Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.

Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.

For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).

1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.

2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.

3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.

4) grammatical meanings may not have complete correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (for example, the categories of number and tense usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while the feminine gender of a noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)

. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Name words, or parts of speech;

2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.

2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominative) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.

In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in the modern Russian language special groups of words are distinguished: 1) modal words, expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow

Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

Notes

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.

Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

• Functional words cannot be questioned.
• Function words are not parts of the sentence.
• Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
• The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:

• pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
• union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
• particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.

• Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
• Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.

Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.

Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.

Ticket number 8

Noun

The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.

Words act as building material for the language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be combined into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.

The branch of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.

Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.

Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its modification.

Syntax- a section of grammar that studies combinations of words and sentences.

Thus, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of a word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.

Grammar studies a word from the point of view of generalizing its signs and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house And smoke, table And chair, then for grammar all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same case forms and numbers, and have the same grammatical meanings.

Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.

For example, words smoke And house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collective) people living in it; smoke– an aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be defined by an adjective, change according to cases and numbers, and act as a member of a sentence.

Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence.

Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using function words, alternating sounds, changing the place of stress and word order, and intonation.

Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.

Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).

Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): read– verb in the past tense form.

When grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, it is formed complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with a service word): I'll read, let's read! In the Russian language, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.

Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural meanings are combined into a number meaning system. In such cases we talk about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.

Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, and that of adjectives - of 24.

The paradigm happens:

universal– all forms (full);

incomplete– there are no forms;

private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.

Lexical and grammatical meanings interact: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning and form. For example, adjective voiced in a phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: sonorous, more sonorous, most sonorous). This is the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.

And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, verb run in the meaning of “to move quickly” is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite a long time until he fell completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning – the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.

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Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.

For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken off from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” (a girl’s braid), and also “a river bank of a special shape” (I went for a swim on the braid) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (to sharpen a braid well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.

If the main component of the lexical meaning is, as a rule, contained in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny,” the noun has the following: nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is a common noun, inanimate.

If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word “morning”, then you will probably clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.

If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage.

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• lexical meaning is

During morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of this part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.

You will need

• - table of forms of participles.

Instructions

Try putting the full participle into a short form. With the passive it is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles They do not have a short form. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to the archaic style.

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Please note

Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or state is a permanent feature of a given object. These can be both active and passive participles - a walking excavator, canned peas, etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.

Useful advice

Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.

The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. In the first line write “Signs”, “Active participle”, “Passive participle”. The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, the presence or absence of a short form.

Sources:

• what is the type of participles in 2019

A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.

Instructions

The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendly and romantic relationships should be. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.

According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.

Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.

It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on different parts of the cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.

You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous websites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.

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• how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019

Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words of Slavic origin and borrowed ones one has to be guided by completely different criteria.

You will need

• - Internet access;
• - manuals on the Russian language.

Instructions

Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative case). Highlight the ending. A noun belongs to the masculine gender if (wind, computer) or “a”, “ya” (Sasha, uncle). The feminine gender has the endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) and the sign (night, stove). The neuter gender ends in “o”, “e”, but there is a group of differently inflected neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.

Grammatical form is defined as regular modifications of a word that have different grammatical meanings. For example, shape 1 person unit. Part of the present tense I write, I read, I see or past tense plural form. h. wrote, read, saw.

In morphology, the term grammatical form can be used in two ways. Firstly, the grammatical form can be understood as an abstract pattern in abstraction from concrete words: the adjective form singular. h., feminine, I. p. This form can be represented in different words: red, wooden, boring.

Another use of the term is in the meaning of the form of a specific word: form I.p. units noun back. For terminological differentiation, the concept is introduced word forms. Word form – a specific word in any grammatical form: in the garden is a word form of the word garden.

Several points are distinguished in the content of the word form. Firstly, the lexical meaning is distinguished, and secondly, the word-formative (or derivational) meaning, which, on the one hand, participates in the formation of the lexical meaning, and on the other, carries information about the part-verbal affiliation of the word. For example, in the word teacher the word-formation meaning of a person is expressed by a suffix –tel, which also signals that the word is a noun. Thirdly, grammatical relational meanings are distinguished in a word, which are expressed either by inflection (ending) or in other ways (see below). For example, in the word teacher grammatical meanings of gender, number, and case are expressed with a zero ending.

Compare: lexical meaning relational meaning

Teacher + tel + Sh

derivational

Meaning

grammatical meaning

Grammatical meanings are contrasted with lexical ones in the way they express meanings: grammatical meanings have a regular expression in the form of affixes, sometimes the roots themselves (the phenomenon of suppletivism), repetitions (reduplication), non-segmental units, function words or combinations of independent words. Lexical meanings lack such regular expression.

Grammatical meanings are abstract in nature and inherent in a number of words, not just one word. The abstract nature of grammatical meanings is manifested, in particular, in such examples where the meaning of objectivity - the part-verbal characteristic of nouns - is found in words whose roots express action - move, run. The grammatical meaning is repeated in a number of words, the lexical meaning is individual.

Let's take a closer look at ways of expressing grammatical meanings. There are different synthetic and analytical methods. In the synthetic (simple) method, grammatical meanings are expressed through morphemes - relational, formative and even root. In the analytical (complex) method, grammatical meaning is expressed by a combination of words - significant and auxiliary or significant and significant, as well as reduplication, word order and intonation.

Examples of relational affixes are: DOLL A-DOLL

RED – RED – RED, HODILS - WALKED A - WALKED,

where inflections express the meaning of gender and number. Formative affixes are used, for example, to express meanings of the past tense - I WENT, I SAW.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by different roots, this method is called suppletivism: good is better, bad is worse, I am to me. In addition to the mentioned synthetic methods, internal inflection and stress are also used. Internal inflection is a grammatical device represented by the alternation of phonemes (historical or grammatical), which serves to express grammatical meanings: in English tooth (teeth) - teeth (tooth), man (man) - men (men). Stress serves as the only means of distinguishing singular forms. h. R. p. and many others. ch. i. p. for words pbrusa - sail, lega - lugb.

Analytical methods, which are a combination of two words, significant and auxiliary, are observed in the examples: I will write, I would write. In the example I walked, you walked, he walked The category of a person is expressed by separate independent words - pronouns. Another means of expressing grammatical meanings is reduplication. This phenomenon consists of the repetition of either a syllable, or a root, or an entire word. For example, barely, just a little. In some languages, reduplication is quite common. For example, in some African languages, reduplication is a means of expressing the plural; in the Indo-European proto-language, reduplication was used to express the meaning of duration in verb stems. Different intonation distinguishes sentences with the meaning of question and motivation: Right? - To the right! In the examples two hours And two hours word order affects the expression of the meaning of specific and approximate time.

Word forms of one word constitute a paradigm. Paradigms can be complete and partial, complete and incomplete. The paradigms of many words turn out to be very complex. For example, the case paradigm of a noun consists of singular and plural case word forms. Case forms, united by the grammatical meaning of the singular or the meaning of the plural, are partial paradigms within the complete paradigm. A complete paradigm can consist of two, three, four or more partial paradigms. For example, a complete adjective paradigm consists of at least five quotients. The paradigm of a word may lack any particular paradigm. For example, collective nouns do not have plural forms. Such paradigms are called incomplete.

The lexical meaning of a word is accompanied by its grammatical meaning. The differences between these two types of values ​​are:

• 1. Grammatical meanings are abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb form is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. So, the lexical meaning of the word table“a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal plate on supports or legs” is a semantic property of this particular word.
• 2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, noun teacher in a sentence And that one, who do I consider to be a teacher?, like a shadow passed...(Akhm.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular number, instrumental case. The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called partial (or general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, processivity in a verb, etc. The partial meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (or partial categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by private categorical grammatical meanings of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case.

Formal grammar

Let us characterize two types of formal grammatical means - paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called word inflection. Some words do not have inflection: they always appear in the same form (such as, for example, the function words r/, By, only). Such words have a zero paradigm. But most words in the Russian language do not have a zero paradigm. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school formed by word forms: school, schools, school, school, school, (O) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, (O) schools.

There are two types of word forms: synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound). Synthetic word forms consist of a word stem and inflectional affixes - endings,

inflectional suffixes and postfixes. For example: house-o(zero ending), school; fast(superlative inflectional suffix and ending), read(verb inflectional suffix and ending), running(inflectional suffix of participle and ending). One synthetic word form can have from one to three inflectional affixes; for example, in the verb form checking-l"-i-s (Essays were checked by two examiners) grammatical meanings are expressed by the inflectional suffix of the past tense ending -And and an inflectional postfix of the passive voice -s.

Auxiliary words participate in the formation of analytical word forms, playing the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense form of the auxiliary verb be to the infinitive of an imperfective verb ( read, run etc.) an analytical form of the future tense is formed (I will read, we'll run); adding an auxiliary word to the past tense form of the verb would the subjunctive form is formed (I would read, would run).

Sometimes the paradigm of a word contains both synthetic and analytical word forms (cf.: strongest And the strongest; warmer And warmer). In the paradigms of nouns, numerals and pronouns - only synthetic word forms; Adjectives, verbs, adverbs and impersonal predicative words are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

Inflection has always been the main object of morphological analysis, because endings and inflectional suffixes as part of synthetic word forms, auxiliary words as part of analytical word forms are effective means of expressing grammatical meanings. Thus, thanks to the opposition of endings in word forms student - students, magazine - magazines the meanings of a number are expressed; in contrast to word forms decided - I decide - I will decide temporary values ​​are expressed.

Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words belong to the paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of the word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, some words also have additional ones, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:

• 1) alternation (or alternation) of phonemes in the base [run - run; dream - sleep("fluent" vowel)];
• 2) extension, truncation or alternation of stem-forming suffixes in the stem [brother - brothers ("brother); peasant - peasants?; give - I let you dance - I dance (dance-u")-u)]
• 3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (I’m walking - walking; man - people);
• 4) changing the place of stress (tree - trees; was - were).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, i.e. in a phrase. For example, in phrases new book, new books the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the ending of the noun, but also by the ending of the adjective that agrees with it. Here, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting this meaning becomes the grammatical syntagmatics (combinability) of the word. For example, if a noun does not have externally distinct endings, i.e. is "inflexible" (like coat, CHP), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed “beyond” the noun itself, in consistent forms of the adjective (new/new coats, powerful/powerful thermal power plants). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical study of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.