Germanium metal. Germanium - medicinal properties

Germanium |32 | Ge| — Price

Germanium (Ge) is a dispersed rare metal, atomic number - 32, atomic mass - 72.6, density:
solid at 25°C - 5.323 g/cm3;
liquid at 100°C - 5.557 g/cm3;
Melting point - 958.5°C, coefficient of linear expansion α.106, at temperature, KO:
273-573— 6.1
573-923— 6.6
Hardness on the mineralogical scale is 6-6.5.
Electrical resistivity of single-crystalline high-purity germanium (at 298OK), Ohm.m-0.55-0.6..
Germanium was discovered in 1885 and initially obtained in the form of sulfide. This metal was predicted by D.I. Mendeleev in 1871, with a precise indication of its properties, and he named it ecosilicon. Germanium was named by scientists in honor of the country in which it was discovered.
Germanium is a silvery-white metal, similar in appearance to tin, brittle under normal conditions. Amenable to plastic deformation at temperatures above 550°C. Germanium has semiconducting properties. The electrical resistivity of germanium depends on its purity—impurities sharply reduce it. Germanium is optically transparent in the infrared region of the spectrum and has a high refractive index, which makes it possible to use it for the manufacture of various optical systems.
Germanium is stable in air at temperatures up to 700°C, at higher temperatures it oxidizes, and above the melting point it burns, forming germanium dioxide. Hydrogen does not interact with germanium, and at the melting temperature, the germanium melt absorbs oxygen. Germanium does not react with nitrogen. With chlorine, it forms germanium chloride at room temperature.
Germanium does not interact with carbon, is stable in water, reacts slowly with acids, and easily dissolves in aqua regia. Alkali solutions have little effect on germanium. Germanium is alloyed with all metals.
Despite the fact that germanium is more abundant in nature than lead, its production is limited due to its high dispersion in the earth's crust, and the cost of germanium is quite high. Germanium forms the minerals argyrodite and germanite, but they are little used for its production. Germanium is extracted as a by-product during the processing of sulfide polymetallic ores, some iron ores, which contain up to 0.001% germanium, from tar waters during coal coking.

RECEIPT.

The production of germanium from various raw materials is carried out by complex methods, in which the final product is germanium tetrachloride or germanium dioxide, from which germanium metal is obtained. It is purified and, further, germanium single crystals with specified electrical properties are grown using the zone melting method. Monocrystalline and polycrystalline germanium are produced in industry.
Intermediate products obtained by processing minerals contain a small amount of germanium and various methods of pyro- and hydrometallurgical processing are used to enrich them. Pyrometallurgical methods are based on the sublimation of volatile compounds containing germanium, while hydrometallurgical methods are based on the selective dissolution of germanium compounds.
To obtain germanium concentrates, pyrometallurgical enrichment products (sublimates, cinders) are treated with acids and germanium is transferred into solution, from which the concentrate is obtained by various methods (precipitation, coprecipitation and sorption, electrochemical methods). The concentrate contains from 2 to 20% germanium, from which pure germanium dioxide is isolated. Germanium dioxide is reduced with hydrogen, however, the resulting metal is not pure enough for semiconductor devices and therefore it is purified by crystallographic methods (directed crystallization-zonal purification-single crystal production). Directional crystallization is combined with the reduction of germanium dioxide with hydrogen. The molten metal is gradually pushed out of the hot zone into the refrigerator. The metal crystallizes gradually along the length of the ingot. Impurities collect in the final part of the ingot and are removed. The remaining ingot is cut into pieces, which are loaded into zone cleaning.
As a result of zone cleaning, an ingot is obtained in which the purity of the metal varies along its length. The ingot is also cut and its individual parts are removed from the process. Thus, when obtaining single-crystalline germanium from zone-purified germanium, the direct yield is no more than 25%.
To produce semiconductor devices, a single crystal of germanium is cut into wafers, from which miniature parts are cut out, which are then ground and polished. These parts are the final product for creating semiconductor devices.

APPLICATION.

• Due to its semiconductor properties, germanium is widely used in radio electronics for the manufacture of crystalline rectifiers (diodes) and crystalline amplifiers (triodes), for computer technology, telemechanics, radars, etc.

• Germanium triodes are used to amplify, generate and convert electrical oscillations.

• In radio engineering, germanium film resistors are used.

• Germanium is used in photodiodes and photoresistors, and for the manufacture of thermistors.

• In nuclear technology, germanium gamma radiation detectors are used, and in infrared technology devices, germanium lenses doped with gold are used.

• Germanium is added to alloys for highly sensitive thermocouples.

• Germanium is used as a catalyst in the production of man-made fibers.

• In medicine, some organic compounds of germanium are being studied, suggesting that they can be biologically active and help delay the development of malignant tumors, lower blood pressure, and relieve pain.

Germanium is a chemical element with atomic number 32 in the periodic table, symbolized by the symbol Ge (German). Germanium).

History of the discovery of germanium

The existence of the element eca-silicon, an analogue of silicon, was predicted by D.I. Mendeleev back in 1871. And in 1886, one of the professors of the Freiberg Mining Academy discovered a new silver mineral - argyrodite. This mineral was then handed over to Professor of Technical Chemistry Clemens Winkler for complete analysis.

This was not done by chance: 48-year-old Winkler was considered the best analyst at the academy.

Quite quickly, he found out that the mineral contained 74.72% silver, 17.13% sulfur, 0.31% mercury, 0.66% ferrous oxide, and 0.22% zinc oxide. And almost 7% of the weight of the new mineral was accounted for by some incomprehensible element, most likely still unknown. Winkler isolated the unidentified component argyrodpt, studied its properties and realized that he had indeed found a new element - escaplicium predicted by Mendeleev. This is the brief history of the element with atomic number 32.

However, it would be wrong to think that Winkler’s work went smoothly, without a hitch. Here is what Mendeleev writes about this in the additions to the eighth chapter of “Fundamentals of Chemistry”: “At first (February 1886) the lack of material, the lack of spectrum in the burner flame and the solubility of many germanium compounds made it difficult for Winkler’s research...” Pay attention to the “lack spectrum in flame." How so? After all, in 1886 the method of spectral analysis already existed; By this method, rubidium, cesium, thallium, and indium were already discovered on Earth, and helium on the Sun. Scientists knew for sure that each chemical element has a completely individual spectrum, and suddenly there is no spectrum!

The explanation came later. Germanium has characteristic spectral lines - with wavelengths of 2651.18, 3039.06 Ǻ and several more. But they all lie in the invisible ultraviolet part of the spectrum, and it can be considered fortunate that Winkler’s adherence to traditional methods of analysis - they led to success.

The method used by Winkler for isolating germanium is similar to one of the current industrial methods for obtaining element No. 32. First, germanium contained in argarodnite was converted into dioxide, and then this white powder was heated to 600...700°C in a hydrogen atmosphere. The reaction is obvious: GeO 2 + 2H 2 → Ge + 2H 2 O.

This is how relatively pure germanium was obtained for the first time. Winkler initially intended to name the new element neptunium, after the planet Neptune. (Like element 32, this planet was predicted before it was discovered.) But then it turned out that such a name had previously been assigned to one falsely discovered element, and, not wanting to compromise his discovery, Winkler abandoned his first intention. He also did not accept the proposal to name the new element angularium, i.e. “angular, controversial” (and this discovery really caused a lot of controversy). True, the French chemist Rayon, who put forward such an idea, said later that his proposal was nothing more than a joke. Winkler named the new element germanium after his country, and the name stuck.

It should be noted that during the geochemical evolution of the earth’s crust, a significant amount of germanium was washed out from most of the land surface into the oceans, so at present the amount of this trace element contained in the soil is extremely insignificant.

The total content of germanium in the earth's crust is 7 × 10 −4% by mass, that is, more than, for example, antimony, silver, bismuth. Due to its insignificant content in the earth's crust and geochemical affinity with some widespread elements, germanium exhibits a limited ability to form its own minerals, dissipating in the lattices of other minerals. Therefore, germanium's own minerals are extremely rare. Almost all of them are sulfosalts: germanite Cu 2 (Cu, Fe, Ge, Zn) 2 (S, As) 4 (6 - 10% Ge), argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6 (3.6 - 7% Ge), confieldite Ag 8 (Sn, Ge) S 6 (up to 2% Ge), etc. The bulk of germanium is scattered in the earth's crust in a large number of rocks and minerals. For example, in some sphalerites the germanium content reaches kilograms per ton, in enargites up to 5 kg/t, in pyrargyrite up to 10 kg/t, in sulvanite and frankeite 1 kg/t, in other sulfides and silicates - hundreds and tens of g/t. T. Germanium is concentrated in deposits of many metals - in sulfide ores of non-ferrous metals, in iron ores, in some oxide minerals (chromite, magnetite, rutile, etc.), in granites, diabases and basalts. In addition, germanium is present in almost all silicates, in some coal and oil deposits.

Germanium is obtained mainly from by-products of processing non-ferrous metal ores (zinc blende, zinc-copper-lead polymetallic concentrates) containing 0.001-0.1% Germanium. Ashes from coal combustion, dust from gas generators and waste from coke plants are also used as raw materials. Initially, germanium concentrate (2-10% Germany) is obtained from the listed sources in various ways, depending on the composition of the raw materials. Extracting germanium from concentrate usually involves the following steps:

1) chlorination of the concentrate with hydrochloric acid, a mixture of it with chlorine in an aqueous medium or other chlorinating agents to obtain technical GeCl 4 . To purify GeCl 4, rectification and extraction of impurities with concentrated HCl are used.

2) Hydrolysis of GeCl 4 and calcination of hydrolysis products to obtain GeO 2.

3) Reduction of GeO 2 with hydrogen or ammonia to metal. To isolate very pure germanium, used in semiconductor devices, zone melting of the metal is carried out. Single-crystalline Germanium, required for the semiconductor industry, is usually obtained by zone melting or the Czochralski method.

GeO 2 + 4H 2 = Ge + 2H 2 O

Germanium of semiconductor purity with an impurity content of 10 -3 -10 -4% is obtained by zone melting, crystallization or thermolysis of volatile monogermane GeH 4:

GeH 4 = Ge + 2H 2,

which is formed during the decomposition of active metal compounds with Ge - germanides by acids:

Mg 2 Ge + 4HCl = GeH 4 – + 2MgCl 2

Germanium is found as an impurity in polymetallic, nickel, and tungsten ores, as well as in silicates. As a result of complex and labor-intensive operations for ore enrichment and its concentration, germanium is isolated in the form of GeO 2 oxide, which is reduced with hydrogen at 600 °C to a simple substance:

GeO 2 + 2H 2 = Ge + 2H 2 O.

Germanium single crystals are purified and grown using the zone melting method.

Pure germanium dioxide was first obtained in the USSR in early 1941. Germanium glass with a very high refractive index of light was made from it. Research on element No. 32 and methods for its possible production resumed after the war, in 1947. Now, germanium was of interest to Soviet scientists precisely as a semiconductor.

In appearance, germanium can easily be confused with silicon.

Germanium crystallizes in a cubic diamond-type structure, the unit cell parameter a = 5.6575 Å.

This element is not as strong as titanium or tungsten. The density of solid germanium is 5.327 g/cm 3 (25°C); liquid 5.557 (1000°C); t pl 937.5°C; boiling point about 2700°C; thermal conductivity coefficient ~60 W/(m K), or 0.14 cal/(cm sec deg) at 25°C.

Germanium is almost as brittle as glass and can behave accordingly. Even at ordinary temperatures, but above 550°C, it is susceptible to plastic deformation. Hardness Germany on the mineralogical scale 6-6.5; compressibility coefficient (in the pressure range 0-120 H/m 2, or 0-12000 kgf/mm 2) 1.4·10 -7 m 2 /mn (1.4·10 -6 cm 2 /kgf); surface tension 0.6 n/m (600 dynes/cm). Germanium is a typical semiconductor with a band gap of 1.104·10 -19 J or 0.69 eV (25°C); electrical resistivity Germany high purity 0.60 ohm m (60 ohm cm) at 25°C; electron mobility 3900 and hole mobility 1900 cm 2 /v sec (25°C) (with an impurity content of less than 10 -8%).

All “unusual” modifications of crystalline germanium are superior to Ge-I in electrical conductivity. The mention of this particular property is not accidental: the value of electrical conductivity (or its inverse value - resistivity) is especially important for a semiconductor element.

In chemical compounds, germanium usually exhibits valency 4 or 2. Compounds with valency 4 are more stable. Under normal conditions, it is resistant to air and water, alkalis and acids, soluble in aqua regia and in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. Germanium alloys and glass based on germanium dioxide are used.

In chemical compounds, germanium usually exhibits valences of 2 and 4, with compounds of 4-valent germanium being more stable. At room temperature, Germanium is resistant to air, water, alkali solutions and dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, but easily dissolves in aqua regia and an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. It is slowly oxidized by nitric acid. When heated in air to 500-700°C, germanium is oxidized to the oxides GeO and GeO 2. Germany (IV) oxide - white powder with melting point 1116°C; solubility in water 4.3 g/l (20°C). According to its chemical properties, it is amphoteric, soluble in alkalis and with difficulty in mineral acids. It is obtained by calcination of the hydrate precipitate (GeO 3 ·nH 2 O) released during the hydrolysis of GeCl 4 tetrachloride. By fusing GeO 2 with other oxides, derivatives of germanic acid can be obtained - metal germanates (Li 2 GeO 3, Na 2 GeO 3 and others) - solid substances with high melting points.

When germanium reacts with halogens, the corresponding tetrahalides are formed. The reaction proceeds most easily with fluorine and chlorine (already at room temperature), then with bromine (low heating) and with iodine (at 700-800°C in the presence of CO). One of the most important compounds Germany tetrachloride GeCl 4 is a colorless liquid; t pl -49.5°C; boiling point 83.1°C; density 1.84 g/cm 3 (20°C). It is strongly hydrolyzed with water, releasing a precipitate of hydrated oxide (IV). It is obtained by chlorinating metallic germanium or reacting GeO 2 with concentrated HCl. Also known are Germanium dihalides of the general formula GeX 2 , GeCl monochloride, hexachlorodigermane Ge 2 Cl 6 and Germanium oxychlorides (for example, CeOCl 2 ).

Sulfur reacts vigorously with Germanium at 900-1000°C to form disulfide GeS 2 - a white solid, melting point 825°C. GeS monosulfide and similar compounds of Germany with selenium and tellurium, which are semiconductors, are also described. Hydrogen slightly reacts with Germanium at 1000-1100°C to form germine (GeH) X, an unstable and highly volatile compound. By reacting germanides with dilute hydrochloric acid, germanide hydrogens of the series Ge n H 2n+2 up to Ge 9 H 20 can be obtained. Germylene of the composition GeH 2 is also known. Germanium does not react directly with nitrogen, however, there is a nitride Ge 3 N 4, obtained by the action of ammonia on Germanium at 700-800°C. Germanium does not interact with carbon. Germanium forms compounds with many metals - germanides.

Numerous complex compounds of Germanium are known, which are becoming increasingly important both in the analytical chemistry of Germanium and in the processes of its preparation. Germanium forms complex compounds with organic hydroxyl-containing molecules (polyhydric alcohols, polybasic acids and others). Germany heteropolyacids were obtained. Just like other elements of group IV, germanium is characterized by the formation of organometallic compounds, an example of which is tetraethylgermane (C 2 H 5) 4 Ge 3.

Germanium (II) hydride GeH 2. White unstable powder (in air or oxygen it decomposes explosively). Reacts with alkalis and bromine.

Germanium(II) monohydride polymer (polygermine) (GeH2)n. Brownish-black powder. It is poorly soluble in water, decomposes instantly in air and explodes when heated to 160 o C in a vacuum or in an atmosphere of inert gas. It is formed during the electrolysis of sodium germanide NaGe.

Germanium(II) oxide GeO. Black crystals with basic properties. Decomposes at 500°C into GeO 2 and Ge. Slowly oxidizes in water. Slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid. Shows restorative properties. It is obtained by the action of CO 2 on germanium metal heated to 700-900 o C, by alkalis on germanium (II) chloride, by calcination of Ge(OH) 2 or by the reduction of GeO 2 .

Germanium (II) hydroxide Ge(OH) 2 . Red-orange crystals. When heated, it turns into GeO. Shows amphoteric character. It is obtained by treating germanium (II) salts with alkalis and hydrolysis of germanium (II) salts.

Germanium (II) fluoride GeF 2 . Colorless hygroscopic crystals, melting point =111°C. It is obtained by the action of GeF 4 vapor on germanium metal when heated.

Germanium(II) chloride GeCl2. Colorless crystals. t pl =76.4°C, t boil =450°C. At 460°C it decomposes into GeCl 4 and metallic germanium. Hydrolyzes with water, slightly soluble in alcohol. It is obtained by the action of GeCl 4 vapor on germanium metal when heated.

Germanium (II) bromide GeBr 2 . Transparent needle-shaped crystals. t pl =122°C. Hydrolyzes with water. Slightly soluble in benzene. Dissolves in alcohol, acetone. It is obtained by reacting germanium (II) hydroxide with hydrobromic acid. When heated, it disproportions into metallic germanium and germanium(IV) bromide.

Germanium (II) iodide GeI 2. Yellow hexagonal plates, diamagnetic. t pl =460 o C. Slightly soluble in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. When heated above 210°C, it decomposes into metallic germanium and germanium tetraiodide. Obtained by reduction of germanium (II) iodide with hypophosphoric acid or thermal decomposition of germanium tetraiodide.

Germanium (II) sulfide GeS. Obtained dry - grayish-black shiny rhombic opaque crystals. t pl =615°C, density is 4.01 g/cm 3. Slightly soluble in water and ammonia. Dissolves in potassium hydroxide. Obtained by wet method is a red-brown amorphous sediment, the density is 3.31 g/cm 3. Dissolves in mineral acids and ammonium polysulfide. It is obtained by heating germanium with sulfur or passing hydrogen sulfide through a solution of germanium (II) salt.

Germanium(IV) hydride GeH4. Colorless gas (density 3.43 g/cm 3 ). It is poisonous, smells very unpleasant, boils at -88 o C, melts at about -166 o C, and dissociates thermally above 280 o C. By passing GeH 4 through a heated tube, a shiny mirror of metallic germanium is obtained on its walls. It is obtained by the action of LiAlH 4 on germanium (IV) chloride in ether or by treating a solution of germanium (IV) chloride with zinc and sulfuric acid.

Germanium (IV) oxide GeO 2 . It exists in the form of two crystalline modifications (hexagonal with a density of 4.703 g/cm 3 and tetrahedral with a density of 6.24 g/cm 3 ). Both are air stable. Slightly soluble in water. t pl =1116 o C, t boil =1200 o C. Shows amphoteric character. It is reduced by aluminum, magnesium, and carbon to metallic germanium when heated. It is obtained by synthesis from elements, calcination of germanium salts with volatile acids, oxidation of sulfides, hydrolysis of germanium tetrahalides, treatment of alkali metal germanites with acids, and metallic germanium with concentrated sulfuric or nitric acids.

Germanium(IV) fluoride GeF4. A colorless gas that fumes in air. t pl =-15 o C, t boil =-37°C. Hydrolyzes with water. Obtained by the decomposition of barium tetrafluorogermanate.

Germanium (IV) chloride GeCl 4 . Colorless liquid. t pl = -50 o C, t boil = 86 o C, density is 1.874 g/cm 3. Hydrolyzes with water, dissolves in alcohol, ether, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride. It is prepared by heating germanium with chlorine and passing hydrogen chloride through a suspension of germanium(IV) oxide.

Germanium (IV) bromide GeBr 4 . Octahedral colorless crystals. t pl =26 o C, t boil =187 o C, density is 3.13 g/cm 3. Hydrolyzes with water. Dissolves in benzene, carbon disulfide. It is obtained by passing bromine vapor over heated germanium metal or by the action of hydrobromic acid on germanium(IV) oxide.

Germanium (IV) iodide GeI 4. Yellow-orange octahedral crystals, t pl =146 o C, t bp =377 o C, density 4.32 g/cm 3 . At 445 o C it decomposes. It dissolves in benzene, carbon disulfide, and is hydrolyzed by water. In air it gradually decomposes into germanium (II) iodide and iodine. Adds ammonia. It is obtained by passing iodine vapor over heated germanium or by the action of hydroiodic acid on germanium (IV) oxide.

Germanium (IV) sulfide GeS 2. White crystalline powder, t pl =800 o C, density is 3.03 g/cm 3. It is slightly soluble in water and hydrolyzes slowly in it. Dissolves in ammonia, ammonium sulfide and alkali metal sulfides. It is obtained by heating germanium (IV) oxide in a stream of sulfur dioxide with sulfur or passing hydrogen sulfide through a solution of germanium (IV) salt.

Germanium (IV) sulfate Ge(SO 4) 2. Colorless crystals, density 3.92 g/cm 3 . Decomposes at 200 o C. Reduced by coal or sulfur to sulfide. Reacts with water and alkali solutions. Prepared by heating germanium (IV) chloride with sulfur (VI) oxide.

Five isotopes are found in nature: 70 Ge (20.55% wt), 72 Ge (27.37%), 73 Ge (7.67%), 74 Ge (36.74%), 76 Ge (7.67% ). The first four are stable, the fifth (76 Ge) undergoes double beta decay with a half-life of 1.58×10 21 years. In addition, there are two “long-lived” artificial ones: 68 Ge (half-life 270.8 days) and 71 Ge (half-life 11.26 days).

Application of germanium

Germanium is used in the production of optics. Due to its transparency in the infrared region of the spectrum, ultra-high purity metal germanium is of strategic importance in the production of optical elements for infrared optics. In radio engineering, germanium transistors and detector diodes have characteristics different from silicon ones, due to the lower turn-on voltage of the pn junction in germanium - 0.4V versus 0.6V for silicon devices.

For more details, see the article on the use of germanium.

Germanium is found in animal and plant organisms. Small amounts of germanium have no physiological effect on plants, but are toxic in large quantities. Germanium is non-toxic to molds.

Germanium has low toxicity for animals. Germanium compounds have no pharmacological effects. The permissible concentration of germanium and its oxide in the air is 2 mg/m³, that is, the same as for asbestos dust.

Compounds of divalent germanium are much more toxic.

In experiments determining the distribution of organic germanium in the body 1.5 hours after its oral administration, the following results were obtained: large amounts of organic germanium are contained in the stomach, small intestine, bone marrow, spleen and blood. Moreover, its high content in the stomach and intestines shows that the process of its absorption into the blood has a prolonged effect.

The high content of organic germanium in the blood allowed Dr. Asai to put forward the following theory of the mechanism of its action in the human body. It is assumed that in the blood organic germanium behaves similarly to hemoglobin, which also carries a negative charge and, like hemoglobin, is involved in the process of oxygen transfer in the tissues of the body. This prevents the development of oxygen deficiency (hypoxia) at the tissue level. Organic germanium prevents the development of so-called blood hypoxia, which occurs when the amount of hemoglobin capable of attaching oxygen decreases (a decrease in the oxygen capacity of the blood), and develops due to blood loss, carbon monoxide poisoning, and radiation exposure. The central nervous system, heart muscle, kidney tissue, and liver are most sensitive to oxygen deficiency.

As a result of experiments, it was also found that organic germanium promotes the induction of gamma interferons, which suppress the processes of reproduction of rapidly dividing cells and activate specific cells (T-killers). The main directions of action of interferons at the body level are antiviral and antitumor protection, immunomodulatory and radioprotective functions of the lymphatic system

In the process of studying pathological tissues and tissues with primary signs of diseases, it was found that they are always characterized by a lack of oxygen and the presence of positively charged hydrogen radicals H +. H+ ions have an extremely negative effect on the cells of the human body, even to the point of their death. Oxygen ions, having the ability to combine with hydrogen ions, make it possible to selectively and locally compensate for the damage to cells and tissues caused by hydrogen ions. The effect of germanium on hydrogen ions is due to its organic form - the sesquioxide form. In preparing the article, materials from A. N. Suponenko were used.

Please note that we receive germanium in any quantity and form, incl. in the form of scrap. You can sell germanium by calling the phone number in Moscow indicated above.

Germanium is a brittle, silvery-white semimetal discovered in 1886. This mineral is not found in its pure form. It is found in silicates, iron and sulfide ores. Some of its compounds are toxic. Germanium is widely used in the electrical industry, where its semiconductor properties are useful. It is indispensable in the production of infrared and fiber optics.

What properties does germanium have?

This mineral has a melting point of 938.25 degrees Celsius. Scientists still cannot explain the indicators of its heat capacity, which makes it indispensable in many fields. Germanium has the ability to increase its density when melted. It has excellent electrophysical properties, which makes it an excellent indirect gap semiconductor.

If we talk about the chemical properties of this semimetal, it should be noted that it is resistant to acids and alkalis, water and air. Germanium dissolves in a solution of hydrogen peroxide and aqua regia.

Germany mining

A limited amount of this semi-metal is currently mined. Its deposits are significantly smaller compared to deposits of bismuth, antimony, and silver.

Due to the fact that the proportion of this mineral in the earth’s crust is quite small, it forms its own minerals due to the introduction of other metals into the crystal lattices. The highest germanium content is observed in sphalerites, pyrargyrite, sulfanite, and in non-ferrous and iron ores. It is found, but much less frequently, in oil and coal deposits.

Uses of germanium

Despite the fact that germanium was discovered quite a long time ago, it began to be used in industry approximately 80 years ago. The semimetal was first used in military production for the manufacture of certain electronic devices. In this case, it found application as diodes. Now the situation has changed somewhat.

The most popular areas of application of germanium include:

• production of optics. Semi-metal has become indispensable in the manufacture of optical elements, which include optical sensor windows, prisms, and lenses. The transparency properties of germanium in the infrared region came in handy here. Semi-metal is used in the production of optics for thermal imaging cameras, fire systems, and night vision devices;
• production of radio electronics. In this area, the semimetal was used in the manufacture of diodes and transistors. However, in the 70s, germanium devices were replaced with silicon ones, since silicon made it possible to significantly improve the technical and operational characteristics of manufactured products. The indicators of resistance to temperature influences have increased. In addition, germanium devices made a lot of noise during operation.

Current situation with germanium

Currently, the semimetal is used in the production of microwave devices. Germanium telleride has proven itself well as a thermoelectric material. Germanium prices are quite high now. One kilogram of germanium metal costs $1,200.

Buying Germany

Silver-gray germanium is rare. The brittle semimetal has semiconductor properties and is widely used to create modern electrical appliances. It is also used to create high-precision optical instruments and radio equipment. Germanium is of great value both in the form of pure metal and in the form of dioxide.

The Goldform company specializes in the purchase of germanium, various scrap metal, and radio components. We offer assistance with material assessment and transportation. You can send germanium by mail and receive your money in full.

This information is intended for healthcare and pharmaceutical professionals. Patients should not use this information as medical advice or recommendations.

Organic germanium and its use in medicine. Organic germanium. History of discovery.

Suponenko A. N.
K. x. Sc., General Director of Germatsentr LLC

The chemist Winkler, having discovered the new element germanium in silver ore in 1886, had no idea how much attention this element would attract from medical scientists in the 20th century.

Germany was the first to be used most widely for medical purposes in Japan. Tests of various organogermanium compounds in animal experiments and in clinical trials on humans have shown that they have a positive effect on the human body to varying degrees. The breakthrough came in 1967, when Dr. K. Asai discovered that organic germanium, the synthesis method of which had previously been developed in our country, has a wide range of biological effects.

Among the biological properties of organic germanium, one can note its abilities:

ensure the transfer of oxygen in body tissues;

increase the immune status of the body;

exhibit antitumor activity

Thus, Japanese scientists created the first drug containing organic germanium, “Germanium-132,” which is used to correct the immune status in various human diseases.

In Russia, the biological effects of germanium have been studied for a long time, but the creation of the first Russian drug “Germavit” became possible only in 2000, when Russian businessmen began to invest in the development of science and, in particular, medicine, realizing that the health of the nation requires the closest attention, and its strengthening is the most important social task of our time.

Where is germanium found?

It should be noted that during the geochemical evolution of the earth’s crust, a significant amount of germanium was washed out from most of the land surface into the oceans, so at present the amount of this trace element contained in the soil is extremely insignificant.

Among the few plants capable of absorbing germanium and its compounds from the soil, the leader is ginseng (up to 0.2%), widely used in Tibetan medicine. Germanium also contains garlic, camphor and aloe, traditionally used for the prevention and treatment of various human diseases. In plant materials, organic germanium is in the form of carboxyethyl semioxide. Currently, organic compounds of germanium – sesquioxanes with a pyrimidine fragment – ​​have been synthesized. This compound is close in structure to the natural germanium compound contained in the biomass of ginseng root.

Germanium is a rare trace element and is present in many foods, but in microscopic doses.

An assessment of the amount of germanium ingested from food, carried out by analyzing 125 types of food products, showed that 1.5 mg of germanium is consumed daily in food. 1 g of raw foods usually contains 0.1 - 1.0 mcg. This trace element is found in tomato juice, beans, milk, and salmon. However, to meet the body’s daily requirement for germanium, it is necessary to drink, for example, up to 10 liters of tomato juice per day or eat up to 5 kg of salmon, which is unrealistic given the physical capabilities of the human body. In addition, the prices for these products make regular consumption impossible for the majority of the population of our country.

The territory of our country is too vast and on 95% of its territory the deficiency of germanium is from 80 to 90% of the required norm, so the question arose about creating a germanium-containing drug.

Distribution of organic germanium in the body and the mechanisms of its effect on the human body.

In experiments determining the distribution of organic germanium in the body 1.5 hours after its oral administration, the following results were obtained: large amounts of organic germanium are contained in the stomach, small intestine, bone marrow, spleen and blood. Moreover, its high content in the stomach and intestines shows that the process of its absorption into the blood has a prolonged effect.

The high content of organic germanium in the blood allowed Dr. Asai to put forward the following theory of the mechanism of its action in the human body. It is assumed that in the blood organic germanium behaves similarly to hemoglobin, which also carries a negative charge and, like hemoglobin, is involved in the process of oxygen transfer in the tissues of the body. This prevents the development of oxygen deficiency (hypoxia) at the tissue level. Organic germanium prevents the development of so-called blood hypoxia, which occurs when the amount of hemoglobin capable of attaching oxygen decreases (a decrease in the oxygen capacity of the blood), and develops due to blood loss, carbon monoxide poisoning, and radiation exposure. The central nervous system, heart muscle, kidney tissue, and liver are most sensitive to oxygen deficiency.

As a result of experiments, it was also found that organic germanium promotes the induction of gamma interferons, which suppress the processes of reproduction of rapidly dividing cells and activate specific cells (T-killers). The main directions of action of interferons at the body level are antiviral and antitumor protection, immunomodulatory and radioprotective functions of the lymphatic system

In the process of studying pathological tissues and tissues with primary signs of diseases, it was found that they are always characterized by a lack of oxygen and the presence of positively charged hydrogen radicals H +. H+ ions have an extremely negative effect on the cells of the human body, even to the point of their death. Oxygen ions, having the ability to combine with hydrogen ions, make it possible to selectively and locally compensate for the damage to cells and tissues caused by hydrogen ions. The effect of germanium on hydrogen ions is due to its organic form - the sesquioxide form.

Unbound hydrogen is very active, so it easily interacts with the oxygen atoms found in germanium sesquioxides. The normal functioning of all body systems must be guaranteed by the unhindered transport of oxygen in the tissues. Organic germanium has a pronounced ability to deliver oxygen to any point in the body and ensure its interaction with hydrogen ions. Thus, the action of organic germanium when it interacts with H + ions is based on the dehydration reaction (the abstraction of hydrogen from organic compounds), and the oxygen taking part in this reaction can be compared to a “vacuum cleaner” that cleanses the body of positively charged hydrogen ions, organic germanium - with a kind of “internal Chizhevsky chandelier”.

Germanium

GERMANIUM-I; m. Chemical element (Ge), a grayish-white solid with a metallic luster (it is the main semiconductor material). Germanium plate.

◁ Germanium, oh, oh. G-th raw materials. G. ingot.

(Latin Germanium), chemical element of group IV of the periodic table. The name is from the Latin Germania - Germany, in honor of the homeland of K. A. Winkler. Silver-gray crystals; density 5.33 g/cm 3, t pl 938.3ºC. Disseminated in nature (own minerals are rare); extracted from non-ferrous metal ores. Semiconductor material for electronic devices (diodes, transistors, etc.), component of alloys, material for lenses in IR devices, ionizing radiation detectors.

GERMANIUM (lat. Germanium), Ge (read “hertempmanium”), chemical element with atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.61. Natural germanium consists of five isotopes with mass numbers 70 (content in the natural mixture 20.51% by weight), 72 (27.43%), 73 (7.76%), 74 (36.54%), and 76 ( 7.76%). Outer electron layer 4 configuration s 2 p 2 . Oxidation states +4, +2 (valency IV, II). Located in group IVA, in period 4 of the periodic table of elements.
History of discovery
Was discovered by K. A. Winkler (cm. WINKLER Clemens Alexander)(and named after his homeland - Germany) in 1886 during the analysis of the mineral argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6 after the existence of this element and some of its properties were predicted by D. I. Mendeleev (cm. MENDELEEV Dmitry Ivanovich).
Being in nature
The content in the earth's crust is 1.5·10 -4% by weight. Refers to scattered elements. It is not found in nature in free form. Contained as an impurity in silicates, sedimentary iron, polymetallic, nickel and tungsten ores, coals, peat, oils, thermal waters and algae. The most important minerals: germanite Cu 3 (Ge,Fe,Ga)(S,As) 4, stottite FeGe(OH) 6, plumbogermanite (Pb,Ge,Ga) 2 SO 4 (OH) 2 2H 2 O, argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6, rhenierite Cu 3 (Fe,Ge,Zn)(S,As) 4.
Obtaining germanium
To obtain germanium, by-products of processing non-ferrous metal ores, ash from coal combustion, and some coke chemical products are used. Raw materials containing Ge are enriched by flotation. Then the concentrate is converted into GeO 2 oxide, which is reduced with hydrogen (cm. HYDROGEN):
GeO 2 + 4H 2 = Ge + 2H 2 O
Germanium of semiconductor purity with an impurity content of 10 -3 -10 -4% is obtained by zone melting (cm. ZONE MELTING), crystallization (cm. CRYSTALLIZATION) or thermolysis of volatile monogermane GeH 4:
GeH 4 = Ge + 2H 2,
which is formed during the decomposition of active metal compounds with Ge - germanides by acids:
Mg 2 Ge + 4HCl = GeH 4 – + 2MgCl 2
Physical and chemical properties
Germanium is a silvery substance with a metallic luster. Crystal lattice of stable modification (Ge I), cubic, face-centered, diamond type, A= 0.533 nm (three other modifications were obtained at high pressures). Melting point 938.25 °C, boiling point 2850 °C, density 5.33 kg/dm3. It has semiconductor properties, the band gap is 0.66 eV (at 300 K). Germanium is transparent to infrared radiation with a wavelength greater than 2 microns.
The chemical properties of Ge are similar to silicon. (cm. SILICON). Under normal conditions, resistant to oxygen (cm. OXYGEN), water vapor, dilute acids. In the presence of strong complexing agents or oxidizing agents, Ge reacts with acids when heated:
Ge + H 2 SO 4 conc = Ge(SO 4) 2 + 2SO 2 + 4H 2 O,
Ge + 6HF = H 2 + 2H 2,
Ge + 4HNO 3 conc. = H 2 GeO 3 + 4NO 2 + 2H 2 O
Ge reacts with aqua regia (cm. AQUA REGIA):
Ge + 4HNO 3 + 12HCl = GeCl 4 + 4NO + 8H 2 O.
Ge interacts with alkali solutions in the presence of oxidizing agents:
Ge + 2NaOH + 2H 2 O 2 = Na 2.
When heated in air to 700 °C, Ge ignites. Ge easily interacts with halogens (cm. HALOGEN) and gray (cm. SULFUR):
Ge + 2I 2 = GeI 4
With hydrogen (cm. HYDROGEN), nitrogen (cm. NITROGEN), carbon (cm. CARBON) germanium does not react directly; compounds with these elements are obtained indirectly. For example, nitride Ge 3 N 4 is formed by dissolving germanium diiodide GeI 2 in liquid ammonia:
GeI 2 + NH 3 liquid -> n -> Ge 3 N 4
Germanium (IV) oxide, GeO 2, is a white crystalline substance that exists in two modifications. One of the modifications is partially soluble in water with the formation of complex germanic acids. Exhibits amphoteric properties.
GeO 2 reacts with alkalis as an acid oxide:
GeO 2 + 2NaOH = Na 2 GeO 3 + H 2 O
GeO 2 interacts with acids:
GeO 2 + 4HCl = GeCl 4 + 2H 2 O
Ge tetrahalides are nonpolar compounds that are easily hydrolyzed by water.
3GeF 4 + 2H 2 O = GeO 2 + 2H 2 GeF 6
Tetrahalides are obtained by direct reaction:
Ge + 2Cl 2 = GeCl 4
or thermal decomposition:
BaGeF 6 = GeF 4 + BaF 2
Germanium hydrides are similar in chemical properties to silicon hydrides, but monogermane GeH 4 is more stable than monosilane SiH 4 . Germanes form homologous series Gen H 2n+2, Gen H 2n and others, but these series are shorter than those of silanes.
Monogerman GeH 4 is a gas that is stable in air and does not react with water. During long-term storage, it decomposes into H 2 and Ge. Monogermane is obtained by reducing germanium dioxide GeO 2 with sodium borohydride NaBH 4:
GeO 2 + NaBH 4 = GeH 4 + NaBO 2.
A very unstable GeO monoxide is formed by moderate heating of a mixture of germanium and GeO 2 dioxide:
Ge + GeO 2 = 2GeO.
Ge(II) compounds are easily disproportionate to release Ge:
2GeCl 2 -> Ge + GeCl 4
Germanium disulfide GeS 2 is a white amorphous or crystalline substance, obtained by precipitation of H 2 S from acidic solutions of GeCl 4:
GeCl 4 + 2H 2 S = GeS 2 Ї + 4HCl
GeS 2 dissolves in alkalis and ammonium or alkali metal sulfides:
GeS 2 + 6NaOH = Na 2 + 2Na 2 S,
GeS 2 + (NH 4) 2 S = (NH 4) 2 GeS 3
Ge can be part of organic compounds. Known are (CH 3) 4 Ge, (C 6 H 5) 4 Ge, (CH 3) 3 GeBr, (C 2 H 5) 3 GeOH and others.
Application
Germanium is a semiconductor material used in technology and radio electronics in the production of transistors and microcircuits. Thin films of Ge deposited on glass are used as resistors in radar installations. Alloys of Ge with metals are used in sensors and detectors. Germanium dioxide is used in the production of glasses that transmit infrared radiation.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what “germanium” is in other dictionaries:

A chemical element discovered in 1886 in the rare mineral argyrodite, found in Saxony. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. germanium (named in honor of the homeland of the scientist who discovered the element) chemical. element... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (Germanium), Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic table, atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.59; non-metal; semiconductor material. Germanium was discovered by the German chemist K. Winkler in 1886... Modern encyclopedia

germanium- Ge Element of group IV Periodic. systems; at. n. 32, at. m. 72.59; TV item with metallic shine. Natural Ge is a mixture of five stable isotopes with mass numbers 70, 72, 73, 74 and 76. The existence and properties of Ge were predicted in 1871 by D.I.... ... Technical Translator's Guide

Germanium- (Germanium), Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic table, atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.59; non-metal; semiconductor material. Germanium was discovered by the German chemist K. Winkler in 1886. ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Latin Germanium) Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic system, atomic number 32, atomic mass 72.59. Named from the Latin Germania Germany, in honor of the homeland of K. A. Winkler. Silvery gray crystals; density 5.33 g/cm³, melting point 938.3 ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (symbol Ge), a white-gray metallic element of group IV of MENDELEEV’s periodic table, in which the properties of yet undiscovered elements, in particular germanium, were predicted (1871). The element was discovered in 1886. A by-product of zinc smelting... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

Ge (from Latin Germania Germany * a. germanium; n. Germanium; f. germanium; i. germanio), chemical. element of group IV periodic. Mendeleev's system, at.sci. 32, at. m. 72.59. Natural gas consists of 4 stable isotopes 70Ge (20.55%), 72Ge... ... Geological encyclopedia

- (Ge), synthetic single crystal, PP, point symmetry group m3m, density 5.327 g/cm3, Tmelt=936 °C, solid. on the Mohs scale 6, at. m. 72.60. Transparent in the IR region l from 1.5 to 20 microns; optically anisotropic, for l=1.80 µm coefficient. refraction n=4,143.… … Physical encyclopedia

Noun, number of synonyms: 3 semiconductor (7) eca-silicon (1) element (159) ... Synonym dictionary

GERMANIUM- chem. element, symbol Ge (lat. Germanium), at. n. 32, at. m. 72.59; brittle silver-gray crystalline substance, density 5327 kg/m3, bil = 937.5°C. Scattered in nature; it is mined mainly by processing zinc blende and... ... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia