwanger writes: “Numerous Jews, who had no rights under the Christian Visigoths, were given civil rights by Muslims. Yes, under the rule of Islam, the Spanish Jews lived as freely and well as they never lived after the collapse of their own kingdom.”

Muslims brought with them high culture and turned Spain into the most beautiful, comfortable and populated country in Europe.

In less than one century they plowed the uncultivated fields. By creating a wise irrigation system, they achieved unprecedented harvests. As the French historian Simon de Sismondi writes: “Agriculture was studied by the Muslims with such a perfect knowledge of climate, soil, and the development of plants and animals, which could only come from long scientific practice.”

Muslims were the first in Spain to introduce the crops of rice, mulberry, banana, pistachio trees, palm trees, sugar cane, unfamiliar flowers and fruits, which later spread throughout the continent.

Mining, which had been abandoned since Roman times, was revived and improved with high-performance machinery.

According to the plans of experienced architects and a far-sighted construction department, large, magnificent cities were created, the likes of which Europe had not seen since the times of the Romans. There were 90 large cities in Andalusia. Cordoba, Seville, Granada, Toledo, Murcia, Almeria, Valencia were famous for their crafts: the production of wool, silk and brocade fabrics, expensive leathers with embossing and gilding - in this craft the workshops of Cordoba knew no rivals, glass and bronze dishes with drawings and enamel . Beautiful ceramics, items made of ivory leather and weapons - armor and sabers with the finest carved hilts and sheaths.

Cordoba, the seat of the Spanish Caliph, was the recognized capital of the Western world. It had 600 beautiful mosques, 900 public baths and 50 hospitals. A magnificent city of half a million with cobbled streets, thousands of houses, beautiful palaces and mosques, bridges and aqueducts, public baths and gardens, rivaled Constantinople, Damascus, and Baghdad. Philip Itty, in his History of the Arabs, writes that Cordoba had miles of paved roads, illuminated at night, so that people walked in safety. While in London and Paris anyone who went out on a rainy night found themselves up to their ankles in mud - and did so for seven centuries after Cordoba was paved! Oxford scholars then considered bathing an idolatrous practice, and students in Cordoba enjoyed luxurious public baths!

The ships of Spanish Muslims, under the control of skilled mathematicians and astronomers, sailed quickly and confidently, which made it possible to conduct widespread trade and saturate markets with goods from the world Islamic power.

Art, science and industry have never known such prosperity under the skies of Spain. A skillfully constructed education system with a wide network of schools gave everyone the opportunity to gain knowledge. The first thing Muslims did in conquered cities was to build mosques and universities, which led to the emergence of magnificent educational institutions in a huge number of cities. People from France, Germany, and England came to study in beautiful Cordoba, which received the proud name “abode of science.” Cordoba had large universities with laboratories, observatories, and rich libraries. Bibliophilia became a real passion in Muslim Spain. The demand for books was so great that in Cordoba many people lived by copying rare and valuable manuscripts.

There were 70 public libraries in Andalusia. The library of al-Hakim II in Cordoba contained 600 thousand volumes. In Spain, between 70 and 80 thousand volumes were published annually. When Charles the Just founded the Paris National Library four centuries later in the 16th century, he was able to collect only 900 volumes, and this after great effort, a third of them being books on religion.

Universities in Spain welcomed Christian and Jewish students to receive an education they could not get anywhere else.

The greatest Islamic surgeon of the 11th century was the Spaniard Abul-Qasim, the inventor of many surgical instruments and the author of books that were translated and reprinted many times, the last such edition being published in 1816.

Education was by no means a privilege of the rich . “Almost everyone in Spain in those days could read and write, while in the rest of Christian Europe, apart from the monks, no one, including the highest nobility, thought it was worth wasting their time even trying to master the basic skills of reading.”- Nehru writes in his book “A View of World History”.

Under the wise and long rule of the Muslims, Spain experienced a period of stability and internal peace. During this period it was the most prosperous and civilized state in the West. Cordoba is the most brilliant and crowded capital in Europe. As Gustave Le Bon writes: “Baghdad and Cordoba were centers of culture that illuminated the world with their radiance.”

This intellectual, creative, constructive activity did not stop until the final ousting of Muslims from Spain . “When Cordoba re-entered the path of Christianity, after a long period of freedom (during eight centuries),- writes Levi-Provencal, - for her it was the beginning of a long period of decline.”

In 1236, after a six-month siege, Cordoba was conquered by the troops of Ferdinand III the Saint. Some of the residents were captured, some were evicted.

About 3 million Muslims and Jews became victims of the Holy Inquisition. The persecution of Muslims, which lasted more than a century, ended with the expulsion of all Muslims to Africa in 1610. Of the more than a million people, according to the Dominican Bled, more than three-quarters were killed on the road.

This process was disastrous for Spain. It lost almost all of its artistic and industrial elite. For several centuries the country felt the consequences of this step. All the gold that the conquistadors mined for the mother country did not fill the void left by this forced departure. Cordoba fell into oblivion and became a quiet provincial town. Flowering fields dried up and remained uncultivated, cities became deserted, arts and crafts fell into decay. A long period of deep depression and degradation began in the country that stands at the head of all nations.

HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF ANDALUSIA

A large place in medieval Arabic prose, including Andalusian prose literature, was occupied by books of a historical and biographical nature, telling about “famous men - caliphs, emirs and generals, about their campaigns and conquests, about embassies and various memorable events. Among such works there are also historical chronicles, in which everything, even the most insignificant events, is listed by year. There are also works that can hardly be called real chronicles, because in them the author, abandoning the impartial tone of the “chronicler,” pays attention primarily to those events that are especially close and interesting to him.

The first author of “al-akhbar” (lit.: “chronicle”) in Andalusia was Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Abd al-Aziz, nicknamed Ibp al-Qutiyya, a descendant of a Gothic princess, granddaughter of the Gothic king Vititsa (in Arabic script, Gititsa). Ibn al-Qutiyya was born in Cordoba, studied with the most famous historians, philologists and lawyers of Cordoba and Seville. His essay “The History of the Conquest of Andalusia” is especially famous. In this book, the author’s pride in the glorious past of his family is clearly felt; he extols the valor of Sarah, a Gothic woman, and the statesmanship of Artabas, a descendant of the last king of the Goths. Ibn al-Qutiyya is a representative of a unique nationality that developed in medieval Arab Spain; he is neither an Arab nor a Berber, but not a Goth either; he is a true Andalusian, treating his Muslim and Christian ancestors with equal respect. ( Translation made by B. Shidfar and V. Mikushevich according to the publication: Ibn al-Kutiyya. Tarikh if-titah al-Andalus. Beirut, 1957.)

In the name of Allah, the merciful, the merciful, may Allah bless and protect our master Muhammad, with all his family and companions.

They say that the last king of the Goths in Andalusia was Gititsa 1 , who died, leaving three sons. The eldest of them was called Olomond, the middle one was Romulo, and the youngest was Artabas. When Gititsa died, the sons were still small children, and their mother ruled the kingdom. The capital of the state was the city of Toledo.

However, Roderick, the military commander of the late ruler, rebelled against the queen and, together with people loyal to him, captured the capital, expelling his son Gititsa from there.

When the Arabs appeared off the coast and Tariq ibn Ziyad, the military commander of the caliph from the Umayyad family, al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, set foot on the land of Andalusia, Roderick sent messengers to the sons of Gititsa, who by that time had matured and become valiant knights, and in his messages he called on them to defend the kingdom of the Goths, in order to strike the enemy all together, with one fist. The sons of Gititsa responded to this call, gathered troops and came to Roderick, but, not trusting him, they stopped with their troops in Secunda, not far from Cordoba.

Roderick came out to meet them, and then they all set out together to fight Tariq. But when the armies of the Arabs and Goths stood against each other, preparing for battle, Olomond and his brothers conspired to betray Roderic. They secretly sent a messenger to Tariq at night, informing him that Roderick was one of the dogs of King Gititsa, their father, and obediently served him, but then seized power and took possession of his father's throne. They offered Tariq to make peace with them, promised in the morning to go with their troops to his side, provided that he returned to them his father’s lands in Andalusia, all his estates, of which there were about three thousand. Then these estates began to be called “royal” possessions.

Tariq accepted their condition, and in the morning the sons of Gititsa with their troops went over to the side of the Arabs, and this was the reason for the conquest of Andalusia. Appearing to Tariq, the sons of Gititsa asked him: “Are you an emir on your own or is there another emir above you?” Tariq replied: “Above me is an emir, and above him is another emir.” Then Tariq allowed them to meet with the ruler of the Maghreb, Musa ibn Nusayr, to whom he was subject, and Musa was in Ifriqiya at that time 2 , which is not far from the country of the Berbers.

Olomond asked Tariq to confirm their agreement with a letter, so that it would contain the conditions on which they made peace with Tariq. The commander of the Arabs did what they asked, and they went to Musa. They found him when he was about to cross to Andalusia, and handed him a letter from Tariq, where it was written that they agreed to obey the Arabs on such and such conditions. But Musa sent them to Caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik in Damascus. There they met with the caliph, and he confirmed the letter of Tariq and ordered a similar letter to be drawn up for each of the sons of Gititsa, and it was written in it that they were granted the right not to stand up when someone enters or leaves them, and this was made out of respect for their royal rank.

Then they returned to Andalusia and lived there, surrounded by honor and respect. Olomond died, leaving a daughter, this is Sarah al-Qutiyya 3 Gothic, and two sons who were small in the year of their father’s death. One of them later became the bishop of Seville, and the second, whose name was Abbas 4 , died in Galicia.

But the youngest, Artabas, set out to expand his possessions, deciding to seize the estates of his brothers, and this happened at the beginning of the reign of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. Olomond always preferred Seville, where he had a thousand villages; located in the west of Andalusia. Artabas lived permanently in Cordoba, and he also had a thousand villages, only in the center of Andalusia. Komes belongs to the descendants of Artabas 5 Abu Said... As for Romulo, he was also the owner of a thousand villages in the east of Andalusia and lived permanently in Toledo. Among his descendants we can name Hafsa ibn al-Barra, the qadi of local non-Arab Muslims 6 .

When Artabas began to oppress the brothers, Sarah, the daughter of Olomond, ordered a ship to be built in Seville and, when it was ready, she took her young brothers with her and sailed on this ship to Syria. Having landed in Ascalon, Sarah continued her journey through the desert and, arriving in Damascus, fell at the gates of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, reminded him of herself and the agreement that her father had concluded with Caliph al-Walid, and complained to Hisham about her Uncle Artabas, asking for justice to be restored.

Caliph Hisham allowed Sarah to come to him, and, entering him, she saw Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muawiyah 7 , the future emir of Andalusia, who was then still a youth. Abd ar-Rahman remembered this, and when Sarah later came to Cordoba, he received her in the presence of his children to honor her and show his affection.

The Caliph ordered a letter to be drawn up for Sarah and sent it to Hanzala ibn Safwan, the emir of Ifriqiya, ordering him to monitor the execution of the agreement concluded by al-Walid.

Caliph Hisham gave Sarah in marriage to Isa ibn al-Muzahim, and together they departed for Andalusia, where their possessions were returned to them. This Isa ibn al-Muzahim laid the foundation for the family of Ibn al-Qutiyya. Isa died in the year when Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muawiya became the emir of Andalusia, and Hamza ibn Mulamis al-Mazhaji and Umair ibn Said began to seek Sarah’s hand. Emir Abd ar-Rahman resolved their dispute in favor of Umayr, and their descendants were the most noble people in Seville...

And now let’s go back to the time when Tariq and Roderick met on the battlefield, and it was in a valley near the city of Sidon, and Allah put Roderick and his army to flight. And Roderick fled, weighed down by his weapon, to escape the Muslims, and threw himself into a deep river flowing nearby, and no one saw him again, and his body was not found.

Here's what else they say about the reasons for Roderick's defeat. They say that the Gothic kings had a castle in Toledo where they kept a wooden casket containing the four Gospels. And the Goths revered this castle so much that they never opened its gates. And if one of the rulers of the Goths died, then his name was written on the wall of the castle.

When Roderick seized power, he began to wear the royal crown, which caused discontent among his subjects, and then he decided to open the doors of that castle and take out the casket with the Gospels. He did so, although those close to him warned him. And, opening the doors of the castle, Roderick went inside and saw on the walls images of horsemen who looked like Arabs, armed with bows and spears, and each had a turban on his head. And under the images was inscribed the following inscription: “If this castle is opened and these images appear before the eyes of people, then warriors similar to those drawn here will come to Andalusia and take over the country.”

Tariq entered the land of Andalusia in the ninety-second year, in the month of Ramadan 8 . And this happened, as legends say, for this reason: a certain merchant from Andalusia named Julian traded with the Maghreb side and often traveled to the city of Tangier, whose inhabitants were Christians. Roderick often gave him instructions, and Julian brought him purebred horses and hunting falcons from the Berbers. And then Julian’s wife died, leaving in his arms a daughter who was amazingly beautiful. Just at this time, Roderick ordered Julian to go to the Berber coast and deliver him various goods, but the merchant began to refuse, saying that his wife had died and he had no one to leave his daughter with. Then Roderick ordered Julian to leave his daughter in the royal palace, and the merchant obeyed.

One day the king saw a girl and he liked her. At night he penetrated her and dishonored her, and when her father returned, the girl told him everything, and then Julian went to the king and told him: “I saw on the other side such horses and falcons as you had never dreamed of, but I left them, because I didn't have enough money. Roderick, having given him plenty of money, ordered the merchant to return to the Maghreb coast and buy those horses and falcons. But Julian went to Tariq ibn Ziyad and began to persuade him to attack Andalusia, describing the beauty and fertility of its lands, speaking of the weakness of its inhabitants, peaceful in disposition and not distinguished by valor. Tariq immediately wrote to Musa ibn Nusayr, asking for permission to go on a campaign, and Musa ordered him to cross to the Andalusian coast and attack Roderick.

Tariq gathered his troops and, boarding a ship, set off to land on the Andalusian coast. And then he was overcome by sleep, and he dreamed of the Prophet Muhammad - may Allah bless and greet him! - and around him stood his companions from the Muhajirs 9 and the Ansars, and each had a sharp sword hanging on his belt, and an Arab bow behind his shoulders. The Prophet approached Tariq and told him: “Forward! Do your job!” And every time Tariq closed his eyes, overcome by drowsiness, he dreamed of the same dream. When the Muslims arrived at the Andalusian coast, Tariq was delighted and congratulated his companions.

Having landed in Andalusia with troops, Tariq moved along the coast, and the first city that the Muslims conquered was Cartagena in the Algeciras district. In order to intimidate and frighten the enemies, Tariq ordered his soldiers to kill some of the prisoners, cut their bodies into pieces and boil them in large cauldrons, and ordered the rest of the prisoners to be released. They fled, not believing in their salvation, and told everyone they met about what Tariq had done to his enemies, so that the hearts of the inhabitants of Andalusia were filled with horror. Then Tariq met Roderic's troops and fought with them and defeated them, as has already been said.

After this, Tariq moved to the city of Ecija, and then to Cordoba and Toledo, passing through a gorge that has since been called the “Tariq Gorge.” After passing through Galicia, Tariq reached Astorga.

When Musa ibn Nusayr learned about the victories won by Tariq, he envied him and hastened to arrive in Andalusia with a huge army. Having crossed, Musa did not follow the path followed by Tariq ibn Ziyad, but headed to a place called “Musa’s harbor”, and then moved along the coast to Sidona and further to Seville, which he captured, and from Seville he went to Alicante and stopped at the very borders of the province of Alicante in a place that has since received the name “Musa Gorge”. From there his path lay to Merida.

Some history experts say that the inhabitants of Alicante did not fight the Muslims, but surrendered to the mercy of the victors. After this, ibn Nusayr, passing the Musa gorge, followed Tariq ibn Ziyad through Galicia and caught up with Tariq at Astorga.

As soon as Musa set up camp, an order from Caliph al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik arrived in Astorga, who ordered the troops to return, and they turned south again, but there was no agreement between them. Musa ibn Nusayr ordered the construction of fortresses throughout Andalusia and appointed his son Abd al-Aziz as emir, who was ordered to remain in Seville and send troops to the west and east, completing the conquest of Andalusian cities to which Muslim rule had not yet spread. Then Musa ibn Nusayr went to Syria, accompanied by four hundred young men, the sons of noble people and kings of Andalusia. Each of them had a golden crown on his head, and they were girded with golden baldrics. When Musa was already approaching Damascus, Caliph al-Walid fell dangerously ill. Al-Walid's brother Sulaiman, who was to inherit his throne, sent a messenger to Musa, ordering him to stay until the caliph al-Walid died, so that the solemn procession would enter Damascus when Sulaiman would rule. But Musa was stubborn, in addition, he remembered the benefits shown to him by al-Walid, so he answered the messenger: “I swear by Allah, I will not do this. It is enough if I continue my journey slowly, and if Allah wants me to arrive after the death of my benefactor, then the will of the Almighty will come true, and not the desire of man.” And it worked out that Musa arrived in Damascus while ad-Walid was still alive, and Sulaiman harbored a grudge against him. When he became caliph, he ordered Musa to remain in Damascus, and then imprisoned him, subjecting him to punishment 10 . He also ordered the death of Musa's son, Abd al-Aziz, whom he left in his place in Andalusia. Among those who received the caliph's order were Habib ibn Abu Ubaidah ad-Fakhri and Znyad ibn Nabiga al-Tamimi. And they conspired to do this deed and went to the mosque where Abd al-Aziz was supposed to read the Friday sermon. And as soon as Abd al-Aziz, having entered the mosque, approached the mihrab and read the suras “al-Fatiha” and “al-Wakia”, the fencers, led by Habib and Ziyad, attacked him and, raising their swords, killed him and cut him off head and sent it to Caliph Sulaiman in Syria. This took place at the Rubaina Mosque, which overlooks the meadows surrounding Seville and where the Rubaina Chapel used to be. And the blood of Abd al-Aziz was visible for a long time after his murder...

When the head of Abd al-Aziz was brought to Sulaiman, he ordered Musa to be brought and showed him the head of his son, which was lying in a basin. And Musa, seeing her, exclaimed: “I swear by Allah, you killed him while he was saying a prayer!” And Sulaiman's power was short-lived. And they say that he was vain and proud of his appearance, and they claim that, going to the mosque to read the Friday sermon, he stopped endlessly, admiring himself in the mirror for a long time. And having entered the mosque, he began to preach in a loud, loud voice, but gradually his voice weakened, and at the end of the sermon his words were barely audible - and the disease entered him, and soon he died...

Angry with Musa, Caliph Sulayman imprisoned him, as already mentioned, and then executed him, and this was at the end of the ninety-eighth year 11 . Instead of Musa, he appointed Abdallah ibn Yazid as ruler of the Maghreb and overseas possessions, that is, Andalusia. Abdallah appointed al-Harra ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Saqafi as governor of Andalusia, for in those days the caliph did not appoint rulers of Andalusia, entrusting this to the ruler of Ifriqiya or the Maghreb...

When Omar ibn Abd al-Aziz, may Allah have mercy on him, became caliph, he sent al-Samaha ibn Malik al-Haulani to Andalusia, ordering him to withdraw all Muslim troops and all Muslims from Apdalusia out of pity for them, for he feared that the enemies They will defeat them and kill them all. But al-Samah informed the caliph that the power of Islam in this country was great, the cities were numerous and the fortresses captured by the Arabs were impregnable. Then Omar sent his Maul Jabir to collect Khums 12 from Andalusia, and he stopped in Cordoba. Jabir stayed there for some time until the news of Omar's death arrived, and the maula suspended the collection of khums, and with the money collected earlier he ordered the construction of an aqueduct through the valley near Cordoba, opposite the reservoir.

In the year one hundred and ten 13 The ruler of Andalusia became Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj al-Saluli, who was in power until the Berber rebellion in Tangier, which was led by a certain Maysara, nicknamed “Maysara the Poor,” and he was a water seller at the market in Kairouan. The rebel Berbers killed the governor of the Maghreb, Omar ibn Abdallah al-Muradi. When the inhabitants of Andalusia learned about the Berber rebellion, they also rebelled against their ruler Uqba and overthrew him, installing Abd al-Malik al-Fihri in his place...

Then Balj ibn Bishr arrived from Syria to punish the Berbers, and stopped in the city of Tangier, which is also called the Green City. He sent a messenger to Abd al-Malik al-Fihri, ordering him to send ships with troops to fight the rebels. Abd al-Malik began to consult with his trusted people, and they told him: “If you provide ships to this Syrian, he will cross to Andalusia, attack you and remove you from your post.” And Abd al-Malik decided not to give ships to Balju, sending the messenger away with nothing.

When Ibn Bishr suppressed the uprising of Maysara the poor, without receiving help from Abd al-Malik, he ordered the construction of boats, loaded them with weapons and equipment, riding and pack horses, and on these boats crossed to the Andalusian coast. Upon learning of this, Abd al-Malik al-Fihri gathered troops and met Ibn Bishr at Algeciras, where a major battle took place between them, and al-Fihri was defeated in it. Bulj drove Abd al-Malik all the way to Cordoba, and eighteen battles took place between them, and all of them ended in failure for al-Fihri, so that in the end Bulj entered Cordoba and, taking al-Fihri prisoner, ordered him to be crucified at the entrance to the bridge across the Cordoba valley, where a mosque was later built...

Meanwhile, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Alqama al-Lahmi, whom Abd al-Malik appointed governor of Aragon, having learned of the fate that befell al-Fihri, gathered troops and moved against Balj to avenge the death of al-Fihri. He was supported by many Andalusian Arabs and Berbers, and they all went to Cordoba. Balj came out against them at the head of ten thousand Syrians and people from the family of Banu Umayya, and Abd al-Rahman ibn Alqama had forty thousand. A bloody battle took place between them near the village of Acqua Portora in the Huelva district. At sunset the battle ended, and it was discovered that ten thousand of Ibn Alqama’s men had been killed, and only a thousand of Bulj’s warriors. Then Ibn Alqama said: “Show me this Balj.” But it must be said that Ibn Alqama was one of the most accurate shooters of his time. When the battle began again the next morning, Bulge was shown to him, and he shot an arrow at him, which, hitting the sleeve of his chain mail, pinned Bulge’s arm to his body, and Ibn Alqama exclaimed: “Well, I hit this Bulge.” By evening the battle died down and Valj died from this wound. However, the Syrians did not leave Cordoba; Salaba ibn Salama al-Amili became their leader, and Ibn Alqama had to return to the border.

Meanwhile, the Arabs and Berbers of Andalusia did not stop fighting the newcomers, the Syrians and the Umayyads, telling them: “We ourselves have little place in this country, get out of here!” Having learned about the turmoil tearing apart Andalusia, Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, after consulting with loyal people, decided to resort to the help of people from Banu Mudar and appointed Abu-l-Khattar al-Kalbi as ruler of Andalusia, presenting him with a letter of government and a banner. Arriving in Andalusia, he put on the dress granted to him by the Caliph, ordered a banner to be tied to the tip of a spear and headed towards Cordoba, where skirmishes and battles constantly took place between local Arabs and newcomers. Having approached the valley, he stopped on an elevated place from which he could see the battlefield. Then the fighters noticed him and, seeing the caliph’s banner, stopped the battle and hurried to Abul-Khattar. He asked them: “Will you listen and obey me?” They answered: “Yes.” Then Abul-Khattar said: “Here is the letter of the Commander of the Faithful, which appoints me as your ruler.”

The inhabitants of Cordoba, Arabs and Berbers, said: “We listen and obey, but let the Syrian newcomers leave here, there is no place for them here.” Abul-Khattar replied: “Let me enter the city and rest, and with a note I will fulfill your wish. An idea has occurred to me that will resolve your disputes, if Allah wills.”

When Abu al-Khattar settled in Cordoba, he ordered to call the leaders of the Syrians, among whom were Salaba ibn Salama al-Amili, al-Waqqas ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Kinani and other supporters of Balj, took them into custody and said : “It has become clear to the Commander of the Faithful that the unrest in Andalusia is happening because of you. Go to Tangier and don’t come back here.”

Having expelled the instigators of the unrest, Abul-Khattar began resettling the Syrians in different regions of Andalusia in order to remove them from Cordoba, where there was no place for them and there was not enough food. He settled the inhabitants of Damascus in Elvira, the inhabitants of Palestine in Sidon, the inhabitants of Homs in Seville, the inhabitants of Qinnasrin in Jaen, and those Egyptians who were with them in the area of ​​​​the city of Beha, and ordered the local non-Arab residents of the dhimmi to feed them 14 . But the local Arabs and Berbers kept their property, and none of them were harmed...

After the death of Abu al-Khattar, Yusuf ibn Abd ar-Rahman ibn Habib ibn Abu Ubaydah, son of Uqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri, became the ruler of Andalusia. And he remained in this post for two years, and Sumail ibn Hatim was his wazir and ruled all affairs without seeking his advice.

But then news came that Badr, a freedman of Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muawiyah, had arrived in Andalusia. This Badr came to Andalusia by order of his master, who fled from Syria and hid with people from the family of Banu Wansus, Umayyad freedmen in the land of the Berbers. Banu Wansus sent news of this to Abu Uthman, who was then a sheikh and the head of the freedmen, and Badr stayed with him in the village of Toros. Abu Usman began to send messengers in all directions, reporting the arrival of Badr and that Abd ar-Rahman was hiding in the lands of the Berbers.

Meanwhile, the ruler of Andalusia, Yusuf al-Fihri, was preparing for a campaign against Christians. Abu Usman and his trusted people, having come to Badr, said: “Wait for our friends to return from the campaign, we will meet with them, then we will take up this matter without delay.” As for Yusuf al-Fihri, he favored the freedmen of the Umayyads, calling them “our mawali,” and in his army there were many warriors from these freedmen.

When Yusuf al-Fihri returned victorious and with rich booty, Badr and his friends met with Abu Sabb.ah al-Yahsubi, the sheikh of the Arabs living in the west of Andalusia, in the village of Mora, belonging to the district of Seville, and with other noble Arabs , among whom were those who agreed to recognize the power of the Abbasids, and those who refused to do so, openly disobeying the new caliphs who replaced the Umayyads. Even before the end of the campaign and the return of all the soldiers, the dissatisfied asked Abu Abbad Hassan ibn Malik, who lived in Seville, to gain confidence in Abu Sabbah and remind him of the benefits that the Umayyads, especially Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, had shown him. Abu Sabbah, who had not forgotten the benefits of the former caliph, agreed to help the descendant of the Umayyads, and then they went together to Alqama al-Lakhmi and Abu Ilaf al-Juzami, famous for his valor, and his relatives, the leaders of the Syrians in Sidon, and they also joined them. The Qahtanites in Zlvir and Jaén, as well as in Cadiz, also responded to their call...

Then the conspirators said to Badr: “Now go to your master.” But when he arrived at Abd ar-Rahman, he told him: “No, it will be dangerous if I land in Andalusia without them.” Badr returned to Andalusia and conveyed Abd ar-Rahman's answer. At this time, Yusuf al-Fihri was preparing to go on a campaign against Zaragoza, where Amir al-Qurashi rebelled against him, after whom the gates in this city are called to this day. Abu Uthman, the sheikh of the Umayyad freedmen, and his son-in-law, with whom Badr was negotiating, went to Cordoba to see with their own eyes that Yusuf al-Fihri was leaving the city gates, for they were afraid that he would find out about their plans. Seeing that Yusuf al-Fihri had left the city with his troops, they went to the Wazir Sumail ibn Hatim and asked permission to speak with him privately. And they reminded Sumail of all the benefits that the Umayyads had shown him, and of the preference that they gave to his ancestors over others, and said that Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muawiyah escaped persecution and fled to the lands of the Berbers, hiding there and fearing for his life. They admitted that a freedman of Abd ar-Rahman had come to them, asking on his behalf for intercession and help, and added: “He is turning to you with a request that is known to you and which you probably remember.” And Sumail said: “Yes, I will fulfill his request, I swear on my honor, and we will involve this Yusuf in the matter, giving his daughter as a wife to Abd ar-Rahman, so that he will become a relative of the ruler. If he refuses, I myself will strike his bald head with my sword.”

Having decided on this, the conspirators left Sumail and met in Cordoba that same day with their supporters from the freedmen. Having agreed on everything with them, they returned to Sumail to say goodbye to him, and Sumail told them: “I thought for a long time about what you offered me, and I remembered that Abd ar-Rahman is a descendant of those people to whom everything is possible: if one of them urinates, we will all choke. Allah has chosen you for a good deed, so carry it out, but I should keep secret what you have entrusted to me and not interfere with you.”

They left Sumail and met with Tamam, the son of Adqama, and, taking him with them, they went to Abu Faria, famous for his skill in navigation and control of ships, and met with him with other Syrian freedmen who joined them. Having agreed on everything, they sent Badr, accompanied by Tamam ibn Alqama, to Abd ar-Rahman on the African coast on a ship captained by Abu Faria.

When they crossed the sea and met Abd ar-Rahman, he asked: “Tell me, Badr, who is this man and who is his father?” Badr replied: “This is your freedman Tamam, and the feeder is Abu Faria.” And Abd ar-Rahman exclaimed: “His name is Tamam, which means “Completion,” therefore, our work will end in success, and Faria means “Maiden,” and this means that we will marry this country like a beautiful maiden , if Allah wills it" 15 .

They then went to Andalusia. Having crossed the sea, they landed in the harbor of al-Munaqqib, where they were met by Abu Uthman and Abdallah ibn Khalid and escorted to the village of Toros to the house of Uthman.

The governor in this area was Jidar ibn Amr ay-Qaysi, who was informed of the arrival of Abd ar-Rahman, and he said: “Bring him to me on the festival of sacrifice in the square, and you will see what will happen if Allah wishes.” When the day of the holiday arrived, Abd ar-Rahman appeared, accompanied by Uthman and Abdallah, and when the preacher was about to begin his sermon, Jidar stood up and proclaimed: “I overthrow Yusuf al-Fihri and refuse to recognize his power, and I appoint Abd as emir over us.” Ar-Rahman ibn Mu'awiyah, the son of Caliph Hisham, he is our emir and the son of our emir. What do you say, people? And all those gathered shouted: “We will say the same thing as you!” And after the end of the prayer, everyone swore allegiance to Abd ar-Rahman, vowing to be faithful to him.

Then the Syrians of Sidon and local Arabs joined Abd ar-Rahman, and Abu Sabbah approached from Seville, so that he gathered a large army. Stopping in Seville, he began to take an oath from all the Arabs who flocked to him from different regions of Andalusia.

The news of this reached Yusuf al-Fihri when he was returning from a campaign against Zaragoza, having defeated al-Qurashi who rebelled against him and captured him. He immediately headed for Seville, but Abd ar-Rahman, learning of his approach, went to Cordoba, so that Guadalquivir separated them. Seeing that Abd ar-Rahman decisively rushed towards Cordoba, al-Fihri turned to the capital, and Abd ar-Rahman stopped in the village of Balla in the Seville district. Then the Arab sheikhs began to say: “What kind of emir is this who has no banner? This may be interpreted erroneously,” and they decided to raise the banner of Abd ar-Rahman, and began to look throughout the army for a spear long enough to tie the banner to its shaft. Such a spear was found only in Abu Sabbah, and a banner was tied to it, and it was consecrated by Farqad al-Saraqosti, who was revered as the most righteous man in Andalusia.

Abd ar-Rahman asked: “What day is it today?” They answered him: “Today is Thursday, the day of standing on Arafat.” 16 . Then Abd ar-Rahman said: “Today is the day of Arafat, and tomorrow is Friday, the day of the festival of sacrifice. And I hope that tomorrow what happened between the Kaysites and my ancestors on the day of Marj-Rakhit will happen between me and al-Fihri.” And I must say that Marj-Rakhit day 17 - this is the day of the battle that took place in the area bearing that name, near Damascus. On this day, Marwan ibn al-Hakam from the Umayyad clan and ad-Dahhak ibn Qais al-Fihri, the commander of Abdallah ibn az-Zubayr, fought. Then, too, it was Friday and the festival of sacrifice, and fortune turned to Rarwan, turning away from al-Fihri, so that on that day seventy thousand warriors from the Qays tribe and other northern Arab tribes were killed.

Abd ar-Rahmai ibn al-Hakam speaks about this:

Apparently, the Kais tribe is not destined for happiness.

The tribe was defeated at Marj-Rakhit.

Then Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muawiya ordered his people to get ready and walk all night, so that in the morning they would be at the gates of Cordoba. Turning to the soldiers, he said: “It will be difficult for our foot soldiers to keep up with the horsemen, so let each of the horsemen place a foot soldier behind him.” Looking back, he saw a young Arab and asked him: “Who will you be, good fellow, and what is your name?” He replied: “My name is Sabik ibn Malik ibn Yazid, which means “Advanced, son of the possessor, son of the increaser.” And Abd ar-Rahman exclaimed: “Your name means that we will get ahead, master and increase in number! Get on the horse with me, give me your hand.” This young man survived, and his descendants began to be called “Banu Sabik ar-Radif,” and the word “Radif” means a footman whom the horseman took with him in the saddle, placing him behind him.

And the troops set out and marched all night, and the next morning they found themselves in the outskirts of Cordoba. And when the troops of al-Fihri and the troops of Abd ar-Rahman set out for battle, they were separated by a river at a distance of a mile. The commanders ordered to stop at a reservoir below the noria, as the Arabs call the irrigation wheel. The first of Abd ar-Rahman's warriors to send his horse into the river was Asim al-Urian, and after him both foot and horsemen followed, rushed into the waters and crossed the river, and al-Fihri could not stop them. The battle took place on the shore closest to Cordoba, and Yusuf al-Fihri fled and was unable to hide in his fortress. Abd ar-Rahman, pushing back the enemies and moving forward, captured the fortress, entered it and first of all went to the kitchens, ordering his people to be fed. Al-Fihri’s wife and two daughters came out to him and said: “O kinsman, do a good deed and show a benefit, just as Allah has shown a benefit to you!” Abd ar-Rahman replied: “I will do it, order your imam to be brought.” When he appeared, Abd ar-Rahman ordered him to pray together with his soldiers, and then ordered him to take the women to his home, and he himself stayed that night in the fortress. Al-Fihri's daughter gave him a slave named Hulal, who became the mother of Emir Hisham, may Allah have mercy on him... 18

The next morning, Abd ar-Rahman went to the mosque, where all the inhabitants of Cordoba had gathered, and delivered the Friday sermon. 19 , promising all sorts of benefits to Muslims. And Yusuf al-Fihri, having fled from the battlefield, headed to Granada to strengthen it against enemies. Abd ar-Rahman left Cordoba in pursuit of Yusuf, but when he was already far away, he learned that Yusuf’s son, who lived in Merida, having learned about what happened to his father, secretly went to Cordoba and in the absence of Abd ar-Rahman. Rahmana entered the fortress. Abd ar-Rahman hastily returned, and Yusuf's son, learning of his approach, fled to Toledo. Then Abd ar-Rahman, leaving a reliable man in the fortress of Cordoba, returned to Granada and besieged it. Meanwhile, al-Fihri arrived in Toledo and was killed there by one of his former supporters. So Abd ar-Rahman became the ruler of all Andalusia, and all regions submitted to him...

After the emirs Abd ar-Rahman, Hisham and al-Hakam, power passed to the emir Abd ar-Rahman II, the son of al-Hakam, may Allah be pleased with them! He ruled in the best way and showed constant favor to learned men, writers and poets, so that science and learning flourished during his reign. And he lived, doing good, and his subjects responded to him with piety and worthy behavior. He made many trips to the lands of infidels, either himself or sending troops there under the leadership of his military leaders.

Abd ar-Rahman was careful in choosing the people who performed the duties of qadi. He appointed al-Qurashi to this post, but then removed him. And this happened because of the words that a woman uttered: turning to Qurashi, she told him: “O son of the caliphs, look at me and be fair, as Allah is fair to you.” And Qadi al-Qurashi did not object to her or correct her, considering her words inappropriate for his rank. And Musa ibn Judayr, the senior treasurer of Abd ar-Rahman, reported to the caliph, saying what happened to the qadi with that woman, and adding: “He who does not prevent him from being called the “son of the caliphs” is trying to belittle your power, O lord true believers!”

One of the closest people to Abd ar-Rahman was the writer and poet Ubaidallah ibn Carloman, the son of Badr the newcomer. Once the poet Ziryab, about whom there are many legends, sang the verses of Abbas ibn al-Akhnaf in the presence of Ubaydallah:

Abd ar-Rahman said: “The first lines are not connected with the subsequent ones; between them there must be words that would make the meaning clearer.” Then Ubaidallah ibn Carloman said:

Zulum the offender asked casually:

“Tell me, why have you become so thin in body?”

Like pearls from a string, shedding large tears,

I answered timidly in my languor:

“Oh you, who pierced my heart without a miss,

Who else will these cruel arrows hit?”

And Abd ar-Rahman was delighted with this addition and richly rewarded Ubaidallah.

Abd ar-Rahman ibn al-Hakam was the first of the rulers of Andalusia to accept the rank of caliph, he was the first to introduce the custom of wazirs appearing in his palace and expressing their opinions on various issues, and therefore he had such wazirs as no one else had caliph either before or after him, such as: Abd al-Karim ibn Mugis, Isa ibn Shuhayd, Yusuf ibn Bakht and many others.

Abd ar-Rahman ibn al-Hakam ordered the expansion of the Cordoba mosque, and this construction was almost completed during his lifetime, except for minor additions that were made already under Emir Muhammad. Abd ar-Rahman also built a mosque in Seville and surrounded Cordoba with a wall when the capital began to be threatened by raids from northern pagans in 230. This is the first mention of them when they attacked Andalusia, and the frightened inhabitants of the caliphate left Seville in fear and sought refuge in Carmona and in the mountains surrounding Seville, and none of the inhabitants of the west of Andalusia dared to fight with the northern pagans...

Its geographical location, natural resource reserves and fertile lands played a role. Occupying the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, Andalusia is located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and, along with Morocco, lies on the route from Europe to Africa. The history of this region is inextricably linked with the history of European civilization and the Mediterranean region. According to a number of researchers, the path of the first people who crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and set foot on the European continent ran through the territory of today's Andalusia. Since Neolithic times, several megaliths have been preserved in the lands of Andalusia, including the gigantic Menga dolmen, located near the city of Antequera. Among the finds of archaeologists are traces of the cities of Los Millares and El Argar, which existed in the Bronze Age.

Legend also says that at the Comares Tower, Christopher Columbus convinced Ferdinand II to give permission to search for a route to India, and Queen Isabella of Castile offered her jewels to finance the expedition.

As legend tells, the Greco-Latin god Hercules separated Europe from Africa by the Strait of Gibraltar, creating the Mediterranean Sea. Thus Hercules, son of Zeus, became a symbol to such an extent that today his image, together with two mythical columns, appears on the coat of arms of the green and white Andalusian flag.

The Greeks and Carthaginians came later. In the 3rd century BC. Rome annexed these lands of Baetica to its empire. For seven centuries, this province supplied metals, vegetable oil, wheat and wine.

In return, she received a language and a reliable infrastructure. In addition, Trajan and Hadrian, two of the enlightened emperors who ruled the empire, were born in Andalusia.

The decline of the Roman Empire led to the fact that in 411 AD. Vandals from the other side of the Rhine settled in the Guadalquivir valley. But their presence did not last long.

During the Reconquista, Christians used this name in relation to the south of the peninsula; later the name was assigned to the last territory captured. Although most scholars defend the version of the origin of the name from the word “vandal” (Vandalusia), the toponym “Al-Andalus” first appeared in Muslim numismatics after the capture of the peninsula.

Al-Andalus was identified with Spain (Hispania), and numerous coins found in Andalusia used both terms interchangeably.

In 711, the invasion of Islam begins, and a new stage of prosperity begins in these lands. Over the course of eight centuries, Arab civilization transformed Al-Andalua into the most prosperous, developed and refined region of the West. The Cordoba Caliphate exudes wealth and knowledge. All this heritage still survives in eight Andalusian provinces.

The political disintegration of this culture inspired Christian kings to complete the Reconquista. In 1212, Christian troops were victorious at Navas de Tolosa, north of Jaén.

500 BC. - The Greeks are driven out of the peninsula by the Carthaginians.

In 264-201 BC. The bloody war between Rome and Carthage for dominance on the Iberian Peninsula ends. Rome wins this war.

In the 1st century AD, the Roman province of Betica with its capital Corduba (Cordova in the modern world) begins to build and flourish in the territory of Andalusia.

The construction of aqueducts, theaters, and temples occurs very quickly, turning Betica into one of the most prosperous regions, and Corduba into the richest city of the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian religion at this point in time becomes the state religion.

In 400-475 AD German tribes expel the Visigoths, who are allies of the Roman Empire, which is gradually declining, from the lands of Andalusia.

The Visigoths did not influence the development of local culture, leaving behind only an arch in the form of a castle, the design of which was later used in their buildings by the Moors, who pushed the Visigoths to the north.

In 711, there was a split among the aristocrats, which provoked the appearance of Muslim troops speaking in support of one of the parties. The army was dominated by Berbers, but the Moors occupied the top, so their language was dominant.

Very soon the Moors gain power over almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, except for the Basque Country and some northwestern parts. The Moors call the entire conquered territory Al-Andalus.

The Habsburgs were destroyed by incest, in other words, incest. Numerous marriages between relatives eventually led to the degeneration of the most powerful family in Europe.

The last was Charles II the Possessed, who, thanks to genetic changes, was distinguished by rare ugliness and morbidity. With the departure of the Habsburgs, the Golden Age of Spanish culture ended.

In 756 AD. The heir to the Omey dynasty, who ascended the throne under the name Abderraman 1, makes Cordoba his capital. The new ruler strongly supports the development of culture and pursues a policy of religious tolerance.

929 - The independent caliphate of Al-Andalus is proclaimed. During this period, the state was ruled by Aberraman III. At this time period, Cordoba is the most developed city in all of Western Europe in the fields of culture, education and religion.

In 1031, the powerful ruler of the caliphate, Almansor, dies. And he is replaced by the weak Ishama II, who could not prevent the division of the caliphate into several principalities called taifas.

In 1085, a religious split occurs, because some principalities voluntarily accept Christianity, while the rest, on the contrary, turn to one of the Berber religious sects for help.

After the Almoravids came to power, it became unbearable for Christians to live in this territory.

From 1091 to 1147, the Almoravids were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula by the more tolerant but equally warlike Almoads. The Almoads are trying to unite all the Berber states into one caliphate.

In 1236, Cordoba was captured by Christians, and in the next 12 years, Muslims lost their possessions in Seville, Marbella and Malaga. Most of the cities along the entire Mediterranean coast are part of the state of Granada, which has been a stronghold of the Moors for a very long time.

Napoleon forbade France from buying cotton from the British. Napoleon's plan was to use Andalusia to grow cotton needed by French textile workers.

In 1469, two of the strongest rulers were officially married: Fernando, the ruler of Aragon, and Isabel, the queen of Castile.

The united lands become a kingdom called Spain, and the couple continues to wage war, capturing Muslim cities to join the new state.

In 1492, the fall of Granada occurs. Christopher Columbus, in parallel with these events, discovers America with his expedition.

At the same moment, Jews are expelled from the territory of Andalusia, which leads to a decline in the economy, because many specialists in agriculture and economics leave the country.

In the period from 1500 to 1600, the Spanish kings Carlos 1 and Philip II invested large amounts of money received from the colonies into conquering new territories and continued the persecution of Muslims.

On the young Costa del Sol, new Christian churches are being built in the style of that era. This was the period of the golden age of the state of Spain, but at this moment only Seville flourished, having the opportunity to trade with the New World.

In 1600, the decline of the Spanish state, which occurred due to the waste of funds acquired through the seizure of the American colonies.

In 1609, the Moors who did not want to accept Christianity were expelled.

Arab domination in Spain

The conquerors who came from Africa and caused the fall of Visigothic rule were usually called Arabs, and this name is still used today. Nevertheless, it is necessary to give a somewhat more precise definition of this concept in order to understand the course of subsequent events.

By the beginning of the 8th century. The Arabs had already conquered all of northwestern Africa, which had previously belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Here the Arabs found the indigenous population - the Berbers, a people of a different origin, who, like the Arabs, had a tribal organization. The Berbers, in fact, are known under the name of the Moors. They differed from the Arabs in their great fanaticism, since they were ruled by a special class of priests (“saints”), whom they revered more than the tribal leaders - the sheikhs.

The Berbers reluctantly accepted Arab rule. The Muslim troops that invaded Spain in 711 under the command of Tariq were mostly Berbers. Musa brought with him more Arabs, and at the same time people from various warring tribal associations - the Kaysits and the Kalbits. In Spain, these conquerors began to be called either Moors (although in the narrow sense this name refers only to people from Africa, and not to Arabs), or Arabs, which, in turn, is not entirely true, since the Berbers do not belong to this ethnic group . Strengthening Arab rule in Spain.

A year after the Battle of Segoyuela, which marked the end of the Visigothic monarchy in Spain, Musa continued his campaign, heading through Guadalajara to Zaragoza, sometimes overcoming the resistance of the Visigothic leaders, but sometimes receiving help from them. So, for example, Count Fortunius of Tarakon, like many other magnates who were most concerned about preserving their property and their power, submitted to the Arabs and renounced the Christian religion, receiving some privileges for this. However, not all noble people did this. Some of them vigorously resisted the invaders, defending their rights and possessions. The people, who had nothing to lose, behaved differently. Until 713, the war was conducted relatively humanely. During the capture of Merida, Musa left the inhabitants of the city free and preserved their property. The victors confiscated only what belonged to the killed, emigrants and the church. However, the campaign of 714 was brutal, as the Arabs indulged in all sorts of excesses. Nevertheless, they left the Christians their churches.

Having completed the campaign against the territory along the Ebro, Musa and Tariq jointly began the conquest of the territory later called Old Castile and Cantabria, moving from east to west and from north to south. In this campaign, the Arabs met strong resistance. Although some counts submitted (and the bishops acted as mediators in concluding peace treaties), others continued to fight valiantly. Musa allegedly gave the following description of the Spaniards: “They defend their fortresses like lions and rush into battle on war horses like eagles. They do not miss the slightest opportunity if it is favorable for them, and, being defeated and scattered, they hide under the protection of impregnable gorges and forests, so that they can then rush into battle with even greater courage.” Thus, Musa says that the inhabitants of the peninsula are characterized by two ways of waging war - fighting the enemy in fortified settlements or guerrilla actions similar to those they waged against the Romans in their time. To consolidate their conquests, the Arabs created military colonies in Amaya, Astorga and other points. In the province of Valladolid, in the fortress of Baru, they met stubborn resistance and were forced to stay here for some time. From this area Musa headed towards the territories of the Asgurs. Having attacked the village of Luko, the Arabs captured it and took possession of nearby Gijon. The Asturs and Goths took refuge in the inaccessible mountains of the Picos de Europa and, after some time, leaving their refuge, dealt a cruel blow to the Arabs. Just at the moment when Musa was about to penetrate into Galicia, he received a categorical order from the Caliph to come to the court and give an account of his conduct in connection with complaints about the actions of this commander, which were received in Damascus. Musa had to obey, and he and Tariq went to Seville to board a ship there (714). Abd al-Aziz, the son of Musa, remained at the head of the Arab troops, who undertook a series of expeditions to Portugal and the southern and southeastern parts of Andalusia, capturing Malaga and Granada. Entering the territory of Murcia, he met vigorous resistance from Count Teodemir, whose capital was Orihuela. To the benefit of both sides, the Arabs were few in number, and Teodemir was afraid of being isolated (although other counts defended themselves at various points, there was no agreement between them), a surrender agreement was concluded, as a result of which the independence of Teodemir and his subjects was recognized for territories of Orihuela, Valententa, Alicante, Mula, Begastro, Anaya and Lorca, and the Spaniards were allowed to practice their religion and maintain their temples. The Arabs guaranteed the inviolability of the property of Christians and obliged them only to pay a small tax in money and in kind.

Abd al-Aziz was killed before completing the conquest of Spain. The luxurious life he led in defiance of the harsh dictates of his religion, and the fact that he married Roderic's widow, Egilone, undermined his prestige among the Arab warriors. The work he started was completed by the new ruler, Al-hurr. Al-hurr believed that the conquest of the peninsula was already completed and that the resistance of the Spaniards had been overcome during seven years of fighting (712-718). So he crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. However, Al-hurr was mistaken. It was at this time that a new and not defensive, but offensive war began against the Arab conquerors.

Because Spain was conquered by African troops, it was considered dependent on the African possessions of the caliphate. The ruler (emir) of Spain was appointed by an African governor, who in turn was subordinate to the caliph, whose residence was in Damascus, in Syria. This dependence did not prevent Spain from becoming the scene of numerous civil wars between conquerors. More than once Spain behaved as if it were a truly independent country.

In their conquests, the Arabs did not at all strive to convert the conquered peoples to Islam. The behavior of the Arabs, of course, was influenced by such factors as the fanaticism of a particular caliph or commander who commanded the troops, but, as a rule, they gave the peoples of the conquered countries the right: either to convert to Islam or to pay a poll tax (in addition to the land tax). Since, in accordance with the established order, the new converts paid less taxes to the state than the stubborn adherents of the old faith, the Arabs, preferring earthly benefits to religious interests, believed that in no way should they force conquered peoples to join Islam; after all, such actions deprived them of additional taxes. This motive, along with purely military considerations (it was not always easy to wage wars successfully), repeatedly forced the Arabs to conclude treaties similar to the agreement with Teodemir. At the same time, they respected not only religious beliefs, but also the entire way of life and customs of the conquered peoples. Thus the conquest, as one Spanish historian writes, "was not a matter of religious propaganda, but a more or less systematic plunder."

Administrative and social organization of conquered territories. The bulk of the Spanish-Roman and Visigothic population continued to live in conditions of almost complete civil independence under Muslim rule, being ruled by their own counts, judges, bishops and using their own churches. The emirs were content with establishing two types of legal taxes for conquered Christians: 1) a personal or poll tax (its amount varied depending on the property status of the payer, and it was not paid by women, children, monks, cripples, beggars and slaves) and 2) a land tax, which both Muslims and Christians were obliged to contribute (the former, however, only from estates that previously belonged to Christians or Jews). Sometimes (as can be judged, for example, by the personal tax rates fixed in the agreement on the surrender of Coimbra) Christians were charged double personal tax. This tax was called kharaj and was paid in part in kind. Churches and monasteries also paid taxes. With regard to real estate, apparently, the following rule existed: Musa left 1/5 of the conquered lands and houses for the state, which constituted a special public fund - khums. He provided the cultivation of state lands to young workers from the local population (serfs), who had to give 1/3 of the harvest to the caliph or his viceroy, the emir. This fund included mainly church property and property that belonged to the Visigothic state, the fleeing magnates, as well as the lands of owners who resisted the Arabs. As for private individuals, warriors and nobles who capitulated or submitted to the conquerors, the Arabs recognized for them (both in Merida and Coimbra) ownership of all their property or a certain part of it, with the obligation to pay a land tax (jizya - tax , similar to kharaj) from arable land and from land planted with fruit trees. The Arabs did the same in relation to a number of monasteries (judging by the agreement on the surrender of Coimbra). In addition, local owners were free to sell their property. In the Visigothic era, they were constrained in this regard by the still valid Roman laws on curials. Finally, 3/4 of the confiscated lands were distributed between the commanders and soldiers, that is, between the tribes that were part of the army. According to one Arabic version, Musa carried out this distribution completely, but other Arabic sources indicate that it was not Musa who completed it, but Samakh, the son of Malik, by order of the caliph. Samakh gave the remnants of the yet undistributed state lands into fief ownership to the warriors whom he brought with him. During these divisions, the northern districts (Galicia, Leon, Asturias, etc.) were transferred to the Berbers (and there were more of them in the army of the conquerors than the Arabs), and the southern ones (Andalusia) to the Arabs. Those Visigothic serfs who remained in place continued to cultivate the land with the obligation (like Khums farmers) to pay 1/3 or 1/5 of the harvest to the tribe or chief who owned these lands. Consequently, the condition of the farmers improved significantly; the lands were now divided among many, and the chains that bound the serfs to the latifundia were broken. Finally, the Syrian Arabs, who arrived in Spain later, received in some districts not direct ownership of the land, but the right to receive 1/3 of the income from the Khums lands on which Christians sat. Thus, between the Syrians and the local population in the districts inhabited by them, relations were created similar to those that took place between the Visigothic consorts and the Gallo-Romans, when the tribes of Ataulf received lands in Gaul into their possession.

The situation of slaves also improved, on the one hand, because Muslims treated them more gently than the Spanish-Romans and Visigoths, and on the other, also because it was enough for any Christian slave to convert to Islam to become free. From this group of former slaves and landowners, who also converted to Islam in order to be freed from paying the poll tax and to retain their lands, a group of Christian renegades (renegados) was formed, which subsequently acquired great importance in Spain.

All these advantages of the Arab system of government were to a certain extent devalued in the eyes of the vanquished, since the masses of Christians were subordinated to the infidels. This submission was especially difficult for the church, which depended on the caliph, who arrogated to himself the right to appoint and depose bishops and convene councils. In addition, over time, treaties concluded with the conquered population (as was the case in Mérida) were broken, and the taxes that the conquered had to pay increased. All this caused constant unrest. The Jews benefited from the Arab conquest, since they received certain privileges, and the restrictive laws of the Visigothic era were abolished by the conquerors. Jews were given the opportunity to occupy administrative positions in Spanish cities.

After the conquests of Al-Hurra, the isolated areas, which retained their independence for a certain time, did not cause much concern to the conquerors. The Arabs headed to Gaul, where various emirs won victory after victory until one of them, Abdarrahman, was defeated by the Frankish commander Charles Martel near the city of Poitiers (732). This defeat did not stop Arab raids into Gaul, where they retained for some time a number of settlements in Septimania (including Narbonne). The uprisings of the Berber tribes in Africa, which began in 738, diverted Muslim forces in another direction, and after some time the wave of Arab conquests began to roll back.

The Muslims were most concerned about internal strife and, above all, the hidden rivalry between the Arabs and the Berbers. After the defeat of Emir Abdarrahman at Poitiers, and perhaps somewhat earlier, a Berber uprising took place in Spain itself under the leadership of Sheikh Osman ibn Abu Nisa or Munusa (who is believed to have been the ruler of Oviedo), who entered into an alliance with Duke Eudes of Aquitaine , whose sister he married. Soon after this, in 738, as we have already said, the African Berbers rebelled, caused by an increase in the tax burden. They managed to defeat not only the Arab troops in Africa, but also the army sent by the caliph and consisting mainly of Syrian Arabs. All the Berbers of Galicia, Merida, Corni, Talavera and other places opposed the Arabs. The Arab emir Abd al-Malik, who then ruled Spain, found himself in such a difficult situation that he was forced to call for help the remnants of the Syrian army, defeated in Africa and taking refuge in Ceuta. These Syrians, among whom there was a major commander named Balj, repeatedly asked Abd al-Malik to provide them with ships to cross to Spain in order to escape from the African Berbers. However, the emir did not heed their requests, fearing that as soon as the Syrians were in Spain, they would seize power into their own hands. Under the pressure of circumstances, he was forced to call on them for help. The Syrians crossed into Spain, defeated the Berbers and subjected them to severe punishments, but when the war was over and the emir did not fulfill his promises, they, in turn, rebelled, overthrew Abd al-Malik and elected Balj as emir. This was followed by a bloody war between the Syrians and the Kelbit Arabs, supporters of Abd al-Malik. Christian slaves who worked Arab lands fought side by side with Balj. Despite a number of victories won by the Syrians, the war would have continued for a long time if influential representatives of both sides had not stepped forward to mediate. The Emir of Africa promoted reconciliation and sent a new ruler, Abu al-Hatar, of Kelbit origin, from the Syrian Arabs, who pacified Spain by declaring an amnesty and sending the most restless sheikhs to Africa. He provided the Syrians with state lands, from which the serfs who cultivated them began to pay 1/3 of the harvest to the new holders of these lands. Thus, various districts of Andalusia and Murcia were settled by Syrian Arabs.

War soon resumed - this time between the Qaysites or Maaddis and the Yemenis or Kelbits. The war broke out due to unfair treatment by the new ruler, a Kelbit, with the Arabs of another party and lasted eleven years. Power was actually in the hands of two victorious Kaissite leaders - Samail and Yusuf. It should be noted that during this troubled time, the sheikhs elected emirs (as was the case, for example, with Yusuf), completely disregarding the caliph and the African emir.

The caliphs, the supreme leaders of the Muslim state, were for a long period representatives of the noble Umayyad family, however, just as in Spain, the struggle between ambitious sheikhs and rival tribes continued in the East. The Umayyads were eventually dethroned by another family, the Abbasids.

The change of dynasties caused general unrest in the Arab possessions. This happened while Yusuf was Emir of Spain. In Africa, some provinces declared themselves independent, while others refused to recognize the Abbasids. Under similar circumstances, a young man from the Umayyad family named Abdarrahman fled from Syria, where almost all of his relatives were killed during the coup, and took refuge first in Egypt and then in Berber Africa, trying to create an independent kingdom there. His attempts were unsuccessful, and he turned his attention to Spain. With the support of former clients of the Umayyad house, he landed on the peninsula and marched against Yusuf. At first the war proceeded with varying degrees of success, but in the end Abdarrahman won a decisive victory over Yusuf and the commander Samail and became an emir independent of the Abbasid caliph. From this time on, a new era began in the history of Arab Spain (756).

Christian centers of resistance. It was noted above that the Muslims encountered considerable resistance in some areas of Spain; however, after the campaigns of Musa, Abd-al-Aziz and Al-hurr, they concluded treaties with all the counts and chiefs who sought to maintain their political independence. According to the reports of the most ancient chroniclers, the Visigothic elements offered continuous resistance in only one area - in Asturias. Some magnates of southern and central Spain, some of the bishops and the remnants of the troops that were defeated in Merida, Castile and other places took refuge in Asturias. Under the protection of the mountains, counting on the help of local residents, they intended to resolutely resist the conquerors. The news of Roderic's death at Segouel forced them to consider the need to elect a successor to direct their military operations. The magnates and bishops elected Pelagius as king.

At first, Pelagius could not achieve success, since his army was small. With the approach of Musa's troops (during the campaign of 714), Pelagius withdrew to the foothills of the Picos de Europa (near Cangas de Onis), where he defended himself against the Arabs. He may have paid tribute to the Muslims (who had appointed the Berber ruler Munus in Gijon). Some time later, when Abd al-Aziz, who was favorable towards Christians, became emir, Pelagius is believed to have visited Cordoba, wanting to conclude an agreement with him. However, when the warlike Al-hurr became the ruler, peaceful relations (however, it is difficult to say whether they really took place) came to an end. Pelagius and his supporters began hostilities and, not feeling safe in Kangas, retreated to the mountains. There, in the Covadonga valley, they managed to defeat (718) a detachment sent against them under the command of Alcama. Alqama died in this battle.

The victory at Covadonga was of great importance, although it decided the fate of only a small area. Apparently, as far as can be concluded from the reports of various chroniclers, Munusa, after the defeat at Covadonga, decided to evacuate the eastern part of Asturias. He was soon defeated and killed on the field of Olalles. However, the Cordovan emirs continued to send military expeditions against Pelagius, who apparently successfully repelled these attacks.

It is not known whether there was another center of resistance in Spain besides the one indicated. The kingdom of Teodemir in Murcia and other small kingdoms and counties, although independent, were nevertheless actually subordinate to the Arabs or maintained good neighborly relations with them. It is believed that only a few years after the battle of Covadonga, in 724, a new Christian center of resistance arose in the north of Aragon and on the borders of the Basque region (which was also largely independent), led by a certain Garci-Jimenez ( perhaps a count). He defeated the Arabs and captured the city of Ainzoy (70 km northeast of Huesca). The territory occupied by Garci-Jiménez and his successors was called Sobrarbe. It included almost the entire current region of Boltagny in the Pyrenees. At the same time, there was another independent center on the territory of Navarre, which was in more or less close connection with the center in Sobrarba. Ancient documents indicate that the first chief or sovereign of this land was a certain count named Inigo Arista. The available information about the origin of these states is so confusing and contradictory that nothing can be definitively stated about their early history.

As already noted, representatives of the Visigothic nobility and bishops grouped around Pelagius, including fugitives from Aragon and Navarre, who left their dioceses after they were occupied by the Arabs. It is quite natural that after the victory at Covadonga new adherents joined Pelagius; The counts of the closest regions, bordering Galicia and Cantabria, used the created situation to free themselves from forced submission to the Muslims and enter into an agreement with the new king. Obviously, not only Pelagius, who was pursuing his own interests, but also the nobles sought to throw off the Muslim yoke, seeking possession of the confiscated lands, or at least part of them. The Asturian court continued the traditions of the Toledo court. Here, as there, the struggle continues between the nobility and the king - the nobility is fighting for participation in the election of the king, for maintaining the always desired independence, and the king is fighting for the right to transfer the throne by inheritance and for strengthening his autocracy. We can say that throughout the entire 8th century, the history of Asturias comes down to exactly this. The fight against the conquerors was unsuccessful. Pelagius's immediate successor (Pelagius died at Cangas de Onis in 737), his son Favila, did nothing to expand the borders of the kingdom. King Alfonso I, Duke of Cantabria and son-in-law of Pelagius, who ascended the throne after Favila, took advantage of the civil wars of the Berbers and Arabs that raged (738-742) in the territory occupied by the Muslims, carried out a series of raids on Galicia, Cantabria and Leon, taking possession of such important points like the city of Lugo, and plundering other cities. He still could not firmly gain a foothold in the conquered territory. However, the Muslims retreated beyond the Duero, establishing a new military border - Coimbra, Root, Talavera, Toledo, Guadalajara, Pamplona. As for Pamplona, ​​the Arabs occupied it only for a short time. Christians constantly owned a strip of land closer to the sea (Asturias, Santander, part of the province of Burgos, Leon and Palencia). Between this border and the former line there was a “no man's land”, the ownership of which was constantly disputed by Christians and Muslims. The continuous victories of the kings who ruled after Alphonse little by little expanded the kingdom, but until the 11th century. It cannot yet be said that Christians are attacking the Arabs. The border of independent Christian possessions, which was not always constant, did not cross the line of Guadarrama at the most favorable moments, while the rest of the peninsula, including most of the territory of Aragon, remained in complete submission to the Muslims. Alfonso I died after the campaigns described above, and his activities contributed to the restoration of the old social order in the north. The settlement of the newly acquired lands was undertaken, churches and monasteries were restored. Alfonso I died in 756, the year Abdarrahman created an independent emirate.

Independent Emirate and Cordoba Caliphate. As a result of Abdarrahman's victories over Yusuf and the Kaysites, Arab Spain was not yet pacified. For a long time, the Kaysits, Berbers and sheikhs of various tribes disputed or did not recognize the authority of the new independent emir. The thirty-two years of Abdarrahman's reign were filled with constant wars. After many vicissitudes, Abdarrahman achieved victory. He not only defeated his internal enemies, but even fought against the Basques and made the Count of Cerdanya his tributary (Cerdanya is a territory in the Eastern Pyrenees, north of Catalonia). As a result of one of the conspiracies organized against the emir, the Frankish king Charlemagne invaded Spain, creating a powerful power in Europe. Due to a series of accidents, the plot failed, and Charlemagne, whose presence in his kingdom was required by other matters, had to return with his troops, although he conquered several cities in northern Spain and reached Zaragoza. The rearguard of the Frankish army was completely destroyed in the Roncesvalles gorge by the unconquered Basques; In this battle, the famous Frankish warrior, Count of Breton Roland, died, about whose death a famous legend was created, which served as the basis for the epic poem “The Song of Roland.” However, Charlemagne did not forget about Spain. Christians subsequently sought an alliance with him, and ultimately Charlemagne took possession of part of the northeastern regions of Spain - the core of the future Catalonia.

Brutally suppressing disturbances and curbing numerous opponents, Abdarrahman strengthened his power and recaptured cities captured by the Franks. However, he failed to completely pacify the country. The Arab and Berber sheikhs hated Abdarrahman, and so he had to surround himself with troops consisting of slaves and mercenary soldiers of African descent.

Abdarrahman's successor, his son Hisham I (788-796), was an extremely pious, merciful and modest sovereign. Hisham first waged wars with some rebellious rulers, and then with the Christians of Asturias and Galicia and with the Basques and Franks in Septimania. In 793 he defeated the Count of Toulouse. But most of all Hisham was occupied with religious matters. He strongly patronized theologians - fuqahas. The party of fanatics acquired great importance under him. Many skillful, ambitious and courageous figures appeared in its ranks. The predominance of fanatics became especially noticeable during the reign of Hisham's successor, al-Hakam or Hakam I (796-822). Although the new emir was a believer, he did not observe some Muslim customs (he drank wine and spent his leisure time in hunting) and, most importantly, limited the participation of fuqahs in government affairs. The religious party, whose aspirations had been dealt a sensitive blow, began to conduct demagogic agitation, inciting the people against the emir and organizing various conspiracies. Things got to the point that stones were thrown at the emir as he drove through the streets. Hakam I twice punished the rebels in Cordoba, but this did not help. In 814, fanatics rebelled again, besieging the emir in his own palace. The emir's troops managed to cope with the uprising, and many Cordovans were killed. Hakam forgave the remaining participants in the uprising, but expelled them from Spain. As a result, two large groups of Cordovans (mostly renegades) left the country. 15,000 families moved to Egypt and up to 8,000 went to Fetz, in northwestern Africa.

Having won a victory over the religious party in Cordoba, the emir set about eliminating another, no less serious danger. The city of Toledo, although nominally subordinate to the emirs, actually enjoyed true autonomy. Its population consisted mainly of Visigoths and Hispano-Romans, most of whom were renegades (apostates from Christianity). There were few Arabs and Berbers in the city. The people of Toledo did not forget that their city was the capital of independent Spain. They were proud of this and stubbornly defended their independence, recognized perhaps by treaties similar to the agreement that was concluded with Merida. Hakam decided to end it. To gain the trust of the Toledans, he sent them a renegade as their ruler. This ruler called the most noble and wealthy citizens to his palace and killed them. The city, thus deprived of its most influential citizens, remained subject to the emir, but seven years later again declared its independence (829). Hakam's successor Abdarrahman II (829) had to fight Toledo for eight years. In 837, he took possession of the city due to the disagreements that began in Toledo between Christians and renegades. There was also unrest in other parts of the Muslim kingdom. In Merida, Christians who had established contact with the Frankish king Louis the Pious raised continuous uprisings, and in Murcia there was a civil war between the Kelbites and the Kaysites for seven years. The increase in tribute by Abdarrahman II (perhaps this was a violation of treaties previously concluded with major cities) was apparently one of the reasons for these constant uprisings.

At this time, ships of the Northern European people - the Normans - appeared off the coast of Spain. The Normans, attacking coastal areas, plundered and destroyed cities and villages. They first appeared in Spain at the end of the 8th century, acting in the war against the Moors as auxiliary troops of Alphonse the Chaste. Now pirate raids, which were carried out on large sailing and oared ships (and such flotillas transported detachments of several thousand people), were launched on the shores of Galicia; from there the Normans were driven away, but then reappeared at Lisbon (844), Cadiz and Seville. The emir's troops managed to defeat the Normans and force them to leave Andalusia. However, for some time they still remained on the island of Christina, at the mouth of the Guadiana, from where they made frequent raids on the lands of Sidonia. To prevent further attacks, the emir ordered the construction of warships and shipyards on Guadalquivir. In 858 or 859, the Normans (whom the Arabs called Madhu) attacked the city of Algeciras, sacking it. After this, they continued their raids along the entire Levantine coast, all the way to the Rhone. On the way back, they were attacked by a Muslim squadron, which captured two Norman ships. In 966 the Normans again devastated the countryside around Lisbon. The Muslims, however, reorganized their fleet following the example of the Normans, and in 971 the latter, without accepting battle, retreated when the enemy squadron approached. From then on, the Normans made no further raids on the southern part of the peninsula.

The religious question had hardly lost its urgency when another movement arose in Cordoba, even more dangerous to the throne of the emirs. The Muslim subjects of Spanish origin, who at Toledo and other points were striving to achieve independence, renewed their efforts in this direction with even greater energy and achieved significant success. The Toledans, having received the support of the Kingdom of Leonese, obtained from the emir consent to conclude a treaty in 873; The political independence of the townspeople who chose a republican form of government was recognized. Toledo's only connection with the Muslim state remained the payment of annual tribute. In the Aragonese region (which the Arabs called the Upper Frontier), the Benu-Kazi family, renegades of Visigothic origin, created a kingdom independent of the Emir of Cordoba. This kingdom included such significant cities as Zaragoza, Tudela and Huesca. One of the leaders of this state began to call himself “the third king of Spain.” For some time (862), the emir managed to recapture Tudela and Zaragoza, but soon he again lost these cities. His troops were defeated by Benu-Kazi, who was in alliance with the king of Leon.

It should be noted, however, that the Benu-Kazi, while defending the independence of their possessions, did not pursue a purposeful policy. First of all, they cared about their own interests, and therefore more than once acted in alliance with the emir against the Christian sovereigns of Spain and France.

Another independent state arose in Extremadura under the leadership of the renegade ibn Merwan, who raised an uprising among the renegades of Merida and neighboring regions. Ibn Merwan preached a new religion, a mixture of Islam and Christianity, and incited discord between the indigenous inhabitants of the country and the newcomers.

He entered into an alliance with the king of Leon, imposed tribute only on the Arabs and Berbers, and eventually achieved recognition of his independence by the emir, who ceded to him the fortified point of Badajoz.

This success naturally aroused the rebellious feelings of the renegades and Christians of the important region of Andalusia - Reni, in the mountainous region of Ronda, the center of which was Archidona. This area was inhabited mainly by indigenous people, whom we will call Spaniards, although, of course, there was no talk of national unity at that time. The majority of the population of these places professed Islam. Nevertheless, they hated the conquerors, especially the Arabs. Hereditary Muslims despised renegades and were suspicious of them. It is therefore not surprising that the renegades, at the first opportunity, followed the example of Benu-Kazi and the Toledo and Merida renegades. The uprising in the mountainous region of Ronda was one of the most significant. It was headed by a man with outstanding military and political talents - Omar ibn Hafsun.

Omar ibn Hafsun came from a noble Visigothic family and in his youth experienced many misadventures due to his quarrelsome character. He was arrogant, pugnacious and showed adventurous tendencies. Knowing the mindset of the renegades in the mountainous region, who were ready to support any move against the Arabs, he raised an uprising (in 880 or 881), in which a large number of renegades participated. The bridgehead on which Ibn Hafsun firmly established himself was the inaccessible mountainous terrain of Bobastro, not far from Antequera. The first attempt at an uprising failed, but he renewed it in 884 and achieved complete success. Fortified in the castle of Bobastro, he united around himself all the Christians and renegades of the region who blindly obeyed him, and organized the country as an independent kingdom. Until 886, the emir's troops did not attack him. Then a war began that lasted over 30 years, and its course was almost always favorable for Omar. Omar became master of almost all of Andalusia, and above all the territories of Malaga, Granada, Jaen and part of the Cordoba region. Repeatedly Omar approached the walls of Cordoba itself. Emirs Munzir (886-888) and Abdallah (888-912), successors of Abdarrahman II, were more than once forced to enter into agreements with Omar, recognizing his independence. However, in the last years of Abdallah's reign, the new kingdom began to decline.

Omar's serious mistake was the lack of a definite plan of struggle: he did not even think about coordinating his actions with the military operations of other Spanish centers located in the north. Meanwhile, the coordination of military efforts between the northern and southern regions would inevitably cause the collapse of the Muslim emirate. At first glance, Omar appears to be the leader of the Spanish party, whose patriotic aspirations were supposed to coincide with the aspirations of the Spaniards in the north of the country. However, in fact this was not the case. Omar changed his plans more than once. At first he wanted to ensure the independence of his possessions and was not interested in the fate of other Spanish centers, then he set out to become the emir of Spain. He tried to negotiate with the Arab ruler of Africa, who again submitted to the Baghdad caliphs, but in the end abandoned plans to unite Muslims and Christians under one banner, dissatisfied with the orders of the Cordoba emirate, and adopted Christianity. The patriotic struggle then took on a different, purely religious character, and as a result, almost all the Muslims who had previously supported Omar abandoned him. All this predetermined the defeat of Omar, and then the destruction of his kingdom.

Omar was not the only chief who fought for the renegade cause. Constant hostility between the renegades and the Arab aristocracy flared up with renewed vigor in two large cities - Elvira (near Granada) and Seville, especially in the latter. In Seville, the renegades concentrated in their hands all handicraft production and trade, and thanks to this the city took a primary position.

Hercules once sailed to the shores of ancient Iberia - Hesperia - for golden apples, and it was he, if you trust the legend, who founded the oldest city in Europe...

Following the troika to Andalusia...

Ancient countries, whose history goes “from the first cry and the first kiss,” are inevitably subject to the mysticism of the number three. The location of most pagan sanctuaries and dolmens is determined by the principle of trinity; Christian monuments bear the stamp of the Trinity. Bullfighting is a unique art of Spain, measured in ternary cycles: three matadors, three “acts” in each fight. The texts of cante jondo - the deep singing of Andalusian gypsies - most often consist of three lines. And in stories, they are “sung” (as in life itself) most often there are three characters: he, she and the third (a rival, death, the moon or just a secret). An attentive traveler will continue the list and, perhaps, remember, when playing in casinos at the resorts of the Costa del Sol, about “three, seven and ace”. We will look through the prism of the troika at the map of Spain.

The territory of Spain is small - 504 thousand square meters. km (with all the islands, including the Canary Islands) - an unenviable fragment of a grandiose empire, on which once “the sun never set,” but in terms of its saturation it would be enough for dozens of different states. Each province has its own face, and each claims that this “face” is Spain, but there are three main contenders: Madrid, Barcelona and the South - Andalusia, where we are heading...

The mystical power of the troika does not end here. In Andalusia itself there are three centers - Seville, Granada and Cordoba, and in the mixture of cultures from which Andalusia was born, the main ones were three “streams”: the east, the gypsies and the Christian culture of the Iberian Peninsula. Hercules once sailed to the shores of ancient Iberia - Hesperia - for golden apples, and it was he, if you trust the legend, who founded the oldest city in Europe - Cadiz, which is already 3 thousand years old. Now it is a thriving center of one of the Andalusian provinces and the largest port, which has only two rivals in Andalusia - Malaga and Atmeria. The three remains ubiquitous, however, there are eight provinces in Andalusia, although the eight are just two threes in a mirror projection...

Andalusia now has 6 and a half million inhabitants on 90 thousand square meters. km (slightly less than Portugal). Its eight constituent provinces were united into one only in the 19th century after the Reconquista, and to this day Almeria, Granada, Jaen, Cordoba, Malaga, Cadiz, Seville and Huelva (named after the capitals) dispute the palm in primordiality and “Andalusianness.” .

Arab beauty with gypsy blood

This is what one of the famous poets called Andalusia. You will certainly hear the opinions of less famous poets if you happen to visit these fertile places. The fact is that in Andalusia every second person (if not every first one) is a poet.

All of Spain is a mixture of blood and cultures, but in Andalusia the “mixture” is the thickest. These are the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, Gypsies, Moors... The state of Tartessos, founded by the ancient settlers of the lower reaches of Guadalquivir, was already mentioned in the Old Testament. To this day, the voices of ancient civilizations can be heard in the names of Andalusian cities: Malaga - from the ancient Iberian word “mala-ka” - “hill covered with pastures”,

Almeria - Arabic Al Mariya - “mirror of the sea”... Antiquity is perceived and presented differently by different countries, for Andalusia it is par for the course. Let's say, Via Augusta - a road built by the ancient Romans, until recently it was used simply as a high-quality pavement.

Each Andalusian city reflects in miniature the history of the entire province. Let's choose at random... Malaga - the capital of Costa del Sol, whose resorts - from Marbella to Torremolinos - were chosen by Arab sheikhs, Hollywood movie stars, as well as other tourists, including our compatriots, has attracted “visitors” since ancient times. It was founded by the Phoenicians, then it came under the rule of Rome, and then Byzantium (it was in these lands that marble was mined for the construction of Sofia of Constantinople). In 571 it was conquered by the Weston Leovichildo, and in 711 the troops of Tariq, the first Moorish commander to sail across Gibraltar, entered Malaga. The first Arab army consisted of only 9 thousand people, but in five years the Moors subjugated the entire Spanish south (as well as some northern territories and even briefly crossed the Pyrenees) and founded the Moorish state of Al Andalus (in Arabic “land of the barbarians” ) - the future Andalusia. The Spaniards constantly talk about the Reconquista - the conquest of Spain from the Muslims, which ended in 1492), the same time when Columbus discovered America, but the Conquista - the Arab conquest is rarely mentioned, and no one uses this word - it’s too calm, bloodless and Even “hospitably” the Arabs took root in Spain. Spain received from the East 8 centuries of a unique civilization that flourished on the border of the worlds and disappeared in the 15th century, as in an oriental fairy tale, leaving only monuments and legends for descendants.

The most brilliant era for Andalusia was the era of the Emirate of Cordoba, founded in 756 by Abderrahman I (the last ruler of the defeated Umayyad dynasty). After him, 8 emirs were replaced, and then Abderrahman III proclaimed himself caliph - “God’s vicegerent on earth.” The Cordoba emirs and caliphs were little like the eccentric characters of oriental fairy tales - they were scientists and philanthropists, encouraging science and the arts. Cordoba was considered at that time the most enlightened city in Europe. But in 1031, due to internal strife, the Caliphate fell apart and the era of split into small principalities - taifas - began. Then the Reconquista begins - in 1085 Alfonso VI conquers Toledo. This was the first major victory for Christians and the end of the peaceful coexistence of religions and cultures. Since the 11th century, Al Andalus, fearing an onslaught from the north, has been part of the Almoravid empire, and since the 12th century - the Almohads. But the advance of Christians could not be stopped, and in the 13th century the last stronghold of the Arabs remained the Emirate of Granada. In 1492, the Reconquista ends with the surrender of Granada to the Catholic kings Ferdinand and Isabella. The last Andalusian emir, Boabdil, burst into tears looking at his lost capital, and went down in history thanks to the cruel words of his mother, Aisha: “Now mourn as a woman what you could not protect as a man”...

“If there is heaven on earth, then it is in Andalusia...”

It was not for nothing that the Arabs fell in love with Andalusia. This land seemed to them an earthly paradise, and they decorated it with monuments of divine beauty. Centuries after the expulsion of the Arabs, the American classic Washington Irving, traveling through Andalusia, will say: “If there is heaven on earth, then it is in Andalusia...” and will try to perpetuate its charms in his short stories “Tales of the Alhambra.”

This “paradise” has 3 thousand hours of sunshine a year and only 30 cubic centimeters of precipitation. But heavenly weather at the height of summer can turn into hellish heat. The town of Ecija, located 90 km from Seville, has earned the nickname “the frying pan of Andalusia” - in the summer you can fry eggs there under the sun. At the same time, in the Sierra Nevada mountains there is snow even in summer, and in winter you can ski (and swim in the sea after descending from the mountains).

Rain in Andalusia is rare, but the lack of moisture is compensated by the mythical Guadalquivir - a real deep river, and in Spain, where rivers dry up in the summer or turn into streams, this is an unprecedented luxury. And although Guadalquivir, despite its sonorous name, is far from the Amazon (and even from the Moscow River), the love of the Andalusians for their Great River increases its size many times over - and judging by poetry, it has no equal in the world. Back in the 9th century, Ion Said wrote that Betis (aka Guadalquivir) overshadows the glory of the Nile...

The first mention of navigation on the Guadalquivir can be found by the Greek historian and geographer Strabo in the treatise “Iberia” (5th century BC). Once upon a time, Viking ships sailed up the Guadalquivir, and the Arabs, not very knowledgeable in shipbuilding, were forced to create their own river fleet to repel raids. In those days, the river was, of course, fuller and much cleaner. In Corni (near Seville) there was a sturgeon caviar factory back in the last century. Only memories remain of sturgeon and Vikings, but carp are still found, and any tourist can go sailing along the Guadalquivir from Seville to Sanlúcar. Ships depart from the Golden Tower in Seville (3,000 pesetas return for a 5-hour trip) from April to October.

“Paradise is where it’s warm, the streams are babbling and you can do nothing,” said one of Kipling’s heroes. In the latter, Andalusians have always excelled and their joyful and carefree attitude towards life is still legendary. “Here two classes of people perceive life as an endless vacation: the rich and the poor,” wrote Washington Irving, who was in love with Andalusia, at the beginning of the 19th century.

Some because they don’t have to do anything, others because they have nothing to do. No one is more skilled than the Spanish poor in the art of doing nothing. Climate is one reason, the rest is temperament... Poverty! For the Spaniard, this is by no means grief. He treats it with the same elegance as he treats his threadbare jacket. He remains a hidalgo, even if he is dressed in rags.”

In Andalusia, like nowhere else in Spain, the Mediterranean idea of ​​life is tenacious, increasingly squeezed by the European rhythm and efficiency of modern civilization. The principle of the ancient Greeks “otium cum dignitatem” (dignified idleness) is revered here as the main testament of the ancestors. No one can convince an Andalusian that work is the most important thing in life; he sacredly continues to believe that the main thing in life is life, and he knows how to use it like no one else. According to the calculations of the Economist magazine, Spain ranks 3rd in the world in terms of a set of indicators of quality of life, but the Spaniards themselves, who do not really trust the printed word (they have one of the last places in Europe in terms of consumption of books and newspapers), are convinced that this is unfair deprived of the palm. And this “palm tree” should, of course, grow in Andalusia. Nowhere in Europe are there as many holidays and weekends as in Spain, and Andalusia has more of them than anywhere else. There are 161 thousand restaurants and bars in Spain alone, more than in the rest of the European Union countries combined. There are 8,000 bars for every five million Madonna residents (that is, one bar for every 600 people), but Andalusia confidently breaks all records - in the summer there are as many bars as there are local residents.

Let them assure you that eating after seven in the evening is harmful, that you need to get up at dawn, and go to bed at least at 12... “Leave these sermons to the Catalans,” a true Andalusian will say. And even if he agrees, he will continue to live in his own way: he considers sleeping at night an eccentricity, and the idea of ​​getting enough sleep before the working day is an attack on true priorities.

There are countries in which nightlife is a special area, not known and accessible to everyone. In Spain, this is just a continuation of daily life, obligatory for everyone and completely devoid of the aura of chosenness. In other countries, the night belongs to the young, the rich, the idle or the insomniac. In Spain it belongs to everyone. “Salir por la noche” - going out at 11 pm to drink something, have a snack and chat with friends, endlessly moving from one “penultimate” bar to the next “penultimate” - the most ordinary pastime for a true connoisseur of life. And while “northern” cities (such as Barcelona or Madrid) sometimes bend this law during the week to make up for the weekend slack, Andalusia invariably bustles at night, regardless of whether it’s Monday or Saturday.

Recently, Andalusians have increasingly complained about the loss of national flavor. This is manifested not only in the fact that flamenco and cante jondo are increasingly being reborn for the needs of tourists, but also in the fact that the Andalusians... have begun to work. When the world exhibition was to take place in Seville in 1992, all of Spain expected that it would probably not be opened on time, there would be complete confusion, and at the last moment it turned out that they had forgotten to supply electricity. But with the exception of one burnt pavilion, everything worked like clockwork. Andalusia once again confirms the mysterious paradox of Spanish existence: no one works, but somehow everything works and not bad at all...

Lately (maybe because the current President of Spain, Felipe Gonzalez, is an Andalusian?) there has been more and more talk about turning Andalusia from a “poor rich country” into Spanish California - also a paradise, but in an understanding somewhat different from the boiling waters. Lingovsky. The first fruits are obvious. In the south of the province of Achmeria (near the town of Dalias), a “garden of Europe” arose - a gigantic greenhouse farm - 12 thousand hectares covered with film (naturally, it is not the heat, of which there is plenty, that has to be retained, but the moisture) - This is the idea of ​​​​a certain Catalan (which he, reportedly adopted in Israel) in a few years transformed a deserted and poor region of Andalusia into a place with a record per capita income for Spain, where everything grows: from zucchini and radishes to kiwi and bananas. Why not the Garden of Eden?..

From fiesta to siesta

The Spanish words “fiesta” - holiday and “siesta” - afternoon rest (most often from fiesta) are known to everyone)", and everyone can be convinced that “fiesta” in Spain is not just a sonorous word, but one of the most common realities. No matter where you find yourself in Spain, we can assure you that you will definitely see the holiday: if not in your town, then in the neighboring one, if not the most famous one, then there is nowhere else, and the locals will convince you that theirs are “Moors and Christians” or “fire bulls” are no worse than the Venetian carnival.

Holy Week in Seville or Carnival in Cadiz are no less famous than San Fermin in Pamplona. where pilgrims flock from all over the world. But Andalusians are especially proud of local celebrations, where holiness, fair and carnival merge into one, where the Virgin Mary in carnival robes floats through the streets among Arabian horses and flamenco dancers, where, next to sculptures of saints, decorated like fairground barkers, cakes with “angel hair” are sold briskly "or toffees - "nun's sighs."

Any religious celebration or procession, for which the Spaniards have a special passion, turns into a carnival in Andalusia. In the town of Dalias there is a miraculous sculpture of Christ - “Jesus of Lights”. When there is a drought and prayers and offerings to the saints do not help, it is carried through the streets at night (on the third Sunday of September) in pitch darkness, illuminated with multi-colored sparklers (pyrotechnicians from Dalna were even invited to Hollywood). In Fuen Girola (near Marbella) on July 15, a boat ride is organized for the sculpture of Our Lady, then sailors carry it in their arms through the water at the head of a grand naval parade. In Baena - halfway from Cordoba to Granada - on HOLY week there are processions of “black-tailed” and “white-tailed” Jews (the tails are located on their heads - like grenadiers). “Black-tailed” and “white-tailed” walk along the streets with drums, each along their own route, and when they meet, they begin to drum - who will drown out whom. And immortalized by Lope de Vega Fuente Ovejuna still retains a unique and somewhat shocking custom - on Easter Sunday there in the central square they shoot for treason... Judas (in the form of a doll, of course).

But no Easter extravagance can eclipse the glory of Holy Week in Seville. These celebrations last from Palm Sunday until Easter: services in all cathedrals are luxurious and more crowded than ever, theatrical performances on themes of sacred history, vows and thanksgiving for fulfilled requests and answered prayers. “Exvotos” are hung in the chapels - votive offerings: wax hands, feet - for healings, sometimes photographs or flowers or something completely unimaginable that the parishioner considered a worthy gift to the saint)" - in one of the chapels, next to the wax hand, there was a pack of Marlboros and a rattle in the shape of a horse. But the apogee of the celebrations comes at sunset - a night procession moves through the crowded streets, figures of saints float, drums and trumpets hum almost ominously, covered in flowers and hundreds of candles, slowly moving towards the Cathedral on the shoulders of parishioners. Someone from the crowd, unable to withstand the tension, begins to sing - or, more precisely, “shoots” an arrow into the heavens - a “saeta” - with a cry about passion, pain and love, about the torment of the cross experienced by the Savior “I have read the Bible many times. “,” wrote Washington Irving, “but I was able to survive it only in Seville.”

Soon after Holy Week, Seville (obeying the law of unity and struggle of opposites) plunges into the bustle of the April Fair (from April 18 to 23, and if it coincides with Easter, then a week later) - the triumph of the spirit is replaced by the revelry of the flesh, and merchants, when then those expelled from the temple fill the city. The fair brings together all Spanish topics: wine, bullfighting, horses and flamenco. It opens with a parade of Arabian horses, whose elegance can only be rivaled by their riders (and, above all, their riders). In the meadow of St. Sebastian, where the Inquisition once dealt with its victims (next to the former tobacco factory, immortalized by Carmen), a town of tents and pavilions grows up, the crowd walks, seethes and dances... And it all began (back in 1848 ) from an ordinary livestock fair, gradually grew into a Fair with a capital F, and now it is just a holiday where Seville celebrates... itself.

Flamenco - following Duende from cabaret to gypsy caves

No matter how banal Hemingway’s quote may be, flamenco in Spain is a holiday that is always with you. This bewitching element of folk dance and music, unique because the main thing in it is tragedy and sorrow, love in the halo of death, melancholy piercing the soul, has long been tamed for the needs of tourists and in every Spanish city you will find “tablado flamenco”, where with With greater or lesser skill they will dance and sing for you what was once the shrine of saints, born not to order, but from the depths of the heart. “When I sing from the heart, I have the taste of blood in my mouth,” said the famous singer Anika la Pirinhaca. So she felt what the Spaniards called “duende” - the demon of creativity, the element of that very “real”, inexpressible in words. It is not for nothing that in “cante jondo” - “deep singing” there are so few words and there are many drawn-out sounds, pauses, guitar plucks and pure rhythm beaten out by the palms. “She walks captive to a rhythm that is impossible to comprehend...” wrote Garcia Lorca about the gypsy sigiriya; it is also impossible to fully comprehend flamenco. Foreigners - listeners and spectators - begin to clap their hands, shrug their shoulders and throw back their heads proudly - but the amazed and confused expression does not disappear from their faces. Dances and songs of other peoples are open - start dancing, dance in a circle. Flamenco keeps a majestic distance. Usually folk dances are a collective performance, but most flamenco dances are solo, and if a couple dances, then the “baila-oras” almost do not touch each other. Duende does not tolerate familiarity, does not draw him into the crowd, but beckons and disturbs, and no one knows where they will meet him - either in a flamenco tablado, sometimes too reminiscent of a cabaret, or in a bar where can-taors gather, or in the legendary caves of Sacromonte in Granada, where gypsies preserve (or pretend to?) flamenco in its original form.

The addresses of Tablado Flamenco can be found in any guidebook, but duende is difficult to find in them, but there is a great abundance of Japanese. They clap together, shout “ole” (this exclamation, which has become a symbol of Spain for many, is nothing more than a transformed “Allah”) and take pictures together against the backdrop of frilled skirts. Duende, most often, remains behind the scenes. In Seville, you can start your hunt for it at the Carboneria bar, located in a former coal warehouse on Levies street in the ancient Jewish quarter. In its two halls and patios, cantaores (flamenco singers) gather, and if you’re lucky, you can catch a real “huerga” (literal translation of “revelry”), when one cantaor sings, another one picks it up, a third one sings them, palms beat out the rhythm on the wooden tables , and now someone is dancing, and tourists are enviously watching the duende play...

Flamenco is associated primarily with the gypsies, but this art was born from the fusion of traditions of Arabic, Jewish, Byzantine and Indian music (it was from India that the gypsies migrated to Europe). But the main thing is that it was not only “born”, but continues to be born anew every time - the skill of cantaors is passed on orally and professionals immediately hear when someone, even a very good guitarist, tries to play flamenco from the notes.

Like flamenco itself, its name is also mysterious. First of all, “flamenco” in Spanish means: a resident of Flanders and everything related to this country. According to one version, the art of flamenco was brought to Spain by gypsies who came from Flanders. According to another version, the Castilians, amazed by the rude manners of the Flemish retinue of Charles V, who reigned in Spain in 1517, began to use this word to denote not too refined behavior. Or maybe Flanders has nothing to do with it and this word comes from the Arabic felag mengu, which means “runaway peasant” - almost a synonym for “gypsies”, eternal outcasts. At the same time, the exquisite gestures and costumes of flamenco dances are reminiscent of the flamingo bird, and the passionate and fiery character of this dance is a flame (from the Latin “flamma”). There is even a hypothesis that flamenco dates back to the cult of fire and was at first ritual.

Whatever the origin of the word “flamenco,” it is obvious that the term first defined a type of behavior, and only then was assigned to dance and music. You can still say about a person “un flamenco”, even if he does not dance or sing. “Flamenco” is an attitude to life, and music is only its expression.

Once sitting in the coastal bar "Malagena", not far from Torremolinos, I watched a crowded Andalusian family, which was convincing the youngest son of something with all the pressure of the gypsy temperament, and I constantly heard: “You are flamenco!” I was unable to discern the cause of the conflict in the chorus of voices. Either, I thought, they want to force him to dance right here, or he doesn’t want to dance, or he doesn’t agree to try on the baila-or costume (the fat mother kept trying to hand him a bag with some clothes). After 10 minutes, everything was resolved - the son proudly shook his curls, pushed away his mother’s bag (which, as it turned out later, contained a life jacket) and went... windsurfing. It turns out that he was afraid to go out to sea in a strong wind, and his family only encouraged him: “Ole!”

Federico Garcia Lorca: “Cante jondo is Andalusian singing, whose original and perfect example can be considered the gypsy sigiriya and all the songs that go back to it and still live among the people...

The gypsy sigiriya begins with a desperate cry that cuts the world in two. This is the dying cry of extinct generations, a burning cry for bygone centuries and the high memory of love under a different moon in a different wind.

Then the melody, entering the mystery of sounds, looks for the pearl of crying, a ringing tear in the vocal channel. But not a single Andalusian can hear this cry without a shudder, not a single Spanish song has such poetic power, and rarely, extremely rarely, has the human spirit created with such spontaneity.

In 1400 AD, Tamerlane's army of one hundred thousand ousted the gypsy tribes from India. Twenty years later, the gypsies were wandering around Europe, and they sailed to Spain from Arabia and Egypt along with the Saracens, who plundered our southern coast from time to time. The gypsies, having settled in Andalusia, adopted the ancient local musical tradition and, enriching it with their archaism, gave the final form to the singing that we now call cante jondo.

From the snowy peaks of the Sierra Nevada to the thirsty olive trees of Cordoba, from the mountains of Cazorla to the sunny lower reaches of Guadalquivir, these songs roam, linking together our colorful and unique Andalusia. In 1947, Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka came to Granada from Berlin... Here he became friends with the famous guitarist of that time, Francisco Rodriguez Murciano. Glinka spent hours listening to our songs and variations on their themes performed by Mursi-ano, and perhaps it was then, under the rhythmic roar of the Granada fountains, that he became convinced of his intention to create a national school of Russian music... Returning to his homeland, Glinka pleased his good friends news and told them about our songs, which he studied and even introduced into his compositions. His friends and students also turned to folk music, and not only Russian; Some of their works were based on the music of southern Spain. So the gloomy oriental flavor and melancholy modulation of our songs echoed in distant Moscow, their sadness intertwined with the mysterious ringing of the Kremlin bells.”

Beaches, waters and flamingos

The wind for true windsurfers (who are no less common among summer guests of Andalusia than flamenco lovers) is not a hindrance, but a dream. The blessed Mediterranean rarely allows this dream to come true, but Andalusia is lucky again. The southernmost point of Spain, the town of Tarifa, separated from Africa by only 14 kilometers of sea, is famous for its winds throughout Europe. Traditional surfing championships attract athletes and fans from all over the world to Tarifa and turn this small town into a kind of patterned Arabic carpet or multi-colored mosaic. Those who managed to get to the surfing parade in Tarifa claim that it is in no way inferior to the Cadiz Carnival. “What, sails - instead of suits,” the owner of a restaurant in the tariff port convinced me, serving “sail” ice cream for dessert: a mixture of vanilla, strawberry, mint, orange and chocolate.

For those who have already visited the Costa Brava or Costa del Sol, there is no point in describing the delights of Spanish beaches. All good beaches are equally beautiful, but each is good in its own way. It’s hard to believe that in resort Spain, crowded with tourists, there are still wild beaches, especially not in northern Asturias or Galicia, where the rains can be heavy even in August, and the ocean is sometimes stormy for weeks, and in Andalusia, next to the super-fashionable resorts, there are only turn off the established paths.

In the area of ​​Huelva (near the border with Portugal) the road ends in Matalascañas and 32 kilometers of wild beaches stretch all the way to the mouth of the Guadalquivir. According to experts, this is the best place on the Costa de Luz. The beaches of Monsul and Genoa are known far beyond the borders of Andalusia, although you can only get there on foot or by boat. On Cabo de Gata (“gata” goes back to “agate” - in the days of the Phoenicians, precious stones could easily be found on the shore), entire colonies of pink flamingos can still be found.

If your path runs through Almeria, use the old fairy tale principle: “if you go to the left, you will be lost in the wilderness, if you go to the right, you will find an army.” From Almeria, to the left along the coast (towards Alicante) there are wild beaches (they, however, can correctly be called semi-wild - some even have showers with fresh water). The most famous naturist beaches are located around the town of Vera, which is also famous for its magnificent Holy Week processions - perhaps the locals atone for their sins in advance before the holiday season. If you turn right, towards Malaga and Marbella, the “army” of vacationers immediately makes itself felt. Places once known only for their fishing industries have become party capitals. “How poetic are the names of the fishing villages in Andalusia,” wrote Antonio Machado, “they have peace and quiet surf: Aguadulce, Roquetas de Map...” Aguadulce is now the largest sports port, rivaling even the port of Banus in Marbella, and Roquetas de Mar has become one of the disco capitals of the coast.

The average annual temperature on the Costa del Sol is 25 degrees - even the skies guarantee tourists a wonderful holiday, the Andalusians took care of the rest. For those who suddenly get tired of the sea, hydroparks are open in Torremolinos and Fuengirola (from 10 to 18, prices from 1500 to 1700 pesetas) - wave pools, caves of water horrors, slides along which you rush with the water flow, waterfalls and massagers If you want not only to relax, but also to improve your health, the Thalasotherapy center (“talas” means sea in Greek) is waiting for you at the Melia Costa del Sol hotel in Torremolinos. They treat everything from rheumatism and asthma. stress and depression, new diseases of civilization, and all procedures and drugs are based on seafood.

If you don’t really trust newfangled trends in medicine, you can go to the waters - this treatment has been tested for centuries. At the sulfur-water resort of Edionda (between Malaga and Cadiz), Julius Caesar himself was once treated for scabies. The sulfur baths of Carratraca (50 km from Malaga) have also been known since the Roman era. Lord Byron, Flaubert, Alexandre Dumas stayed at the local resort “Prince” and “took in” the local waters and views of the picturesque plain.

If you are more attracted to the latter, then it is worth visiting the reserve and even hunting, having received a license. The most famous natural park in Andalusia is Doñana, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir. There, in the Doñana Palace, Spanish President Felipe Gonzalez usually rests with his family and guests. If you are unlucky and Felipe did not invite you to hunt, do not be upset. No worse is the public park Alcornoca Forest (near Medina Sidonia) - this is one of the few remnants of the disappeared Iberian jungle (170 hectares), where cork oaks grow, wild animals roam (not just hunters) and squirrels jump, which in ancient times could to get to the very Pyrenees, jumping from branch to branch...

THREE GEMS OF ANDALUSIA

Seville: from the Giralda to Beria's bar...

The fourth largest city in Spain, the capital of Andalusia, Sevilla, most often rhymes with the word “maravilla” - miracle.

Muslim historian Ach Sakundi wrote: “If you desire bird’s milk in this city, they will give it to you.” Even Saint Teresa was so fascinated by the beauty and beauty of the city and its inhabitants that she admitted: “If someone manages not to sin in Seville, then he is worth a lot.” It is not for nothing that this city is the birthplace of Don Juan and Carmen.

“Hercules built me, Caesar surrounded me with a wall, and the Holy King conquered...” - this is a brief summary of the history of the city emblazoned on the gates of Jerez. The story itself was much more intense. The era of the greatest prosperity of Seville fell on Arab rule, and its peak was the 12th century, the era of the Almohads, who built the Giralda (a minaret turned into a bell tower) - the symbol of Seville and Andalusia. In the 16th century, the discovery of America again brought Seville to the crest of success and turned it into an important port and trading center. The face of the city is its monuments. There are three main “marks” on the face of Seville: the Cathedral, the Giralda and the Alcazar, not to mention the Guadalquivir. All buildings in Andalusia are of humane dimensions, with the exception of the Seville Cathedral. In size (116 meters long, 76 wide, dome - 56 meters) it is the third temple of the Christian world (after St. Peter in Rome and St. Paul in London), and among Gothic cathedrals - the first. Its 5 naves were built in the 15th century on the site of a mosque, and the golden cross was cast from the first gold brought from America.

» Ricky Columbus. The remains of the Discoverer, who traveled no less after death than during his life, also rest in the Cathedral. In 1507, his body was taken to Seville and buried in one of the churches of the gypsy region of Triada; in 1542, Columbus’s remains were transported to Haiti, in 1796 - to Havana, from where they returned to Seville in 1899. However, knowing the Spanish passion for relics - not only saints, but also canonized travelers - one can only hope that what was buried in the cathedral once belonged to Columbus. The great conquistador Pizarro, who decided to immortalize himself, acted wiser - he donated silver candlesticks exactly his own height to the Cathedral. Those wishing to get acquainted with other stories of the times of the conquest of America are welcome in the Archives of the Indies - more than 36 thousand folders with documents have been collected there since 1785.

You can relax after the pilgrimage to the cathedral in the Orange Courtyard - a reminder of the Muslim past - in the shade of orange trees among the fountains in which Arabs once performed ritual ablutions...

June 18, 1885 will forever remain in the memory of the people of Seville as the day when lightning “corrected” the Giralda. Lightning demolished the balconies on the south side of the tower, built by 16th-century architects. Thanks to the intervention of nature, the Giralda only became prettier - ancient arches and windows, previously blocked by a balustrade, opened. Since then, there has been an endless discussion among city authorities: should the remaining balconies be dismantled? We will obviously have to wait for a decision until the next lightning strike - in a century they only managed to install a lightning rod.

Sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf ordered the construction of the minaret of the mosque, which would later become the Giralda, but chose a place with sandy and watery soil. To prevent the tower from tilting, a strong foundation was needed, and stones from Visigothic basilicas and Roman temples were used. Even statues played the role of “stones”: the Arabs, opponents of images, destroyed them without regret. Giral-da grew up on the destroyed wealth of many centuries. When Seville was recaptured in 1248, the mosque was converted into a bell tower, and the Giralda received the nickname “Moorish with the Christian crest.”

But they decided to build on the “crest” - the bell tower - only after the earthquake of 1355, when three golden balls were demolished - the completion of the mosque. Nature once again claimed the title of chief architect. At the same time, a weather vane was installed - Giraldillo (from the verb “hi-rar” - to spin), to which the tower owes its name. This 4-meter-tall lady is an allegory of the Faith, although the Seville people consider her to be Saint Juana. The weather vane was sculpted in 1568 by the Cordovan architect Hernan Rune, and his model was... the classical Minerva. The circle is closed - for the sake of Hp-ralda, Roman statues were defeated, but her likeness is crowned with one of them.

The Alcazar is an Arab palace in the Mudejar style, built in the 14th century, now a museum, which served as the residence of Spanish kings for 7 centuries. Of these, as usual in history, the most famous was the most immoral - Pedro the Cruel, who killed his brother Fadrique and his guest - Abu Said, one of the Granadian rulers. There are still skulls above his bedroom door. But this gloomy flavor immediately disappears, one has only to look into the hall of ambassadors or into the courtyard of the Maidens - their delights are not inferior to the Alhambra itself.

“Monuments are beautiful, but Seville is even more beautiful,” says a folk song, and this line is shouted by coachmen urging tourists to take a carriage ride around the city. On this journey you can admire the Golden Tower and the largest bullfighting square in Spain, visit the gypsy district of Triala, and get to Plaza de España, a remnant of the 1929 World Exhibition, where the symbols and coats of arms of all Spanish provinces are laid out in mosaics. But there is a place in Seville where you need to go on foot - and best of all in the evening. This is the Santa Cruz area - the former Jewish quarter, where you will definitely get lost in the narrow streets, suddenly you will come out onto a miniature square with a fountain and a cross in the middle, hear music and wander into a bar. from which the strumming of a guitar can be heard. When the sun sets and only a few lanterns illuminate the road, everything is shrouded in a sense of mystery and the most incredible things seem possible. One day we wandered through the Seville labyrinth together with the tuna - a student ensemble in medieval robes and cloaks, decorated with ribbons with the names of conquered ladies - and met... two Santa Clauses (August, heat in the low forties). More precisely, they were Santa Clauses, since they spoke some kind of northern language (either Danish or Swedish), and one taught the other to dance flamenco and moved the hem of his red fur coat, like a dancer with her skirt. And on the next street we came across the sign “Bar Beria” - punks might not even think of such things, but still... I looked at the “native light” and discovered that the visitors of such an extravagant establishment were sitting... in hairdresser’s chairs and everything became clear: in Spanish, a hair salon is “Barberia,” and the young owner, having inherited the establishment from his grandfather, repurposed it, and simply expanded the letters in the name. He was ignorant of Russian history...

Cordoba: from marble forest to flower crosses

Cordova is an oltan, covered in a veil of secrecy, hidden within herself. Every stone of this city contains legends, and even if the plot is unknown, their presence is palpable. The new and the old in Cordoba are clearly separated by the Arab wall - it is this wall that organizes the city, not the Guadalquivir, the bridge over which is much more impressive than the river itself - in this Seville and Cordoba are antipodes.

It's hard to imagine the splendor that Cordoba once boasted. Already under Augustus, the "Patrician Colony" was the largest city in Spain. Abderrahman I proclaims Cordoba the “pearl” of the Caliphate and the capital of the state of Al Andalus. For 1 million of its inhabitants there were 3 thousand mosques and 300 baths - this is also a sign of civilization, and not just the University, opened in the 10th century. Even Baghdad had difficulty competing with Cordoba.

The Cordoba Mosque - the eighth wonder of the world - instantly transports us to the fairy-tale world of 1000 and 1st night. It was so great and beautiful that the inhabitants of the city were freed from the need to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. It was built on the site of the Visigothic basilica in just a year - in 785, but it took two centuries to complete the construction. No wonder: the “marble forest” (as the French romantic Théophile Gautier called the mosque) of 850 columns on average 4 meters with white and red arches on a field of 174 by 137 meters is not so easy to “grow”. It was even more difficult to predict its fate - to become the only visible fusion of irreconcilable religions in the world. After the Reconquista, a chapel was opened in the mosque, and in 1523 the architect Cabildo built... a Cathedral in the middle of the mosque. That’s right - he doesn’t rebuild the mosque, but builds a temple in its middle - a mixture of Gothic, Platerian and Baroque - styles have managed to change over the century of construction. The path to the Cathedral through the “marble forest” was decorated with bas-reliefs from sacred history, mounted directly into Muslim arches, anticipating the main principle of surrealism - the combination of incompatible things.

The old city exists according to the same principle. It is difficult to imagine, looking at the monotonous walls of the houses in the central quarter, what a riot of colors lurks in their courtyards - patios. The houses of Cordoba, like Arab women, hide their beauty from prying eyes, but, unlike them, they are always ready to show it off. If the door is slightly open, you can enter and see... 1500 pots of flowers, like in house 6 on Albucasis Street. This is the house that most often wins the May yard competition, which tests Cordoba's readiness for the tourist season. No less famous are houses 4, 14, 23 on Armas Street, 12 and 31 on Montero Street - in their courtyards (as in many others) not only thousands of flowers grow, but also flower crosses are erected especially for the holiday. Cordoba is true to itself - the multicolored Arabic mosaic, the sophistication of oriental patterns merge in the floral ornament on the Christian cross...

Granada: from the Alhambra to the Generalife Gardens...

Granada, like many great cities, lies on hills, although there are not seven of them, but three: Alhambra, Albaicin and Sacromonte. Hills and snowy mountains on the horizon give it a special charm, unknown to the flat Seville and Cordoba. Her sisters were already famous under the Romans; Granada flourished only during the Cordoba Caliphate, but the Arabs were the last to surrender it. As Christians conquered the lands of Al Andalus, refugees - the best minds and hands of the Arab world - accumulated in Granada. In 1609, after the expulsion of the Moors and Jews, the city lost its power for a long time.

The main creation of Granadian masters is the Alhambra Palace (“red hill”) - a symbol of Andalusia, an oriental fairy tale executed in stone. No one will appreciate its inexpressible beauty more accurately than the words of a blind beggar, knocked out at the gates of the Alhambra, where he once begged: “Give me, for God’s sake, because there is nothing worse than being blind in Granada...”

In terms of the number of guests, the Alhambra surpasses the Prado in the summer and welcomes them with truly oriental hospitality. The road through the gates of the Esplanade leads to three Moorish palaces. A hand and a key are carved on the gate - according to legend, the Alhambra will stand until a hand reaches the key. The hand is unlikely to succeed, but the Alhambra itself finds the key to everyone’s heart. Couples in love still, following an ancient belief, ring the bell on one of the palace towers - vows of love pronounced in the Alhambra under the ringing of bells are inviolable. But even the one who wanders alone through the cypress labyrinths, listens to the singing of water in the Heneralife gardens, bends over a fountain standing on 12 lions, walks along the pool along the Myrtle Court to the Ambassadorial Hall and freezes, stepping on the tiled slabs, peering into the carved cedar wood ceiling...feels in love.

Just as it is impossible to see all 5 thousand jewelry-carved cells of the dome of the Hall of the Two Sisters, so the wonders of Granada cannot be described in words. She inspired the best poets and the best musicians. One can argue, but the latter had more success. Every year from June 15 to July 15, the Generalife Gardens host the International Festival of Music and Dance. I don’t know if this festival has a motto, but the only possible one is: “Divine music in the Garden of Eden”...

The Alhambra aroused not only love, but also jealousy. Charles V, like other Spanish kings, often stayed in the Alhambra and recklessly decided to challenge the architects of antiquity to a duel. By his order, part of the palace was destroyed and the Palace of Charles V was erected in its place. This scar could not damage the Alhambra, but proved once and for all that rivalry was futile.

You can see the entire Alhambra in full view from the Albaicin hill. In this ancient area of ​​​​Granada, with narrow streets climbing the slope, the last Moorish houses (on calle del Agua) and wells with clear and icy water have been preserved. One of them is not far from the observation deck of St. Nicholas, from where we will take our last look at the Alhambra...

Kaleidoscope of Andalusia

When the story comes to an end, everything unsaid crowds into the memory and shouts: “What about me!?” The balconies of Giralda... And in Nerja (not far from Malaga), since the times of the Arabs, a tower has risen above the sea - the “balcony of Europe” - from where on clear days the coast of Africa is visible... And in the village of Berja (in the south of Atmeria) near the Molino mansion in Perrillo there are as many doors and windows decorated with wrought iron bars as there are days in the YEAR...

Seville's bullfighting square is the largest and most famous... and Ronda's is the oldest. The legendary Pedro Romero, the “father” of the tauromachy, fought there, and bandits from the mountains came to see him, risking their own lives, and the no less legendary Curro Guillen, wounded in the square, was buried right under the arena.

Gypsy caves of Sacromonte... And in the town of Guadix (41 km from Granada) in the Santiago quarter there are 1300 cave-apartments (pipes and television antennas sticking out of the ground), and in these caves, where the most ordinary families live, the temperature is 18 degrees all the time year - you can do without heating and without air conditioning. Lately, caves have been in vogue, and rich people are buying them up.

The museums of Seville and Granada are full of unique exhibits... and in Aroche (140 km from Huelva, almost on the border with Portugal), an ordinary city dweller, Pauli, founded the only rosary museum in the world. 1300 rosaries that belonged to popes, basketball players, politicians, artists... he collected for 30 years and ended up in the Guinness Book.

The cathedral in the Cordoba mosque, gypsy saetas at Holy Week processions, a mixture of cultures... And at the station in Valverde you can still read: “trains do not run on Sundays and on Queen Victoria’s birthday” - at the beginning of the century, the rights to export coal belonged to to the British, and the whole area lived according to English laws... And the town of Tabernas (30 km from Almeria) in the 60s was transformed into the Wild West: 8 towns, saloons, ranches, prisons... cowboy films were filmed there (including including several scenes from the famous “Lawrence of Arabia” and “Indiana Jones”), since the tanned local population perfectly replaced the Indians. Now Andalusian “Hollywood” has retrained as “Disneyland” and pleases tourists with concerts and shows.

Luxurious Seville carriages... And in Mijas (25 km from Malaga) the most popular type of transport is “donkey taxis”, on their foreheads they have a sign with a number - why is a donkey worse than a car... And in Jerez de la Frontera in the Recreo Palace de las Cardenas, where the Royal Equestrian School is located, every Thursday at 12 o'clock there is a parade of magnificent horses of Arabian and Berber blood, the preservation and improvement of which Carthusian monks have been engaged in since the 15th century.

Labyrinths of Arabian streets... And not far from Malaga there is the mountain labyrinth of Torcal - according to legend, this is a city petrified by the will of an angry God. For centuries, Moors, Napoleonic soldiers, and simply bandits hid there from the wrath of people. Now the labyrinth (30 kilometers) is open to tourists and in order to avoid the wrath of the lost, the routes are indicated by arrows: green - half an hour, yellow - one and a half, red - three...

The Andalusian town of Torrox has excellent wine, but it loses its taste if it is taken away from its homeland - and Andalusia, in the most detailed retellings, will never be as tart and intoxicating as in reality. The conclusion is clear and comments are unnecessary.

The architect who built the bridge over the Tagus River in Ronda wanted to immortalize the date of completion of the grandiose work, but fell into the abyss. You can still read on the stone arch: “In the year...”. At this point we will interrupt the story about Andalusia.

Photo: I. Gavrilova, K. Kokoshkina, A. Kameneva