The cheat sheet contains, in a brief and convenient form, answers to all the basic questions provided for by the state educational standard and curriculum for the discipline "National History".

The book will allow you to quickly gain basic knowledge of the subject, repeat the material you have covered, as well as prepare well and successfully pass tests and exams.

NATIONAL HISTORY
Crib

1. HISTORY OF THE FATHERLAND AS A SCIENCE. SUBJECT, FUNCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF STUDY

Subject of study Domestic history is the patterns of political and socio-economic development of the Russian state and society as part of the world process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and government structures.

The following stand out: functions of historical knowledge:

1) cognitive, intellectual and developmental– comes from knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge, identification of the main trends in the social development of history and, as a result, a theoretical generalization of historical facts;

3) ideological– when studying history, largely determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This happens because history, based on various sources, provides documented accurate data about the events of the past. People turn to the past in order to better understand modern life and the trends inherent in it. Thus, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of historical perspective.

4) educational– is that knowledge of history actively shapes the civic qualities of an individual and allows one to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the modern social system.

Principles of scientific research of history:

1. Principle of objectivity obliges us to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. It is necessary, first of all, to study the objective laws that determine the processes of socio-political development. To do this, one must rely on the facts in their true content, and also consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency.

2. The principle of historicism states that any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when and why this phenomenon arose, what it was like at the beginning, how it then developed, what path it took, what assessments were given to it at one or another stage of development, what can be said about his prospects. The principle of historicism requires that any student of history should not become a judge in assessing historical and political events.

3. Under the principle of a social approach understand the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social-class relations. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to history is especially necessary and significant in assessing the programs and actual activities of political parties and movements, as well as their leaders and functionaries.

4. The principle of comprehensive study of history implies the need not only for completeness and reliability of information, but also for taking into account all aspects and relationships affecting the political sphere of society.

2. METHODS AND SOURCES FOR STUDYING THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA Methods for studying history:

1) chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. Used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies;

3) problem-chronological– is used when studying any one aspect of the activity of a state, society, or politician in its consistent development. This approach allows us to more fully trace the logic of the development of the problem, as well as most effectively extract practical experience;

4) periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in study and research;

5) comparative-historical– is based on the recognition of the known repeatability of historical events in world history. Its essence lies in comparing them to establish both general patterns and differences;

6) retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied;

7) statistical– consists of studying important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while together they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;

8) sociological research used in the study of modernity. It makes it possible to study phenomena mainly in political history. Among the techniques of this method are questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.

Sources for studying Russian history very significant and complex. There appear to be no exact boundaries for the range of sources due to the integrity and indivisibility of the historical process and the interconnectedness of people’s activities at various stages of historical and political development. Approximate classification of sources: 1) archaeological sources; 2) chronicles and chronicle codes; 3) ethnographic sources; 4) archival documents 5) documents of state bodies and public organizations of the Russian state; 6) documents of political parties and movements of Russia 7) works of state and public figures of Russia; 8) periodicals; 9) memoirs; 10) museum documents; 11) photo, sound and film documents; 12) electronic media.

3. THE PROBLEM OF ETHNOGENESIS OF THE EASTERN SLAVS

Ethnogenesis– the entire process of existence and development of an ethnic system from the moment of its emergence to its disappearance.

A significant number of archaeological sites of the Stone Age have been discovered on the territory of Russia. According to scientists, the Slavs could belong to the Indo-European peoples, the formation of a linguistic community of which took place on the Iranian plateau and Western Asia in the 6th–5th millennium BC. e. In addition, it is believed that the Slavs as a species formed in Eastern Europe in the 4th–2nd millennium BC. e. They inhabited the forest areas between the Oder and the middle Dnieper, from the Baltic Sea to the Dniester. The main branches of their economy were agriculture and cattle breeding. The most famous monument of the Slavic proto-civilization is the Trypillian archaeological culture, covering the space from South-Eastern Transylvania to the Dnieper.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The spread of iron began among the Slavs. The gradual decomposition of the tribal system dates back to this period. It was then that the everyday, religious and cultural characteristics of the Slavic tribes clearly stood out in comparison with other Indo-European peoples, which allows us to conclude that in the 1st millennium BC. e. Slavic proto-civilization. Around this time, the single Slavic community was divided into three branches: eastern (the future Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian peoples), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.) and southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).

In the II century. n. e. German Gothic tribes came to the northern Black Sea region from the lower reaches of the Vistula. Under their leadership, a military-tribal union was formed here, which included part of the Slavic tribes. From the end of the 4th century. the tribes of Eastern Europe were involved in large migration processes - the so-called Great Migration. The Turkic nomads - the Huns - who invaded from Asia defeated the Goths, and the latter went to Central and Western Europe. During the 5th–8th centuries. The Slavs settled vast areas in Eastern, Central and South-Eastern Europe. By this period, the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs was determined by the following boundaries: in the north - the Volkhov River, in the south - the Dniester River, in the west - the Western Bug River, in the east - the Volga River. It was at this time that a distinctive East Slavic civilization emerged, characterized by a common economic structure, socio-political structure in the form of military democracy, common characteristics of behavior, rituals, etc.

(Document)

n2.rtf

Domestic history: Cheat sheet
Cheat sheets from RIOR –

NATIONAL HISTORY

Crib
1. HISTORY OF THE FATHERLAND AS A SCIENCE. SUBJECT, FUNCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF STUDY
Subject of study Domestic history is the patterns of political and socio-economic development of the Russian state and society as part of the world process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and government structures.

The following stand out: functions of historical knowledge:

1) cognitive, intellectually developing– comes from knowledge of the historical process as a social branch of scientific knowledge, identification of the main trends in the social development of history and, as a result, a theoretical generalization of historical facts;

2) practically political– identifying the patterns of social development, helps to develop a scientifically based political course. At the same time, knowledge of history contributes to the formation of an optimal policy for guiding the masses;

3) ideological– when studying history, largely determines the formation of a scientific worldview. This happens because history, based on various sources, provides documented accurate data about the events of the past. People turn to the past in order to better understand modern life and the trends inherent in it. Thus, knowledge of history equips people with an understanding of historical perspective.

4) educational– is that knowledge of history actively shapes the civic qualities of an individual and allows one to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the modern social system.

Principles of scientific research of history:

1. Principle of objectivity obliges us to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. It is necessary, first of all, to study the objective laws that determine the processes of socio-political development. To do this, one must rely on the facts in their true content, and also consider each phenomenon in its versatility and inconsistency.

2. The principle of historicism states that any historical phenomenon should be studied from the point of view of where, when and why this phenomenon arose, what it was like at the beginning, how it then developed, what path it took, what assessments were given to it at one or another stage of development, what can be said about his prospects. The principle of historicism requires that any student of history should not become a judge in assessing historical and political events.

3. Under the principle of a social approach understand the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social class relations. It should be emphasized that the principle of a social approach to history is especially necessary and significant in assessing the programs and actual activities of political parties and movements, as well as their leaders and functionaries.

4. The principle of comprehensive study of history implies the need not only for completeness and reliability of information, but also for taking into account all aspects and relationships affecting the political sphere of society.
2. METHODS AND SOURCES FOR STUDYING THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA Methods for studying history:
1) chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. Used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies;

2) chronologically problematic- provides for the study of Russian history by periods, and within them - by problems. It is used in all general studies, including various courses of lectures on history;

3) problematic chronological– is used when studying any one aspect of the activity of a state, society, or politician in its consistent development. This approach allows us to more fully trace the logic of the development of the problem, as well as most effectively extract practical experience;

4) periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in study and research;

5) relatively historical– is based on the recognition of the known repeatability of historical events in world history. Its essence lies in comparing them to establish both general patterns and differences;

6) retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied;

7) statistical– consists of studying important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while together they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;

8) sociological research used in the study of modernity. It makes it possible to study phenomena mainly in political history. Among the techniques of this method are questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.

Sources for studying Russian history very significant and complex. The exact boundaries of the range of sources, it seems, do not exist due to the integrity and indivisibility of the historical process, the interconnectedness of people’s activities at various stages of historical and political development. Approximate classification of sources: 1) archaeological sources; 2) chronicles and chronicle codes; 3) ethnographic sources; 4) archival documents 5) documents of state bodies and public organizations of the Russian state; 6) documents of political parties and movements of Russia 7) works of state and public figures of Russia; 8) periodicals; 9) memoirs; 10) museum documents; 11) photos, sound and film documents; 12) electronic media.
3. THE PROBLEM OF ETHNOGENESIS OF THE EASTERN SLAVS
Ethnogenesis– the entire process of existence and development of an ethnic system from the moment of its emergence to its disappearance.

A significant number of archaeological sites of the Stone Age have been discovered on the territory of Russia. According to scientists, the Slavs could belong to the Indo-European peoples, the formation of a linguistic community of which took place on the Iranian Plateau and in Western Asia in the 6th–5th millennium BC. e. In addition, it is believed that the Slavs as a species formed in Eastern Europe in the 4th–2nd millennium BC. e. They inhabited the forest areas between the Oder and the middle Dnieper, from the Baltic Sea to the Dniester. The main branches of their economy were agriculture and cattle breeding. The most famous monument of the Slavic proto-civilization is the Trypillian archaeological culture, covering the space from South-Eastern Transylvania to the Dnieper.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The spread of iron began among the Slavs. The gradual decomposition of the tribal system dates back to this period. It was then that the everyday, religious and cultural characteristics of the Slavic tribes clearly stood out in comparison with other Indo-European peoples, which allows us to conclude that in the 1st millennium BC. e. Slavic proto-civilization. Around this time, the single Slavic community was divided into three branches: eastern (the future Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian peoples), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.) and southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).

In the II century. n. e. German Gothic tribes came to the northern Black Sea region from the lower reaches of the Vistula. Under their leadership, a military tribal union was formed here, which included part of the Slavic tribes. From the end of the 4th century. the tribes of Eastern Europe were involved in large migration processes - the so-called Great Migration. The Turkic nomads, the Huns, who invaded from Asia defeated the Goths, and the latter went to Central and Western Europe. During the 5th–8th centuries. The Slavs settled vast areas in Eastern, Central and South-Eastern Europe. By this period, the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs was determined by the following boundaries: in the north - the Volkhov River, in the south - the Dniester River, in the west - the Western Bug River, in the east - the Volga River. It was at this time that a distinctive East Slavic civilization emerged, characterized by a common economic structure, socio-political structure in the form of military democracy, common characteristics of behavior, rituals, etc.

Difficult natural and climatic conditions encouraged our ancestors to unite within the community and conduct collective farming. In social terms, these circumstances led to adherence to the norms of direct communal democracy, the predominance of collectivist values ​​over personal values, and low social mobility of society members. The historical example of Byzantium with effective autocratic power, the construction of society on the basis of rigid vertical connections, and total state control over all spheres of social life became, to a certain extent, a model for Russian statehood.
4. ECONOMIC LAYOUT AND MILITARY ORGANIZATION OF THE EASTERN SLAVS
The main branch of the economy of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. From about the 5th century. Swidden farming was gradually replaced by arable farming with iron plowshares. In addition to cereals (rye, wheat, etc.) and garden crops (turnips, cabbage, etc.) industrial crops (flax, hemp) were also grown. Livestock breeding was closely related to agriculture. The Slavs raised pigs, cows, sheep, and goats. Crafts separated from agriculture in the 6th–8th centuries. Pottery, iron and non-ferrous metallurgy developed especially actively. Slavic craftsmen produced over 150 types of various products from steel and iron alone. Crafts and trade also occupied a prominent place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs. The main trade routes passed along the Volkhov – Lovat – Dnieper (“from the Varangians to the Greeks”), Volga, Don, and Oka rivers. The Slavs exported mainly furs, weapons, wax, and bread. Expensive fabrics, jewelry, and spices were imported. War booty occupied the most important place among the sources of livelihood. Tributes, ransoms and farm-outs, slaves for trade - these were the main goals of the Slavs’ campaigns in neighboring and distant lands.

The Slavs lived in large huts - cages of 30-35 people. Several such houses made up the settlement, and the number of buildings in it reached 200–250.

The basis of military organization constituted an armed people. By decision of the veche and depending on the conditions, either the entire people or a detachment of warriors led by the prince went to war. To maintain the squad and himself, the prince received the right to collect tribute from those whom he defended.

The Eastern Slavs often subjected their neighbors to devastating raids. So, from various sources we know that the Slavs in the 6th century. 3 thousand soldiers invaded the Byzantine Empire in the 7th century. devastated the outskirts of Constantinople in the 9th century. made a trip to Crimea. There is evidence that around 860, the Kiev prince Askold forced the Byzantine emperor Michael to conclude a treaty of “Peace and Love.” Byzantine written sources report that by the 7th century. The Slavs began to use correct battle formations on the battlefield, as well as siege engines. Their weapons consisted of swords, bows with poisoned arrows, spears, shields, and battle axes.
5. SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF THE EASTERN SLAVS
Social and political structure of the Eastern Slavs represented military democracy. It meant the power of elected military leaders (princes) while maintaining the power of the elders and the remnants of primitive collectivism. Verv (neighboring community) was the main unit of society. All important issues in the life of the community were decided by a general council - a meeting at which householders from the district gathered, regardless of what tribes and clans they came from. A council of elders was elected to conduct general affairs at the veche. As individual members of the community accumulated wealth, they began to play a more significant role in its life.

The corporation into which the ruling class of Rus' was organized during this period continued to be the squad. Gradually, in the process of forming the structure of a unified state, a centralized and ramified administrative apparatus is formed. Representatives of the druzhina nobility act as officials of the state administration. Under the princes there is a council (duma), at which a meeting of the prince and the top of the squad takes place. The princes appoint mayors from among the warriors - governors in the cities; voivode - leaders of military detachments; thousand - senior officials in society; tributaries - land tax collectors; swordsmen - court officials; mytniks - collectors of trade duties, tiuns - managers of the princely patrimonial economy, etc.

The personally free rural population, obligated only to tribute, as well as ordinary townspeople are called people in the sources. For the personally dependent population of fiefs and unfree servants, the terms “servants” and “slaves” were used. The Smerds were a group of semi-military, semi-peasant population dependent on the prince. There also appears a category of people who become dependent on the landowner for debts and are forced to work for the master until the amount of the debt is paid. They were called “purchases”, and their rights were intermediate between free people and slaves.

The Eastern Slavs were pagans they worshiped natural phenomena and supported the cult of ancestors. The ancient Slavs had neither temples nor a special class of priests, but there were individual magicians, magicians, who were revered as servants of the gods and interpreters of their will. The main gods of the Slavs were: Svarog - the god of the Slavic family; Perun - god of thunder and war; Dazhdbog - sun god; Stri god - god of wind and rain; Belee is the patron of cattle breeding; Mokosh is the goddess of earth and fertility. The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and the change of seasons.
6. PREREQUISITES FOR THE FORMATION OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE. FOREIGN POLICY OF ANCIENT Rus'
There is still controversy surrounding the origin of the word “Rus” in historical science. There is a widespread opinion that this term was brought to Eastern Europe by Scandinavian warriors (Varangians). At the same time, there is a point of view according to which the origin of this word is southern, from the Ros River. In any case, in the 9th century. it acts as a designation of an ethnopolitical entity that does not coincide territorially with any Slavic union of tribal principalities.

Two centers of Rus' became the cities of Novgorod and Kyiv. In the territories that became part of the Novgorod-Kievan Rus, as is known from chronicle sources, there were 12 Slavic unions (Polyans, Drevlyans, Vyatichi, Krivichi, etc.). The fact of presence in Rus' in the 9th–10th centuries. Scandinavian warriors of the Varangians and the chronicle story about the Varangian origin of the ancient Russian ruling dynasty (Rurikovich) gave rise to a long discussion between Normanists and anti-Normanists. The former defended the point of view of the creation of the Old Russian state by the Scandinavians, while the latter denied this. Currently, domestic and foreign researchers have no doubt about both the local roots of East Slavic statehood and the active participation of immigrants from Scandinavia in the process of the formation of Novgorod-Kievan Rus. However, the basis for the creation of the state, undoubtedly, was the internal development of the East Slavic world, its social, economic and military-political patterns. As in other European countries, the prerequisites for the creation of a state unification of the Slavs were the presence of tribal unions, their management systems, the development of productive forces, the growth of property inequality, etc.

Foreign policy was closely connected with the formation and development of the socio-economic and military-political unity of Rus'. The country was united by all kinds of economic and political obligations of those lands that constituted its territorial unity. It should also be taken into account that at this time not all state borders were established and legally enshrined, since not all peoples in their development reached state forms. Another feature was the dependence of many neighboring peoples on Ancient Rus'. And the territory of the state itself included over 20 non-Slavic tribes and tribal unions. Their relationship had a significant impact on foreign policy as a whole.

Novgorod Kievan Rus achieved the most tangible successes in the international arena during the times of Vladimir and especially Yaroslav. One of the indicators of recognition as equals by European states was dynastic marriages that connected the Kiev Grand Duke's House with many royal courts of Europe - French, Hungarian, English, Danish, Byzantine, etc. These facts indicate close ties between Russia and other states, its great contribution to the development of European civilization.
7. MAIN STAGES IN THE FORMATION OF ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE
The process of formation and development of the Old Russian state covers the period from the second half of the 9th century to the beginning of the 12th century. A kind of starting point was the year 860 - the date of the siege of the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, by the Russian fleet. Diplomatic recognition of Novgorod-Kievan Rus by Byzantium took place.

First stage includes the period from the middle of the 9th to the end of the 10th century. Under Prince Oleg (882–911), the following important state tasks were resolved: the lands of a number of East Slavic tribes were annexed, and the payment of tribute “Polyudya” was introduced, which formed one of the economic foundations of the state. It was through tribute and military spoils that government bodies, the squad, the prince’s inner circle and his court were supported. Oleg's successor, Prince Igor (912–945), had to suppress the separatist aspirations of a number of tribal unions for many years. Princess Olga (945–964) sought to strengthen the grand ducal power with the help of socio-economic innovations. She streamlined the amount of tribute collected, determined the places for its collection (cemeteries), and carried out some reforms in the administrative management system. Under Olga's son, Grand Duke Svyatoslav (964–972), the state foundations were strengthened, the country's defense capability increased, and the management system was improved. The glory of Rus' during this period was brought by military victories in the fight against Byzantium and the defeat of the Khazar Kaganate.

It was during this period that Western European chronicles began to call Rus' Gardarika (the country of cities), of which there were more than a hundred by European standards. The most famous centers of the state were, in addition to Novgorod and Kyiv, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk and others.

On second stage(end of the 10th – first half of the 11th centuries) Rus' reached its peak in its development. During the 35 years of Vladimir's reign (980–1015), the process of territorial expansion continued. The state included the lands of the Vyatichi, Croats, Yatvingians, Tmutarakan, and Cherven cities. Under the Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise (1015–1054), the international position of the state was especially strengthened. It was during this period that the country's economic power increased significantly.

Main trend third stage the development of ancient Russian statehood is an attempt to prevent the impending collapse, as well as a desire to stabilize the situation within the state and eliminate separatist tendencies. These attempts were carried out by Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh. Under him, a new legal code was created - the so-called Long Edition of Russian Pravda. This monument reflected the social changes that took place in Rus' in the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. The Extensive Pravda recorded the existence of boyar property and made changes to a number of pre-existing laws (“The Most Ancient Pravda”, “The Yaros Lavichi Pravda”, etc.). However, from the second half of the 12th century. the process of fragmentation and collapse of the unified state intensified.
8. ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY AND BAPTISM OF Rus'. CULTURE OF ANCIENT Rus'
One of the largest events that had long-term significance for Rus' was adoption of Christianity as the state religion. The main reason for the introduction of Christianity in its Byzantine version - Orthodoxy - was the need to form a state ideology, spiritual unification of the diverse peoples of Rus', and strengthen international ties on a solid basis. In the new conditions, pagan religion did not fully ensure the process of forming statehood, since, due to its inherent polytheism, it was not able to unite Rus' and strengthen the authority of the grand ducal power. The process of accepting a new religion was long and controversial. It began with an attempt by Prince Vladimir to create a unified pagan pantheon. The main thing was the baptism of the surroundings of the prince and Kyiv according to the Orthodox rite in 988. The baptism of the people was most actively carried out in 988–998. Unlike the urban population, the peasants did not accept the new faith for a long time, and the resistance was especially serious in the northern regions of the country (Novgorod, etc.).

Objectively, the introduction of Christianity contributed to the strengthening of the political unity of the ancient Russian lands and the final elimination of tribal isolation. Orthodoxy had a significant cultural impact on society: writing became more widespread, schools appeared, and systematic chronicling began.

The appearance in Rus' after the adoption of Christianity of literature in the Slavic language, on the one hand.

and the formation of a state structure - on the other, contributed to the widespread spread of literacy. Vivid evidence of this are birch bark letters - letters on birch bark of various (mainly business) content. They were discovered during excavations in 9 ancient Russian cities (most of them in Novgorod, where natural conditions contributed to their better preservation).

In XI - beginning. XII century A large number of translated works of both religious and secular content are distributed in Rus'. At the same time, the formation of original literature took place, the earliest monument of which is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written in mid. XI century The most important place in ancient Russian literature is occupied by the genre of chronicle. The first chronicle code, the text of which can be reconstructed, is the so-called Initial Code of the 11th century. In the beginning. XII century An outstanding work of medieval literature, “The Tale of Bygone Years,” was created in the Kiev Pechersky Monastery. The Tale unfolds a broad canvas of Russian history, which is viewed as part of Slavic history, and later as part of world history. The author (possibly the monk Nestor) used a number of translated sources, as well as domestic chronicles and oral legends.

In the 11th century Stone temple construction and church painting are developing. Outstanding monuments of architecture from the Middle Ages have survived to this day. XI century - Cathedrals of St. Sofia in Kyiv and Novgorod, Spassky Cathedral in Chernigov.
9. CONCEPT, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF FEPUDAL FRONTATION
Under feudal fragmentation understand the form of organization of society, characterized by the economic strengthening of patrimonial holdings and the political decentralization of the state.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' covers the time from the second half of the 12th century to the beginning. XIV century This process began after the death of Grand Duke Mstislav (1125–1132), when the principalities and lands of Rus' began to break away from the obedience of the central government. The new era that had come was characterized by long, bloody civil strife between princes and wars for the expansion of land holdings.

The most important reasons for fragmentation

1. Division of the unified territory of the state between heirs in the absence of a legally justified right of succession to the throne. Formally, the beginning of the “appanage period” dates back to the will of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, according to which he appointed his sons to rule the country in various Russian regions. The divisions of princely lands between the heirs, which became especially noticeable by the 13th century, aggravated the fragmentation of the principalities of the states.

2. Dominance of subsistence farming. The feudal economy at this time was mainly of a subsistence nature and closed. Economic ties with the center were weak, and the military-political power of the local government was steadily increasing, so the cities gradually turned primarily into craft trading centers for the surrounding lands.

3. Strengthening feudal lords' ownership of land. Many cities were feudal estates, fortresses of princes. Local government apparatuses were created in cities, their main task was to maintain the authority of the local prince.

4. Weakening of the external threat - Polovtsian raids, the intensity of which dropped sharply as a result of the active military actions of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav.

5. The decline in the prestige of Kyiv, due to the fact that it lost its former significance as the trading center of Rus'. The Crusaders established new trade routes from Europe to the East through the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, Kyiv was practically destroyed in 1240 during the Mongol Tatar invasion.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation. It is impossible to clearly judge the time of fragmentation as a period of decline. At this time, old cities are growing, new ones are appearing (Moscow, Tver, Dmitrov, etc.). Local government apparatuses are being formed that help in administration, perform police functions, and raise funds for the implementation of independent policies of individual principalities. Local legislation is being developed on the basis of “Russian Truth”. Thus, we can talk about the general rise of the Russian principalities in the XII - early. XIII century On the other hand, the decline in the military potential of Rus' led to the fact that the process of internal socio-economic and political development was interrupted by external intervention. It came in three streams: from the east - the Mongol-Tatar invasion, from the northwest - Swedish-Danish-German aggression, from the southwest - military attacks of the Poles and Hungarians.
10. LARGEST FEUDAL LANDS. CULTURE IN A PERIOD OF Fragmentation
Before other Russian lands, the one that was never threatened by the Polovtsian danger became isolated - Novgorodskaya. This territory had its own close trade, economic ties and political contacts with the countries of Western Europe, which, of course, strengthened its security. In 1136, the uprising of the Novgorodians against the Kyiv proteges completed the separation of this land from the central government.

Vladimir Suzdal Principality becomes politically independent during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh’s son, Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1154–1157). The fairly safe geographical position of the principality (far from the area of ​​invasion by nomads) ensured a massive influx of population. The main occupations of the residents are agriculture and cattle breeding, salt mining; crafts flourished. Among the so-called “old” cities, the most famous are Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, among the “young” ones - Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Zvenigorod, etc. Vladimir on Klyazma becomes the capital of the land under Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157–1174).

Galicia-Volyn principality in the XII–XIV centuries. was the largest in southern Rus' and enjoyed significant influence in Western Europe. Situated mostly in the mountains, it was a fairly safe place. The main occupations of its inhabitants were agriculture, cattle breeding, and hunting. Large trade routes, among which the so-called “salt route” from Galich to Kyiv stood out, ensured a large volume of trade. Among the princes of these lands, the most famous are Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152–1187).

Roman Mstislavovich (1170–1205), Daniil Romanovich (1261–1264). The largest cities were Galich, Lviv, Vladimir in Volyn. In the second half. XIV century the principality was captured by Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galich).

In addition to those mentioned above, the following fairly large lands of Ancient Rus' of the specific period can be mentioned: Chernigovskaya(left bank of the Dnieper and upper reaches of the Oka), Smolenskaya(Upper Dnieper region), Polotsk(upper reaches of the Western Dvina), Ryazan(middle reaches of the Oka).

For Russian culture in a period of fragmentation The emergence of polycentrism is characteristic - the emergence of distinctive cultural centers in different regions of Rus'. The formation of local architectural, art and chronicle schools dates back to this time. So, in the period of the XII–XIII centuries. Chronicle writing, in addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, began to be conducted in the centers of feudal principalities - Chernigov, Vladimir and other cities.

In the 12th century One of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. In addition, other works of literature of that time are known - “The Word of Daniil the Sharper”, “The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Land”. During the period of fragmentation, stone construction and church painting continued to develop. The architecture exhibits a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Of the surviving architectural monuments of this era, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Golden Gate in Vladimir, and St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev Polsky can be especially highlighted.
11. POLITICAL SYSTEM AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF NOVGOROD LAND
The period of existence of the independent Novgorod land was from 1136 to 1477. The form of government that developed in Novgorod during this time is unique in its own way and requires separate consideration in the course of the history of Russia.

The special place of the Novgorod Republic in Russian history is due to a number of circumstances. Firstly, Novgorod was one of the centers where Russian statehood began, and secondly, its close trade ties with the cities of the medieval Baltic states, Sweden, Germany, and Flanders were of great importance. Novgorod was a link between Russian lands and Western Europe, a center of economic and cultural exchange. Thirdly, Novgorod is the only Russian land almost untouched by the Mongol Tatar yoke. This contributed to the evolution of ancient Russian culture, including political and legal. And, finally, the main thing is the republican form of state that has developed in Novgorod. Novgorod enriched Russian history with developed, well-thought-out, stable institutions of republican government. Given the feudal nature of power, the political system of Novgorod created the opportunity for the direct participation of the people in government affairs. The successes of Novgorod in trade, construction, and crafts are inseparable from its political system, based on the election of all officials, their accountability to the people's assembly - the veche, a symbol of the state identity of Novgorod and its basis.

The combination of a number of geographical factors led to the fact that the main occupations of the residents of Novgorod were crafts and trade, while agriculture existed at the commercial level. Flax, furs, wax, hemp, and handicrafts were exported from the Novgorod land, and bread, cloth, and luxury goods were imported. Trade and monetary relations were highly developed in the Novgorod economy; artisans worked not to order, but to the market. In addition to Novgorod, the largest cities on earth were Pskov, Torzhok, Ladoga and Izborsk, which, subordinate to the center, had bodies of self-government.
12. VECHE AS THE HIGHEST MANAGEMENT BODY OF NOVGOROD
In Novgorod the veche received full development. The functions of the veche were determined by specific decisions of the veche itself and comprehensively covered the life of the Novgorod land. Here are the most important and frequently found in sources: powers of the council: conclusion and termination of an agreement with the prince; election and removal of posadnik (actually the head of the government): tysyatsky (head of the militia), vladyka (head of the church and manager of the treasury); appointment of Novgorod governors, mayors and governors in the province; control over the activities of the prince, mayor, thousand, ruler and other officials; legislation, an example of which is the Novgorod Judgment Charter; foreign relations, resolving issues of war and peace, trade agreements with the West; disposal of Novgorod land property in economic and legal terms, land grant; establishing trade rules and benefits; establishing the duties of the population, monitoring their execution, monitoring court deadlines and the execution of decisions; in cases that worried the whole city, direct trial of cases; provision of judicial benefits.

At the turn of the 11th–12th centuries. In Novgorod, an elected local administration began to form - a self-government body opposed to the princely power. This raised the veche order to a new level, fundamentally changed the attitude of the people's assembly to matters of administration and court, for it elected, controlled and removed the most important officials who were daily engaged in these activities, and gradually turned the prince into an official.

Around mid. XIII century Relations with the princes become stable, the veche loses its significance as a symbol of unity of the entire city against encroachments on its traditional liberties. The dulling of the severity of the anti-princely struggle, which united all citizens, could not but lead to increased conflicts in society. However, the aggravation of social conflicts did not undermine the foundations of the veche. Thanks to a well-thought-out system of boyar control, the veche turned out to be a flexible political form that ensured the real supremacy of higher social groups. The history of Novgorod knows many excesses of veche life, when the masses dealt with dignitaries they disliked and plundered the boyars' houses, but the economic and political foundations of the boyars' rule remained unshakable. This was facilitated by the split of the urban lower classes into groups, each of which was oriented towards its own boyars, the predominance of clashes between parties, ends and streets over class conflicts, as well as a number of usually legal measures that protected the boyar supremacy, including customs associated with the veche.

Both ordinary children and wealthy people have more than once used the democratic form of the veche to defend their interests. Although the real government of the state was concentrated in the hands of posadniks, tysyatskys, rulers, and the boyar council, all these bodies derived their powers from the veche decision, and the elected officials could be removed from power at any time by the will of the veche. It contributed to the high development of material, spiritual and political culture.

Methodology is a system of scientific principles and research methods based on the dialectical-materialist theory of historical knowledge.

The dialectical-materialist theory proceeds from the fact that society must be considered in constant development, and the source of this development is the internal contradictions of the society itself or the social phenomenon under consideration.

Principles are the main, fundamental principles of science. Method is a way of studying patterns through their specific manifestations.

Basic principles of historical science:

a) objectivity, b) historicism, c) comprehensiveness.

Please indicate what is the content of each of these principles in relation to the study of history.

The main methods used in the study of history:

a) chronological, b) problematic, c) retrospective, d) system-structural. Other methods are also used, and usually several methods are combined with each other (for example, problem-chronological). Formulate the main features of each of the main methods.

Approaches to the study of history.

When studying society, the entire diversity of social relations is usually grouped into four blocks: a) economics, b) social sphere, c) politics, d) spiritual sphere. Today, two approaches to the study of history predominate: a) formational, b) civilizational.

Formation is a historical type of society, based on a certain method of production and acting as a stage in the development of the world history of human society. Considering societies with this approach, the researcher seeks first of all to identify the similarities of the society with other societies that have passed through or are at the same stage of formational development. This allows you to apply the historical experience of other societies to solving the problems of your own society.

Civilization is usually divided into global and local. World civilization appears as all of humanity taken together, developing in a single forward movement as a whole. Local civilization is a region of the planet at the national or state level, significantly different from other regions in the direction of its development. With a civilizational approach, the search for the uniqueness of each society, its differences from other social systems, comes first. This makes it possible to identify the leading trends and principles of development of the society being studied, which cannot be ignored when using the experience of other civilizations when solving their internal problems.

Science has not yet developed a unified idea of ​​civilization. Therefore, in different scientific and educational publications one can find different interpretations of the essence and terminology of the civilizational approach.

Each local civilization goes through several stages in its development:

1) the challenge of nature - a period when society is forced to realize the radically changed situation in which it exists, and to begin, for the sake of its own survival, the search for new solutions that are radically different from the usual stereotypes of previous social life in all spheres of society;

2) birth - the period when an ethnic group is formed, the boundaries of its territory are determined, a state is formed and the ideology of this society is developed;

3) growth (or flourishing) - a period when typical features of economic life, social structure, political system and spiritual culture are formed, which distinguish a given society from others and determine its identity.

4) breakdown - a period when society begins to experience internal upheavals resulting from the growing contradiction between the traditional features of the social structure and the changing objective conditions in which a given society exists.

5) decline - a period of destruction of the traditional forms of existence of a given society, a change in its value system. The internal contradictions of society are complemented by seriously complicated external factors. As a result, society must either restructure itself in accordance with changed conditions, i.e. move to another civilization, or die.

The total period of existence of a local civilization is estimated on average at 1000-1500 years.

Types of civilization:

1) according to natural geographic location: a) marine, b) continental, c) coastal.

2) according to the type of human interaction with nature:

a) primitive societies (man is completely dependent on nature),

b) agrarian societies (a person takes ready-made what nature gives him),

c) industrial societies (man remakes nature based on his own needs, creates a “second nature”),

d) post-industrial (information) societies (people interact with nature, compensating for the damage caused to it by their activities).

3) according to the pace and direction of development:

a) East – a slow, stable type of development of society, based on the fusion of man with nature;

b) The West is a dynamic, rapidly developing society based on the active influence of man on nature.

Determine for yourself , to which of the indicated types should Russian civilization be classified? and formulate those features that determined its originality in relation to each variant of typology.

Self-test questions:

1.Formulate the subject of the story.

2..Name the main methods of historical science. Formulate the main features of each method.

3. Define formation.

4.What are the structural elements of the formation and how are they interconnected.

5. Define local civilization.

6.Indicate the main features of maritime, continental and coastal civilizations.

7.Formulate the main differences between an agrarian society and a primitive and industrial one.

8.What is the difference between Western and Eastern types of civilizations?

9.Indicate the main stages of development of local civilizations.

10.Which areas of social life are primarily considered under the formational approach and which – under the civilizational approach?

Eastern Slavs in ancient times.

Territory and population.

The first mentions of the Eastern Slavs as an independent ethnic group can be traced in sources from the 6th century. There is no consensus in historical science on the issue of the origin of the Eastern Slavs. The migration theory prevails: the Eastern Slavs are immigrants from Central Europe. But there is also an autochthonous theory (the Eastern Slavs are the original inhabitants of the East European Plain), as well as a number of theories trying to find the ancestral homeland of the Eastern Slavs in Central Asia, the Arctic North and other regions of the planet.

On one's own formulate reasons for such diversity of opinions among researchers. Follow on the map of the place of settlement of East Slavic tribes by the 9th century.

Socio-economic development.

Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries. - settled tribes whose main occupation was agriculture. Formulate based on the text of the textbook, what were the features of the slash-and-burn system of agriculture, as well as auxiliary activities for agriculture. Determine At what stage of the social division of labor were the Eastern Slavs by the 9th century? (whether trade has already separated from agriculture and crafts).

During this period, archaeological materials trace the transition of the Slavs from the tribal community to the neighboring one. Formulate the main differences between these types of communities from each other. The transition to a new type of communal relations stemmed from economic development and changes in economic conditions.

Political system.

The social system of the Eastern Slavs during this period is usually called “military democracy.” Formulate the main features of this system. The highest officials in the administration were the elder and the prince. The veche played a significant role. Check the functions of each of the officials and the powers of the council.

Between the tribes of the Eastern Slavs by the 9th century. Quite stable tribal alliances have developed. Try to determine based on the text of the textbook, whether the Eastern Slavs had cities by this time.

Religion and church.

Religion of the Eastern Slavs until the 10th century. - paganism. The paganism of the Eastern Slavs is quite difficult to reconstruct due to limited sources, so one can find various options for describing the pantheon. But researchers agree that the highest pagan deities of the Slavs personified the forces of nature, followed by a number of lower deities (brownies, goblins, water creatures, etc.), which were an expression of the animation of nature that surrounded man. Another row was occupied by deceased ancestors, whose cult played an important role in the life of ancient Slavic society.

note on the features of the cult: a) Lack of temples (only temples and treasuries are known - open places where idols were placed and rituals were performed); b) There is no consensus on sacrifices - how typical were human sacrifices to the gods?; c) The role of the Magi is also controversial - was it a special class or not?

In general terms, the religious system of the Eastern Slavs contained two main values: a) the unity of man with nature, b) the priority of tribal, collective values ​​over personal ones.

Culture.

Information about the cultural achievements of the Eastern Slavs is scarce due to the lack of a sufficient number of sources. The question of the presence of Old Slavic writing in the pre-Christian period of Rus' remains controversial. It is generally accepted that the level of scientific knowledge of the Eastern Slavs was no lower than the level of scientific knowledge of the neighboring peoples around them.

Archaeological sources give no reason to believe that the Slavs knew stone architecture at that time.

note that the calendar is focused on the cycle of agricultural work.

Family relations were dominated by paired marriage and a large patriarchal family.

Self-test questions:

1. Indicate the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs by the 9th century. ?

2.Formulate the main provisions of the migration theory of the origin of the Eastern Slavs.

3.What were the features of the formation of Russian civilization in the pre-Mongol period?

2. Russia in world civilization. Features of education and development

Russian state.

Subject of study Domestic history is the patterns of political and socio-economic development of the Russian state and society as part of the world process of human history. The history of Russia examines socio-political processes, the activities of various political forces, the development of political systems and government structures.

Methods for studying history:

1) chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. Used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies;

2) chronologically problematic- provides for the study of Russian history by periods, and within them - by problems. It is used in all general studies, including various courses of lectures on history;

3) problem-chronological– is used when studying any one aspect of the activity of a state, society, or politician in its consistent development. This approach allows us to more fully trace the logic of the development of the problem, as well as most effectively extract practical experience;

4) periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in study and research;

5) comparative-historical– is based on the recognition of the known repeatability of historical events in world history. Its essence lies in comparing them to establish both general patterns and differences;

6) retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied;

7) statistical– consists of studying important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while together they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;

8) sociological research used in the study of modernity. It makes it possible to study phenomena mainly in political history. Among the techniques of this method are questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.

Sources for studying Russian history very significant and complex. There appear to be no exact boundaries for the range of sources due to the integrity and indivisibility of the historical process and the interconnectedness of people’s activities at various stages of historical and political development. Approximate classification of sources: 1) archaeological sources; 2) chronicles and chronicle codes; 3) ethnographic sources; 4) archival documents 5) documents of state bodies and public organizations of the Russian state; 6) documents of political parties and movements of Russia 7) works of state and public figures of Russia; 8) periodicals; 9) memoirs; 10) museum documents; 11) photo, sound and film documents; 12) electronic media.

Domestic history: Cheat sheet Author unknown

2. METHODS AND SOURCES FOR STUDYING THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA Methods for studying history:

1) chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. Used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies;

2) chronologically problematic- provides for the study of Russian history by periods, and within them - by problems. It is used in all general studies, including various courses of lectures on history;

3) problem-chronological– is used when studying any one aspect of the activity of a state, society, or politician in its consistent development. This approach allows us to more fully trace the logic of the development of the problem, as well as most effectively extract practical experience;

4) periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in study and research;

5) comparative-historical– is based on the recognition of the known repeatability of historical events in world history. Its essence lies in comparing them to establish both general patterns and differences;

6) retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied;

7) statistical– consists of studying important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while together they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;

8) sociological research used in the study of modernity. It makes it possible to study phenomena mainly in political history. Among the techniques of this method are questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.

Sources for studying Russian history very significant and complex. There appear to be no exact boundaries for the range of sources due to the integrity and indivisibility of the historical process and the interconnectedness of people’s activities at various stages of historical and political development. Approximate classification of sources: 1) archaeological sources; 2) chronicles and chronicle codes; 3) ethnographic sources; 4) archival documents 5) documents of state bodies and public organizations of the Russian state; 6) documents of political parties and movements of Russia 7) works of state and public figures of Russia; 8) periodicals; 9) memoirs; 10) museum documents; 11) photo, sound and film documents; 12) electronic media.

The scientific task of studying local history The practical interest that prompts us to study the history of Russia specifically, isolating it from the composition of general history is understandable: after all, this is the history of our fatherland. But this educational one, i.e. practical, interest does not exclude scientific,