White army officers in the civil war. The White Movement and the National Constituent Assembly

Russian Civil War(1917-1922/1923) - a series of armed conflicts between various political, ethnic, social groups and state entities on the territory of the former Russian Empire, which followed the transfer of power to the Bolsheviks as a result of the October Revolution of 1917.

The Civil War was the result of the revolutionary crisis that struck Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, which began with the revolution of 1905-1907, aggravated during the World War and led to the fall of the monarchy, economic ruin, and a deep social, national, political and ideological split in Russian society. The apogee of this split was a fierce war throughout the country between the armed forces of the Soviet government and the anti-Bolshevik authorities.

White movement- a military-political movement of politically heterogeneous forces formed during the Civil War of 1917-1923 in Russia with the goal of overthrowing Soviet power. It included representatives of both moderate socialists and republicans, as well as monarchists, united against the Bolshevik ideology and acting on the basis of the principle of “Great, United and Indivisible Russia” (white ideological movement). The White movement was the largest anti-Bolshevik military-political force during the Russian Civil War and existed alongside other democratic anti-Bolshevik governments, nationalist separatist movements in Ukraine, the North Caucasus, Crimea, and the Basmachi movement in Central Asia.

A number of features distinguish the White movement from the rest of the anti-Bolshevik forces of the Civil War:

The White movement was an organized military-political movement against Soviet power and its allied political structures; its intransigence towards Soviet power excluded any peaceful, compromise outcome of the Civil War.

The White movement was distinguished by its priority in wartime of individual power over collegial power, and military power over civilian power. White governments were characterized by the absence of a clear separation of powers; representative bodies either did not play any role or had only advisory functions.

The White movement tried to legalize itself on a national scale, proclaiming its continuity from pre-February and pre-October Russia.

Recognition by all regional white governments of the all-Russian power of Admiral A.V. Kolchak led to the desire to achieve commonality of political programs and coordination of military actions. The solution to agrarian, labor, national and other basic issues was fundamentally similar.

The white movement had common symbols: a tricolor white-blue-red flag, the official anthem “How Glorious is Our Lord in Zion.”

Publicists and historians who sympathize with whites cite the following reasons for the defeat of the white cause:

The Reds controlled the densely populated central regions. There were more people in these territories than in the white-controlled territories.

Regions that began to support whites (for example, Don and Kuban), as a rule, suffered more than others from the Red Terror.

The inexperience of white leaders in politics and diplomacy.

Conflicts between whites and national separatist governments over the slogan “One and Indivisible.” Therefore, whites repeatedly had to fight on two fronts.

Workers' and Peasants' Red Army- the official name of the types of armed forces: ground forces and air fleet, which, together with the Red Army MS, the NKVD troops of the USSR (Border Troops, Internal Security Troops of the Republic and State Convoy Guards) constituted the Armed Forces of the RSFSR/USSR from February 15 (23), 1918 years to February 25, 1946.

The day of the creation of the Red Army is considered to be February 23, 1918 (see Defender of the Fatherland Day). It was on this day that mass enrollment of volunteers began in the Red Army detachments, created in accordance with the decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR “On the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army,” signed on January 15 (28).

L. D. Trotsky actively participated in the creation of the Red Army.

The supreme governing body of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army was the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR (since the formation of the USSR - the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR). The leadership and management of the army was concentrated in the People's Commissariat for Military Affairs, in the special All-Russian Collegium created under it, since 1923, the Labor and Defense Council of the USSR, and since 1937, the Defense Committee under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. In 1919-1934, direct leadership of the troops was carried out by the Revolutionary Military Council. In 1934, to replace it, the People's Commissariat of Defense of the USSR was formed.

Detachments and squads of the Red Guard - armed detachments and squads of sailors, soldiers and workers, in Russia in 1917 - supporters (not necessarily members) of left parties - Social Democrats (Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and “Mezhraiontsev”), Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists, as well as detachments Red partisans became the basis of the Red Army units.

Initially, the main unit of formation of the Red Army, on a voluntary basis, was a separate detachment, which was a military unit with an independent economy. The detachment was headed by a Council consisting of a military leader and two military commissars. He had a small headquarters and an inspectorate.

With the accumulation of experience and after attracting military experts to the ranks of the Red Army, the formation of full-fledged units, units, formations (brigade, division, corps), institutions and establishments began.

The organization of the Red Army was in accordance with its class character and military requirements of the early 20th century. The combined arms formations of the Red Army were structured as follows:

The rifle corps consisted of two to four divisions;

The division consists of three rifle regiments, an artillery regiment (artillery regiment) and technical units;

The regiment consists of three battalions, an artillery division and technical units;

Cavalry Corps - two cavalry divisions;

Cavalry division - four to six regiments, artillery, armored units (armored units), technical units.

The technical equipment of the military formations of the Red Army with fire weapons) and military equipment was mainly at the level of modern advanced armed forces of that time

The USSR Law “On Compulsory Military Service”, adopted on September 18, 1925 by the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, determined the organizational structure of the Armed Forces, which included rifle troops, cavalry, artillery, armored forces, engineering troops, signal troops, air and naval forces, troops United State Political Administration and Convoy Guard of the USSR. Their number in 1927 was 586,000 personnel.

1. Anatoly Pepelyaev


Anatoly Pepelyaev became the youngest general in Siberia - at 27 years old. Before this, the White Guards under his command took Tomsk, Novonikolaevsk (Novosibirsk), Krasnoyarsk, Verkhneudinsk and Chita. When Pepelyaev’s troops occupied Perm, abandoned by the Bolsheviks, the young general captured about 20,000 Red Army soldiers, who, on his orders, were released to their homes. Perm was liberated from the Reds on the day of the 128th anniversary of the capture of Izmail and the soldiers began to call Pepelyaev “Siberian Suvorov”.

2. Sergei Ulagay


Sergei Ulagai, a Kuban Cossack of Circassian origin, was one of the most prominent cavalry commanders of the White Army. He made a serious contribution to the defeat of the North Caucasian front of the Reds, but Ulagai’s 2nd Kuban Corps especially distinguished itself during the capture of “Russian Verdun” - Tsaritsyn - in June 1919.

General Ulagai went down in history as the commander of the special forces group of the Russian Volunteer Army of General Wrangel, who landed troops from the Crimea to Kuban in August 1920. To command the landing, Wrangel chose Ulagai “as a popular Kuban general, it seems, the only famous one who has not stained himself with robbery.”

3. Alexander Dolgorukov


A hero of the First World War, who for his exploits was honored with inclusion in the Retinue of His Imperial Majesty, Alexander Dolgorukov also proved himself in the Civil War. On September 30, 1919, his 4th Infantry Division forced the Soviet troops to retreat in a bayonet battle; Dolgorukov captured the crossing over the Plyussa River, which soon made it possible to occupy Strugi Belye.

Dolgorukov also found his way into literature. In Mikhail Bulgakov’s novel “The White Guard” he is depicted under the name of General Belorukov, and is also mentioned in the first volume of Alexei Tolstoy’s trilogy “Walking in Torment” (attack of the cavalry guards in the battle of Kaushen).

4. Vladimir Kappel


The episode from the film “Chapaev”, where Kappel’s men go on a “psychic attack”, is fictitious - Chapaev and Kappel never crossed paths on the battlefield. But Kappel was a legend even without cinema. During the capture of Kazan on August 7, 1918, he lost only 25 people. In his reports on successful operations, Kappel did not mention himself, explaining the victory by the heroism of his subordinates, right down to the nurses.

During the Great Siberian Ice March, Kappel suffered frostbite on both feet and had to undergo amputation without anesthesia. He continued to lead the troops and refused a seat on the ambulance train. The general’s last words were: “Let the troops know that I was devoted to them, that I loved them and proved this by my death among them.”

5. Mikhail Drozdovsky


Mikhail Drozdovsky with a volunteer detachment of 1000 people walked 1700 km from Yassy to Rostov, liberated it from the Bolsheviks, then helped the Cossacks defend Novocherkassk. Drozdovsky's detachment took part in the liberation of both Kuban and the North Caucasus. Drozdovsky was called “the crusader of the crucified Motherland.”

Here is his description from Kravchenko’s book “Drozdovites from Iasi to Gallipoli”: “Nervous, thin, Colonel Drozdovsky was the type of ascetic warrior: he did not drink, did not smoke and did not pay attention to the blessings of life; always - from Iasi until death - in the same worn jacket, with a frayed St. George's ribbon in the buttonhole; Out of modesty, he did not wear the order itself.”

6. Alexander Kutepov


Kutepov’s colleague on the fronts of the First World War wrote about him: “Kutepov’s name has become a household name. It means fidelity to duty, calm determination, intense sacrificial impulse, cold, sometimes cruel will and... clean hands - and all this was brought and given to serve the Motherland.”

In January 1918, Kutepov twice defeated the Red troops under the command of Sivers at Matveev Kurgan. According to Anton Denikin, “this was the first serious battle in which the fierce pressure of the disorganized and poorly managed Bolsheviks, mainly sailors, was opposed by the art and inspiration of officer detachments.”

7. Sergey Markov


The White Guards called Sergei Markov the “White Knight”, “the sword of General Kornilov”, “God of War”, and after the battle near the village of Medvedovskaya - “Guardian Angel”. In this battle, Markov managed to save the remnants of the Volunteer Army retreating from Yekaterinograd, destroy and capture a Red armored train, and obtain a lot of weapons and ammunition. When Markov died, Anton Denikin wrote on his wreath: “Both life and death are for the happiness of the Motherland.”

8. Mikhail Zhebrak-Rusanovich


For the White Guards, Colonel Zhebrak-Rusanovich was a cult figure. For his personal valor, his name was sung in the military folklore of the Volunteer Army. He firmly believed that “Bolshevism will not exist, but there will be only one United Great Indivisible Russia.” It was Zhebrak who brought the St. Andrew’s flag with his detachment to the headquarters of the Volunteer Army, and soon it became the battle banner of Drozdovsky’s brigade. He died heroically, personally leading the attack of two battalions against the superior forces of the Red Army.

9. Viktor Molchanov


The Izhevsk division of Viktor Molchanov was awarded special attention by Kolchak - he presented it with the St. George banner, and attached St. George crosses to the banners of a number of regiments. During the Great Siberian Ice Campaign, Molchanov commanded the rearguard of the 3rd Army and covered the retreat of General Kappel's main forces. After his death, he led the vanguard of the white troops. At the head of the Insurgent Army, Molchanov occupied almost all of Primorye and Khabarovsk.

10. Innokenty Smolin


At the head of a partisan detachment named after himself, Innokenty Smolin, in the summer and autumn of 1918, successfully operated behind Red lines and captured two armored trains. Smolin's partisans played an important role in the capture of Tobolsk. Mikhail Smolin took part in the Great Siberian Ice Campaign, commanded a group of troops of the 4th Siberian Rifle Division, which numbered more than 1,800 soldiers and arrived in Chita on March 4, 1920. Smolin died in Tahiti. In the last years of his life he wrote memoirs.

11. Sergei Voitsekhovsky

General Voitsekhovsky accomplished many feats, fulfilling the seemingly impossible tasks of the White Army command. A loyal “Kolchakite,” after the admiral’s death he abandoned the assault on Irkutsk and led the remnants of Kolchak’s army to Transbaikalia across the ice of Lake Baikal. In 1939, in exile, as one of the highest Czechoslovak generals, Wojciechowski advocated resistance to the Germans and created the underground organization Obrana národa (“Defense of the People”). Arrested by SMERSH in 1945. Repressed, died in a camp near Taishet.

12. Erast Hyacinths


During the First World War, Erast Giatsintov became the owner of the full set of orders available to the chief officer of the Russian Imperial Army. After the revolution, he was obsessed with the idea of ​​overthrowing the Bolsheviks and even occupied with friends a whole row of houses around the Kremlin in order to start resistance from there, but in time he realized the futility of such tactics and joined the White Army, becoming one of the most productive intelligence officers.

In exile, on the eve of and during World War II, he took an open anti-Nazi position and miraculously avoided being sent to a concentration camp. After the war, he resisted the forced repatriation of “displaced persons” to the USSR.

13. Mikhail Yaroslavtsev(Archimandrite Mitrofan)


During the Civil War, Mikhail Yaroslavtsev proved himself to be an energetic commander and distinguished himself with personal valor in several battles. Yaroslavtsev embarked on the path of spiritual service already in exile, after the death of his wife on December 31, 1932. In May 1949, Metropolitan Seraphim (Lukyanov) elevated Hegumen Mitrofan to the rank of archimandrite.

Contemporaries wrote about him: “Always impeccable in the performance of his duty, richly gifted with wonderful spiritual qualities, he was a true consolation for so many of his flock...” He was rector of the Resurrection Church in Rabat and defended the unity of the Russian Orthodox community in Morocco with the Moscow Patriarchate.

14. Mikhail Khanzhin


General Khanzhin became a movie hero. He is one of the characters in the 1968 feature film "The Thunderstorm over Belaya". The role of the general was played by Efim Kopelyan. A documentary film “The Return of General Khanzhin” was also shot about his fate. For his successful command of the Western Army of the Western Front, Mikhail Khanzhin was promoted by Kolchak to the rank of artillery general - the highest distinction of this kind, which was awarded by Kolchak when he was the Supreme Ruler.

15. Pavel Shatilov


A. V. Krivoshein, P. N. Wrangel and P. N. Shatilov. Crimea. 1920

Pavel Shatilov is a hereditary general; both his father and his grandfather were generals. He particularly distinguished himself in the spring of 1919, when in an operation in the area of ​​the Manych River he defeated a 30,000-strong Red group. Pyotr Wrangel, whose chief of staff Shatilov later was, spoke of him this way: “a brilliant mind, outstanding abilities, possessing extensive military experience and knowledge, with enormous capacity for work, he was able to work with a minimum amount of time.” In the fall of 1920, it was Shatilov who led the emigration of whites from Crimea.

10 short facts about the White Army

Because of literature and cinema, we often perceive the White Army in a romantic way; books and films about it are full of inaccuracies, and the facts are distorted by the author’s biased assessment.

The Bolsheviks could rely on the support of the workers and poor peasants. These categories of the population could always be mobilized for rations and a small allowance. Middle peasants fought against both the whites and the reds, but they were reluctant to go to foreign provinces and easily moved from one camp to another. After mass mobilization became the main principle of the formation of the White Army, the qualitative composition of its troops noticeably deteriorated and, in the absence of broad social support, this led to a significant decrease in combat effectiveness.

In addition, by the beginning of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks already had a formed terrorist network, which involved yesterday’s criminals, raiders and thugs. They plagued white-controlled regions with sabotage.

Aristocrats

If you watch Soviet films about the Civil War, you can see that white officers are entirely intelligent people, “white bones,” nobles and aristocrats. They listen to romances, enter into officer disputes and indulge in nostalgia for the former Russia. However, this picture is, of course, greatly embellished.

The overwhelming majority of white officers were from the so-called commoners. Not all of them were even taught to read and write, as you can find out today if you look at the documents of the admissions committee of the Academy of the General Staff. The officers who entered it showed “poor knowledge of history and geography,” “lack of clarity of thinking and general lack of mental discipline,” and made many serious mistakes.

And these were not just officers, but the best, since not everyone could apply for admission to the Academy. Of course, we will not say that all white officers were illiterate, but the fact that they all had “blue blood” is not true.

Desertion


When today they talk about the reasons for the defeat of the White Army, they like to talk about mass desertion from there. We will not deny that desertion took place, but both its reasons and its scale varied among the warring parties. In addition to individual cases of voluntary departure from the White Army, there were also mass cases of desertion, which was caused by a number of reasons.

Firstly, Denikin’s army, despite the fact that it controlled quite large territories, was never able to significantly increase its numbers at the expense of the inhabitants living on them. Secondly, gangs of “greens” or “blacks” often operated in the rear of the whites, who fought against both the whites and the reds. Deserters were often among them.

However, all other things being equal, many more people deserted from the Red Army. In just one year (1919-1920), at least 2.6 million people voluntarily left the Red Army, which exceeded the total number of the White Army.

Allied support

The role of intervention in helping the White Army is greatly exaggerated. The intervention troops practically did not clash with the Red Army, with the exception of minor battles in the North, and in Siberia they even collaborated with the Bolsheviks. Assistance to the White Army was limited, by and large, only to military supplies.

But the “allies” did not provide this help in vain. They had to pay for weapons with gold reserves and grain, which is why the peasants were the first to suffer. As a result, the popularity of the movement for the restoration of the “former” Russia was steadily declining. And this help was insignificant.

For example, the British supplied Denikin with only a few dozen tanks, although they had thousands in service after the First World War. Despite the fact that the last military formations were ousted from the territory of the USSR (in the Far East) in 1925, in fact the whole point of intervention for the Entente countries became obsolete after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Captivity


The myth that white officers were very ideological and even on pain of death refused to surrender to the Bolsheviks, unfortunately, is only a myth. Only near Novorossiysk in March 1920, the Red Army captured 10,000 Denikin officers and 9,660 Kolchak officers. Most of the prisoners were accepted into the Red Army.

Due to the large number of former whites in the Red Army, the military leadership of the Bolsheviks even introduced a limit on the number of white officers in the Red Army - no more than 25% of the command staff. The “surplus” were sent to the rear, or went to teach in military schools.

EMRO

On August 31, 1924, the self-named “guardian”, Kirill Vladimirovich, declared himself Emperor of All Russia Kirill I. Thus, the army automatically came under his command, since it was formally subordinate to the emperor. But the next day the army was gone - it was disbanded by Wrangel himself, and in its place appeared the Russian All-Military Union, which was headed by the same Wrangel.

Oddly enough, the EMRO exists to this day, following the same principles of 1924.

Wrangel and Blumkin

Wrangel's formations caused serious concern among the Soviet command. There were even several assassination attempts on Wrangel's life. One of them ended before it even began. In the fall of 1923, Yakov Blumkin, the murderer of the German ambassador Mirbach, knocked on Wrangel’s door.

The security officers pretended to be French cameramen, for whom Wrangel had previously agreed to pose. The box simulating a camera was filled to the brim with weapons; an additional Lewis machine gun was hidden in a tripod case. But the conspirators immediately made a serious mistake - they knocked on the door, which was completely unacceptable both in Serbia, where the action took place, and in France, where they had long ago switched to doorbells.

The guards rightly considered that only people who came from Soviet Russia could knock, and, just in case, they did not open the gate.

National politics


The big mistake of the White Army was that it lost the “national question.” Denikin’s concept of a “united and indivisible Russia” did not even allow for discussion of the issue of self-determination of the national territories that were part of Russia. During the capture of Kyiv, Denikin, who denied the independence of Ukraine, was unable to come to an agreement with the leadership of the UPR and the Galician army. This led to an armed confrontation, which, although it ended in victory for Denikin’s troops, might not have taken place at all. This deprived the white movement of support from national minorities, many of whom were opposed to the Bolsheviks.

General's honor

The history of the White Army also had its own “Judas”. It was the French general Janin. He promised to ensure, if possible, Kolchak’s safe passage to wherever he wanted. Kolchak took the general at his word, but he did not keep it. Upon arrival in Irkutsk, Kolchak was detained by the Czechs and first handed over to the Socialist-Revolutionary-Menshevik Political Center, and then ended up in the hands of the Bolsheviks and was shot on February 7, 1920. Janin received the nickname “general without honor” for his betrayal.

Annenkov


As we have already said, the whites were not entirely aristocrats with an impeccable sense of tact; there were real “lawless men” among them. The most famous of them can be called General Annenkov. His cruelty was legendary. A participant in World War I became famous as the commander of a raid detachment and had awards. He started an uprising in Siberia in 1918. He brutally suppressed the Bolshevik uprising in Slavogorsk and Pavlodar districts.

Having captured the peasants' congress, he chopped up 87 people. He tortured many people who were not involved in the uprising. Men were cut down with villages, women were raped and chopped down. There were many mercenaries in Annenkov’s detachment: Afghans, Uyghurs, and Chinese. The victims numbered in the thousands. After Kolchak’s defeat, Annenkov retreated to Semirechye and crossed the border with China. Spent three years in a Chinese prison. In 1926 he was handed over to the Bolsheviks and a year later executed.

Where did the terms "red" and "white" come from? The Civil War also saw the “Greens”, “Cadets”, “Socialist Revolutionaries” and other formations. What is their fundamental difference?

In this article, we will answer not only these questions, but also briefly get acquainted with the history of its formation in the country. Let's talk about the confrontation between the White Guard and the Red Army.

Origin of the terms "red" and "white"

Today, the history of the Fatherland is of less and less concern to young people. According to surveys, many have no idea, let alone about the Patriotic War of 1812...

However, such words and phrases as “red” and “white”, “Civil War” and “October Revolution” are still heard. Most people, however, do not know the details, but they have heard the terms.

Let's take a closer look at this issue. We should start with where the two opposing camps came from - “white” and “red” in the Civil War. In principle, it was simply an ideological move by Soviet propagandists and nothing more. Now you will figure out this riddle yourself.

If you turn to textbooks and reference books of the Soviet Union, they explain that the “whites” are the White Guards, supporters of the Tsar and enemies of the “reds”, the Bolsheviks.

It seems that everything was so. But in fact, this is another enemy that the Soviets fought against.

The country has lived for seventy years in confrontation with fictitious opponents. These were the “whites,” the kulaks, the decaying West, the capitalists. Very often, such a vague definition of the enemy served as the foundation for slander and terror.

Next we will discuss the causes of the Civil War. “Whites,” according to Bolshevik ideology, were monarchists. But here’s the catch: there were practically no monarchists in the war. They had no one to fight for, and their honor did not suffer from this. Nicholas II abdicated the throne, and his brother did not accept the crown. Thus, all tsarist officers were free from the oath.

Where then did this “color” difference come from? If the Bolsheviks really had a red flag, then their opponents never had a white one. The answer lies in the history of a century and a half ago.

The Great French Revolution gave the world two opposing camps. The royal troops carried a white banner, the symbol of the dynasty of French rulers. After seizing power, their opponents hung a red canvas in the window of the city hall as a sign of the introduction of wartime. On such days, any gatherings of people were dispersed by soldiers.

The Bolsheviks were opposed not by monarchists, but by supporters of the convening of the Constituent Assembly (constitutional democrats, cadets), anarchists (Makhnovists), “green army men” (fought against the “red”, “white”, interventionists) and those who wanted the separation of their territory into a free state .

Thus, the term "white" was cleverly used by ideologues to define a common enemy. His winning position was that any Red Army soldier could explain in a nutshell what he was fighting for, unlike all the other rebels. This attracted ordinary people to the side of the Bolsheviks and made it possible for the latter to win the Civil War.

Prerequisites for the war

When studying the Civil War in class, a table is essential for a good understanding of the material. Below are the stages of this military conflict, which will help you better navigate not only the article, but also this period in the history of the Fatherland.

Now that we have decided who the “reds” and “whites” are, the Civil War, or rather its stages, will be more understandable. You can begin to study them in more depth. It's worth starting with the premises.

So, the main reason for such intense passions, which later resulted in a five-year Civil War, was the accumulated contradictions and problems.

First, the Russian Empire's involvement in World War I destroyed the economy and depleted the country's resources. The bulk of the male population was in the army, agriculture and urban industry fell into decay. The soldiers were tired of fighting for other people's ideals when there were hungry families at home.

The second reason was agricultural and industrial issues. There were too many peasants and workers who lived below the poverty line. The Bolsheviks took full advantage of this.

In order to turn participation in the world war into an inter-class struggle, certain steps were taken.

First, the first wave of nationalization of enterprises, banks, and lands took place. Then the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, which plunged Russia into the abyss of complete ruin. Against the backdrop of general devastation, the Red Army men carried out terror in order to stay in power.

To justify their behavior, they built an ideology of struggle against the White Guards and interventionists.

Background

Let's take a closer look at why the Civil War began. The table we provided earlier illustrates the stages of the conflict. But we will start with the events that occurred before the Great October Revolution.

Weakened by its participation in the First World War, the Russian Empire declines. Nicholas II abdicates the throne. More importantly, he does not have a successor. In light of such events, two new forces are being formed simultaneously - the Provisional Government and the Council of Workers' Deputies.

The former are beginning to deal with the social and political spheres of the crisis, while the Bolsheviks concentrated on increasing their influence in the army. This path subsequently led them to the opportunity to become the only ruling force in the country.
It was the confusion in government that led to the formation of the “reds” and “whites”. The civil war was only the apotheosis of their differences. Which is to be expected.

October Revolution

In fact, the tragedy of the Civil War begins with the October Revolution. The Bolsheviks were gaining strength and moving more confidently to power. In mid-October 1917, a very tense situation began to develop in Petrograd.

October 25 Alexander Kerensky, head of the Provisional Government, leaves Petrograd for Pskov for help. He personally assesses the events in the city as an uprising.

In Pskov, he asks for help with troops. Kerensky seems to be receiving support from the Cossacks, but suddenly the cadets leave the regular army. Now constitutional democrats refuse to support the head of government.

Not finding adequate support in Pskov, Alexander Fedorovich goes to the city of Ostrov, where he meets with General Krasnov. At the same time, the Winter Palace was stormed in Petrograd. In Soviet history, this event is presented as key. But in fact, it happened without resistance from the deputies.

After a blank shot from the cruiser Aurora, sailors, soldiers and workers approached the palace and arrested all members of the Provisional Government present there. In addition, the Second Congress of Soviets took place, where a number of major declarations were adopted and executions at the front were abolished.

In view of the coup, Krasnov decides to provide assistance to Alexander Kerensky. On October 26, a cavalry detachment of seven hundred people leaves towards Petrograd. It was assumed that in the city itself they would be supported by an uprising by the cadets. But it was suppressed by the Bolsheviks.

In the current situation, it became clear that the Provisional Government no longer had power. Kerensky fled, General Krasnov negotiated with the Bolsheviks the opportunity to return to Ostrov with his detachment without hindrance.

Meanwhile, the Socialist Revolutionaries begin a radical struggle against the Bolsheviks, who, in their opinion, have acquired greater power. The response to the murders of some “red” leaders was terror by the Bolsheviks, and the Civil War (1917-1922) began. Let us now consider further events.

Establishment of "red" power

As we said above, the tragedy of the Civil War began long before the October Revolution. The common people, soldiers, workers and peasants were dissatisfied with the current situation. If in the central regions many paramilitary detachments were under the close control of Headquarters, then in the eastern detachments a completely different mood reigned.

It was the presence of a large number of reserve troops and their reluctance to enter into a war with Germany that helped the Bolsheviks quickly and bloodlessly receive the support of almost two-thirds of the army. Only 15 large cities resisted the “red” authorities, while 84 passed into their hands on their own initiative.

An unexpected surprise for the Bolsheviks in the form of stunning support from confused and tired soldiers was declared by the “Reds” as a “triumphant procession of the Soviets.”

The civil war (1917-1922) only worsened after the signing of a devastating treaty for Russia, the former empire lost more than a million square kilometers of territory. These included: the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, the Caucasus, Romania, Don territories. In addition, they had to pay Germany six billion marks of indemnity.

This decision caused protest both within the country and from the Entente. Simultaneously with the intensification of various local conflicts, military intervention by Western states on Russian territory begins.

The entry of Entente troops in Siberia was reinforced by the revolt of the Kuban Cossacks under the leadership of General Krasnov. The defeated detachments of the White Guards and some interventionists went to Central Asia and continued the struggle against Soviet power for many years.

Second period of the Civil War

It was at this stage that the White Guard Heroes of the Civil War were most active. History has preserved such surnames as Kolchak, Yudenich, Denikin, Yuzefovich, Miller and others.

Each of these commanders had his own vision of the future for the state. Some tried to interact with the Entente troops in order to overthrow the Bolshevik government and still convene the Constituent Assembly. Others wanted to become local princelings. This includes people like Makhno, Grigoriev and others.

The difficulty of this period lies in the fact that as soon as the First World War was completed, German troops had to leave Russian territory only after the arrival of the Entente. But according to a secret agreement, they left earlier, handing over the cities to the Bolsheviks.

As history shows us, it is after this turn of events that the Civil War enters a phase of particular cruelty and bloodshed. The failure of commanders oriented towards Western governments was further aggravated by the fact that they had a catastrophic shortage of qualified officers. Thus, the armies of Miller, Yudenich and some other formations disintegrated only because, with a lack of mid-level commanders, the main influx of forces came from captured Red Army soldiers.

Messages in newspapers of this period are characterized by headlines of this type: “Two thousand military personnel with three guns went over to the side of the Red Army.”

Final stage

Historians tend to associate the beginning of the last period of the war of 1917-1922 with the Polish War. With the help of his western neighbors, Piłsudski wanted to create a confederation with territory from the Baltic to the Black Sea. But his aspirations were not destined to come true. The armies of the Civil War, led by Egorov and Tukhachevsky, fought their way deep into Western Ukraine and reached the Polish border.

Victory over this enemy was supposed to rouse the workers in Europe to fight. But all the plans of the Red Army leaders failed after a crushing defeat in the battle, which was preserved under the name “Miracle on the Vistula.”

After the conclusion of a peace treaty between the Soviets and Poland, disagreements begin in the Entente camp. As a result, funding for the “white” movement decreased, and the Civil War in Russia began to decline.

In the early 1920s, similar changes in the foreign policies of Western states led to the recognition of the Soviet Union by most countries.

The heroes of the Civil War of the final period fought against Wrangel in Ukraine, the interventionists in the Caucasus and Central Asia, in Siberia. Among the particularly distinguished commanders, Tukhachevsky, Blucher, Frunze and some others should be noted.

Thus, as a result of five years of bloody battles, a new state was formed on the territory of the Russian Empire. Subsequently, it became the second superpower, whose only rival was the United States.

Reasons for victory

Let's figure out why the “whites” were defeated in the Civil War. We will compare the assessments of the opposing camps and try to come to a common conclusion.

Soviet historians saw the main reason for their victory in the fact that there was massive support from the oppressed sections of society. Particular emphasis was placed on those who suffered as a result of the 1905 revolution. Because they unconditionally went over to the side of the Bolsheviks.

“Whites,” on the contrary, complained about the lack of human and material resources. In occupied territories with a population of millions, they could not carry out even the minimum mobilization to replenish their ranks.

Particularly interesting are the statistics provided by the Civil War. “Reds” and “Whites” (the table below) especially suffered from desertion. Unbearable living conditions, as well as the lack of clear goals, made themselves felt. The data concerns only the Bolshevik forces, since the White Guard records did not preserve clear figures.

The main point that modern historians note was the conflict.

The White Guards, firstly, had no centralized command and minimal cooperation between units. They fought locally, each for their own interests. The second feature was the absence of political workers and a clear program. These aspects were often assigned to officers who only knew how to fight, but not how to conduct diplomatic negotiations.

The Red Army soldiers created a powerful ideological network. A clear system of concepts was developed that was drummed into the heads of workers and soldiers. The slogans made it possible for even the most downtrodden peasant to understand what he was going to fight for.

It was this policy that allowed the Bolsheviks to receive maximum support from the population.

Consequences

The victory of the “Reds” in the Civil War was very costly for the state. The economy was completely destroyed. The country lost territories with a population of more than 135 million people.

Agriculture and productivity, food production decreased by 40-50 percent. The surplus appropriation system and the “red-white” terror in different regions led to the death of a huge number of people from starvation, torture and execution.

Industry, according to experts, has slipped to the level of the Russian Empire during the reign of Peter the Great. Researchers say production levels have fallen to 20 percent of 1913 levels, and in some areas to 4 percent.

As a result, a massive outflow of workers from cities to villages began. Since there was at least some hope of not dying of hunger.

“Whites” in the Civil War reflected the desire of the nobility and higher ranks to return to their previous living conditions. But their isolation from the real sentiments that reigned among the common people led to the total defeat of the old order.

Reflection in culture

Civil War leaders were immortalized in thousands of different works - from cinema to paintings, from stories to sculptures and songs.

For example, such productions as “Days of the Turbins”, “Running”, “Optimistic Tragedy” immersed people in the tense wartime environment.

The films “Chapaev”, “Little Red Devils”, “We are from Kronstadt” showed the efforts that the “Reds” made in the Civil War to win their ideals.

The literary work of Babel, Bulgakov, Gaidar, Pasternak, Ostrovsky illustrates the life of representatives of different strata of society in those difficult days.

One can give examples almost endlessly, because the social catastrophe that resulted from the Civil War found a powerful response in the hearts of hundreds of artists.

Thus, today we learned not only the origin of the concepts “white” and “red”, but also became briefly acquainted with the course of events of the Civil War.

Remember that any crisis contains the seeds of future changes for the better.

The White Army is a military formation of one of the sides in the bloody war in Russia, which is called the civil war. Created as a counterweight to the Red Army after the victory of the October Revolution of 1917. The greatest tragedy of the twentieth century divided Russia into two parts, as a result of which two powerful opposing forces came together, one of which defended old ideals and values, the second called forward to a new life.

White movement

It was formed at the very early stage of the civil war, and was initially doomed, despite the fact that it was supported by the Russian army. It is difficult to say when it was formed, since there are several versions based on the memories of participants who, due to personal motives, attach some significance to certain events.

According to the official version, after the October Uprising, the generals of the tsarist army were arrested, including A.I. Denikin, S.L. Markov, L.G. Kornilov. After their release in December, they go to the Don to Ataman A.M. Kaledin. It was unsafe to remain in Petrograd. Independence was declared on the Don. The generals openly supported the ataman and took an active part in the creation of the Russian Volunteer Army, which was called the White Army.

Gradually, the leaders of the Cadets and Socialist Revolutionaries gathered on the Don, who became the political component of the White movement, which was very heterogeneous and consisted of representatives of various parties. There were monarchists, republicans and socialists. They were united by the idea of ​​a united and indivisible Russia, the fear of an unknown and incomprehensible force, whose name is the Bolsheviks.

White Army, its formation

According to historians, it began with the creation of General V.M. Alekseev, former chief of staff of the armies of the South-Western Front, a military formation called the “Alekseev organization”. It was created even before the October Uprising on October 7, 1917, and officers joined it only on a voluntary basis. On the basis of this organization, after the October Revolution, the Volunteer White Army began to exist.

All the officer cadres who were left abandoned, without work and completely did not know what to do next flocked here. It is difficult to imagine the moral state of the military personnel, mostly honest and decent people who swore an oath to the Tsar-Father, went through the vicissitudes of the First World War, the collapse of the army and ultimately became enemies of the people for whom they shed blood.

Most of the military were well aware that the White Army, its creation, would cause a Civil War. Soon, many senior officers of the Russian army, including A.M., were under the banner of the movement. Kaledin, L.G. Kornilov. The White movement and the army did not have unity in their goals, so one part wanted the restoration of the monarchy, the other part set the goal of restoring the gains of the bourgeois revolution.

There was no agreement between the senior officers, for example, those who collaborated with the Provisional Government were considered traitors and, despite this, they were united by an intolerant attitude towards the Bolsheviks, which cemented another event, in the opinion of the majority of the military, treacherous - the signing of the Brest Treaty by the Bolsheviks peace.

Meanwhile, the movement, of which the White Army was an integral part, did not have clearly formulated goals, strategies and tactics, there were only ambitions, confusion, under the carpet intrigues and liberal chatter. In contrast, the Bolsheviks had clear goals, a minimum program and a maximum program, they clearly knew what they needed and what they wanted.

The participants of the White movement had the experience of the First World War, academic military education, and the support of their allies - the Entente countries. Compared to the Bolsheviks, this was a huge advantage, which allowed them to win significant victories at first.

Armies of the White Movement

In May 1918, two armies were formed in the south of Russia - the Volunteer and the Don under the leadership of generals Kornilov and Kaledin. The formation of the Donskoy was carried out by the Council of Defense of the Don Army.

At the beginning of summer, 06/08/1918, a military formation of a committee of members of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly was formed. Its commander was Colonel N.A. Galkin. This happened after the capture of Samara by the White Czechs. On June 12, troops of V.O. Kappel is occupied by Syzran and Stavropol. In July, Kappel undertakes a raid along the banks of the Volga to the mouth of the Kama and takes Kazan. After this, the People's Army was disbanded, forming the Volga Front, its command was entrusted to the White Czech S. Chechek.

At the same time, the Provisional Government of Siberia formed the Siberian Army. In August of the same year, the Northern Army was created in Arkhangelsk under the command of A.P. Rodzianko.

Russian (White) army. Association

The most important event takes place on October 14, 1918 in Omsk. The proclamation of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief and Supreme Ruler of Russia took place here. It turned out to be General L.G. Kornilov. He is reorganizing all troops. Unites all armies into a single one, bearing the name Russian.

This general did not stain himself with connections with the Provisional Government and enjoyed the respect of the majority of Russian generals and officers. Therefore, everyone with hope and unanimously accepted him as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. It is part of the GDP (provisional All-Russian government), formed on September 23, 1918.

Composition of the Russian (White) Army

The main backbone of the army was made up of professional soldiers. Initially, armies were formed exclusively from volunteers: officers, students, cadets and other sympathizers. But, as you know, there are no armies without soldiers, therefore, in the controlled areas, mobilization was carried out among the local population and captured Red Army soldiers.

Time for hope

It should be noted that at first there was no shortage of volunteers. The successes of the White Army in the civil war can be divided into three stages; they had their own reasons. The first is the months after the October Uprising until March 1918, at which time:

• The Bolsheviks had not yet formed centralized internal police bodies that would carry out work to eliminate members of the underground resistance, consisting of sympathizers of the white movement. Subsequently, the Cheka was formed.
• The Bolsheviks did not have a regular army, except for small and untrained detachments that could not resist professional military units.
• There was virtually no funding. The White movement, having accepted the obligations of the tsarist and provisional governments, received economic assistance from its allies, the Entente countries.

The second stage lasted approximately from March to December 1918. The popularity of the White Army increased and its numbers increased. Let us briefly outline the most important reasons that sharply reduced trust in the Bolsheviks among the bulk of the population - the peasantry:

Economic prerequisites for the defeat of the White movement

The period from spring to autumn 1919 became a turning point in the balance of forces of the Red and White armies. The Bolsheviks followed the path of war communism; there was no other option in the conditions of general devastation. The example of Germany during the World War was taken as a basis. The surplus appropriation system, the nationalization of enterprises that gradually began to operate, the reduction of commodity-money relations and other measures were carried out. In principle, these measures were not alien to the political essence of Bolshevism, which denied market relations and private property.

The leaders of the White movement took a different path. They did not come up with anything new except the return of private property and freedom of trade, which, according to the ideologists of the movement, was supposed to stop the crisis in the economy, but in fact accelerated its collapse. The main demand of the people - land, was promised only on paper, and so vaguely and confusingly that it was not perceived as real.

The bourgeoisie did not intend to restore the enterprises, since they did not see the point in this at this stage. Free trade took on an uncontrolled process in which merchants wanted to make an immediate profit, trying to withdraw their stolen capital abroad.

This led to the robbery of peasants, whose crops were bought right out of the woodwork at penny prices. The enterprises were standing still. The returning landowners carried out lynchings against the peasants who had a hand in their property. Constant mobilizations caused protests among the local population. The people saw the whites as a threat to the return of the old order, to change which a lot of blood had been shed. The majority of the people chose the Bolsheviks over two evils, as they specifically promised peace and land.

The material assistance allocated by the allies could not cover the needs of the armies for their maintenance. Allied demands for democratic and economic reforms remained unfulfilled. Punitive operations against peasants in Siberia, carried out by detachments of Kolchak’s army, forced entire families to join partisan detachments. For a long time, the word “Kolchak” was a dirty word in Siberian villages.

Disintegration of the movement

Desertion from the white armies became widespread. The military victories of the Red Army caused complete confusion in the White Army and its leadership. The absence of a program of action, a unified idea, and reasonable goals for the movement, all of this as a whole initially led to defeat. The temporary workers entrenched in the government and just random people who came to “rob” and profit led the white movement to complete collapse. Cadets, Socialist Revolutionaries, monarchists - all this once led Russia to collapse, what miracles could be expected again?

The collapse of the social base, complete devastation in the economy, the cessation of supplies to the armies, and the lack of a unified leadership led to its demoralization. The Bolsheviks advanced on all fronts, winning victories over the white formations one by one.

Another important factor was the granting of independence to Poland,

The march of Yudenich's army to Petrograd was stopped. The troops of the Northern Region under the command of E. Miller were defeated. The north of Russia completely came under Soviet rule. The attempt of General Wrangel, the dictator of the South of Russia, to distribute land to peasants for ransom ended in failure. It all ended with the evacuation of the armies to Turkey from Novorossiysk and the flight from Crimea. Kolchak’s army, or rather its remnants, left Omsk for Transbaikalia, under the command of Ataman Semenov, they retreated under pressure from partisans to the CER region. From there they were interned.

An unprecedented tragedy divided the country into two parts. An entire army fleeing abroad with weapons is an unprecedented thing. Thirst for revenge, return to the homeland, thousands of broken destinies, mental pain and resentment. But all this is “veal tenderness”. The people, tired of endless wars, chose the Bolsheviks, who were closer in spirit to them, and supported them, despite the surplus appropriation system and complete devastation in the country, once again showing that they were not “cattle”, but the engine of history.

The White movement in Russia is an organized military-political movement that was formed during the Civil War in 1917-1922. The White movement united political regimes that were distinguished by common socio-political and economic programs, as well as recognition of the principle of individual power (military dictatorship) on a national and regional scale, and a desire to coordinate military and political efforts in the fight against Soviet power.

Terminology

For a long time, the White movement was synonymous with the historiography of the 1920s. the phrase "general's counter-revolution". In this we can note its difference from the concept of “democratic counter-revolution”. Those belonging to this category, for example, the Government of the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch), the Ufa Directory (Provisional All-Russian Government) proclaimed the priority of collegial rather than individual management. And one of the main slogans of the “democratic counter-revolution” became: leadership and continuity from the All-Russian Constituent Assembly of 1918. As for the “national counter-revolution” (Central Rada in Ukraine, governments in the Baltic states, Finland, Poland, the Caucasus, Crimea), then they, unlike the White movement, put the proclamation of state sovereignty in the first place in their political programs. Thus, the White movement is rightfully considered as one of the parts (but the most organized and stable) of the anti-Bolshevik movement on the territory of the former Russian Empire.

The term White Movement during the Civil War was used mainly by the Bolsheviks. Representatives of the White movement defined themselves as bearers of legitimate “national power”, using the terms “Russian” (Russian Army), “Russian”, “All-Russian” (Supreme Ruler of the Russian State).

Socially, the White movement proclaimed the unification of representatives of all classes of Russian society at the beginning of the twentieth century and political parties from monarchists to social democrats. Political and legal continuity from pre-February and pre-October 1917 Russia was also noted. At the same time, the restoration of previous legal relations did not exclude their significant reform.

Periodization of the White movement

Chronologically, 3 stages can be distinguished in the origin and evolution of the White movement:

First stage: October 1917 - November 1918 - formation of the main centers of the anti-Bolshevik movement

Second stage: November 1918 - March 1920 - Supreme Ruler of the Russian State A.V. Kolchak is recognized by other White governments as the military-political leader of the White movement.

Third stage: March 1920 - November 1922 - activity of regional centers on the outskirts of the former Russian Empire

Formation of the White Movement

The White movement arose in the context of opposition to the policies of the Provisional Government and the Soviets (the Soviet “vertical”) in the summer of 1917. In preparation for the speech of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, Infantry General L.G. Kornilov, both military (“Union of Army and Navy Officers”, “Union of Military Duty”, “Union of Cossack Troops”) and political (“Republican Center”, “Bureau of Legislative Chambers”, “Society for the Economic Revival of Russia”) structures took part.

The fall of the Provisional Government and the dissolution of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly marked the beginning of the first stage in the history of the White movement (November 1917-November 1918). This stage was distinguished by the formation of its structures and gradual separation from the general counter-revolutionary or anti-Bolshevik movement. The military center of the White movement became the so-called. “Alekseevskaya organization”, formed on the initiative of Infantry General M.V. Alekseev in Rostov-on-Don. From the point of view of General Alekseev, it was necessary to achieve joint actions with the Cossacks of the South of Russia. For this purpose, the South-Eastern Union was created, which included the military (“Alekseevskaya organization”, renamed after the arrival of General Kornilov in the Volunteer Army on the Don) and civil authorities (elected representatives of the Don, Kuban, Terek and Astrakhan Cossack troops, as well as the “Union mountaineers of the Caucasus").

Formally, the first white government could be considered the Don Civil Council. It included generals Alekseev and Kornilov, the Don ataman, cavalry general A.M. Kaledin, and among political figures: P.N. Milyukova, B.V. Savinkova, P.B. Struve. In their very first official statements (the so-called “Kornilov Constitution”, “Declaration on the Formation of the South-Eastern Union”, etc.) they proclaimed: an irreconcilable armed struggle against Soviet power and the convening of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly (on new elective grounds). The resolution of major economic and political issues was postponed until its convening.

Unsuccessful battles in January-February 1918 on the Don led to the retreat of the Volunteer Army to Kuban. Here the continuation of armed resistance was expected. During the 1st Kuban (“Ice”) campaign, General Kornilov died during the unsuccessful assault on Ekaterinodar. He was replaced as commander of the Volunteer Army by Lieutenant General A.I. Denikin. General Alekseev became the Supreme Leader of the Volunteer Army.

During the spring-summer of 1918, centers of counter-revolution were formed, many of which later became elements of the all-Russian White movement. In April-May, uprisings began on the Don. Soviet power was overthrown here, elections of local authorities were held and cavalry general P.N. became the military ataman. Krasnov. Coalition inter-party associations were created in Moscow, Petrograd and Kyiv, providing political support for the White movement. The largest of them were the liberal “All-Russian National Center” (VNTs), in which the majority were cadets, the socialist “Union of the Revival of Russia” (SVR), as well as the “Council of the State Unification of Russia” (SGOR), from representatives of the Bureau of Legislative Chambers of the Russian Empire , Union of Trade and Industrialists, Holy Synod. The All-Russian Scientific Center enjoyed the greatest influence, and its leaders N.I. Astrov and M.M. Fedorov headed the Special Meeting under the Commander of the Volunteer Army (later the Special Meeting under the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia (VSYUR)).

The issue of “intervention” should be considered separately. The assistance of foreign states and the Entente countries was of great importance for the formation of the White movement at this stage. For them, after the conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk Peace, the war with the Bolsheviks was seen in the prospect of continuing the war with the countries of the Quadruple Alliance. Allied landings became centers of the White movement in the North. In Arkhangelsk in April, the Provisional Government of the Northern Region was formed (N.V. Tchaikovsky, P.Yu. Zubov, Lieutenant General E.K. Miller). The landing of allied troops in Vladivostok in June and the appearance of the Czechoslovak Corps in May-June became the beginning of the counter-revolution in the East of Russia. In the Southern Urals, back in November 1917, the Orenburg Cossacks, led by ataman Major General A.I., opposed Soviet power. Dutov. Several anti-Bolshevik government structures emerged in the East of Russia: the Ural Regional Government, the Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia (later the Provisional Siberian (regional) Government), the Provisional Ruler in the Far East, Lieutenant General D.L. Croatian, as well as the Orenburg and Ural Cossack troops. In the second half of 1918, anti-Bolshevik uprisings broke out on the Terek, in Turkestan, where the Socialist Revolutionary Transcaspian regional government was formed.

In September 1918, at the State Conference held in Ufa, a Provisional All-Russian Government and a socialist Directory were elected (N.D. Avksentyev, N.I. Astrov, Lieutenant General V.G. Boldyrev, P.V. Vologodsky, N. .V. Tchaikovsky). The Ufa Directory developed a draft Constitution that proclaimed continuity from the Provisional Government of 1917 and the disbanded Constituent Assembly.

Supreme Ruler of the Russian State Admiral A.V. Kolchak

On November 18, 1918, a coup took place in Omsk, during which the Directory was overthrown. The Council of Ministers of the Provisional All-Russian Government transferred power to Admiral A.V. Kolchak, proclaimed the Supreme Ruler of the Russian State and the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army and Navy.

Kolchak’s coming to power meant the final establishment of a regime of one-man rule on an all-Russian scale, relying on the structures of executive power (the Council of Ministers headed by P.V. Vologodsky), with public representation (the State Economic Conference in Siberia, Cossack troops). The second period in the history of the White movement began (from November 1918 to March 1920). The power of the Supreme Ruler of the Russian State was recognized by General Denikin, Commander-in-Chief of the North-Western Front, Infantry General N.N. Yudenich and the government of the Northern region.

The structure of the white armies was established. The most numerous were the forces of the Eastern Front (Siberian (Lieutenant General R. Gaida), Western (Artillery General M.V. Khanzhin), Southern (Major General P.A. Belov) and Orenburg (Lieutenant General A.I. Dutov) army). At the end of 1918 - beginning of 1919, the AFSR was formed under the command of General Denikin, troops of the Northern Region (Lieutenant General E.K. Miller) and the Northwestern Front (General Yudenich). Operationally, they were all subordinate to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Kolchak.

Coordination of political forces also continued. In November 1918, the Political Meeting of the three leading political associations of Russia (SGOR, VNTs and SVR) was held in Iasi. After the proclamation of Admiral Kolchak as Supreme Ruler, attempts were made to internationally recognize Russia at the Versailles Peace Conference, where the Russian Political Conference was created (chairman G.E. Lvov, N.V. Tchaikovsky, P.B. Struve, B.V. Savinkov, V. A. Maklakov, P.N. Milyukov).

In the spring and autumn of 1919, coordinated campaigns of the white fronts took place. In March-June, the Eastern Front advanced in diverging directions towards the Volga and Kama, to connect with the Northern Army. In July-October, two attacks on Petrograd by the North-Western Front were carried out (in May-July and in September-October), as well as a campaign against Moscow by the Armed Forces of Southern Russia (in July-November). But they all ended unsuccessfully.

By the fall of 1919, the Entente countries abandoned military support for the White movement (in the summer, a gradual withdrawal of foreign troops from all fronts began; until the fall of 1922, only Japanese units remained in the Far East). However, the supply of weapons, the issuance of loans and contacts with white governments continued without their official recognition (with the exception of Yugoslavia).

The program of the White movement, which was finally formed during 1919, provided for an “irreconcilable armed struggle against Soviet power”, after the liquidation of which, the convening of an All-Russian National Constituent Assembly was expected. The assembly was supposed to be elected in majoritarian districts on the basis of universal, equal, direct (in large cities) and two-stage (in rural areas) suffrage by secret ballot. The elections and activities of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly of 1917 were recognized as illegitimate, since they occurred after the “Bolshevik coup”. The new Assembly had to resolve the issue of the form of government in the country (monarchy or republic), elect the head of state, and also approve projects of socio-political and economic reforms. Before the “victory over Bolshevism” and the convening of the National Constituent Assembly, the highest military and political power belonged to the Supreme Ruler of Russia. Reforms could only be developed, but not implemented (the principle of “non-decision”). In order to strengthen regional power, before the convening of the All-Russian Assembly, it was allowed to convene local (regional) assemblies, designed to be legislative bodies under individual rulers.

The national structure proclaimed the principle of “One, Indivisible Russia,” which meant recognition of the actual independence of only those parts of the former Russian Empire (Poland, Finland, the Baltic republics) that were recognized by the leading world powers. The remaining state new formations on the territory of Russia (Ukraine, the Mountain Republic, the Caucasus republics) were considered illegitimate. For them, only “regional autonomy” was allowed. The Cossack troops retained the right to have their own authorities and armed formations, but within the framework of all-Russian structures.

In 1919, the development of all-Russian bills on agrarian and labor policy took place. Bills on agrarian policy boiled down to the recognition of peasant ownership of land, as well as “the partial alienation of landowners’ land in favor of peasants for ransom” (Declaration on the land issue of the governments of Kolchak and Denikin (March 1919)). Trade unions, the right of workers to an 8-hour working day, to social insurance, and to strikes were preserved (Declarations on the Labor Question (February, May 1919)). The property rights of former owners to city real estate, industrial enterprises and banks were fully restored.

It was supposed to expand the rights of local self-government and public organizations, while political parties did not participate in elections, they were replaced by inter-party and non-party associations (municipal elections in the south of Russia in 1919, elections of the State Zemstvo Council in Siberia in the fall of 1919).

There was also “white terror”, which, however, did not have the character of a system. Criminal liability was introduced (up to and including the death penalty) for members of the Bolshevik Party, commissars, employees of the Cheka, as well as workers of the Soviet government and military personnel of the Red Army. Opponents of the Supreme Ruler, “independents,” were also persecuted.

The White movement approved all-Russian symbols (restoration of the tricolor national flag, the coat of arms of the Supreme Ruler of Russia, the anthem “How Glorious is Our Lord in Zion”).

In foreign policy, “loyalty to allied obligations”, “all treaties concluded by the Russian Empire and the Provisional Government”, “full representation of Russia in all international organizations” (statements of the Supreme Ruler of Russia and the Russian Political Conference in Paris in the spring of 1919) were proclaimed.

The regimes of the White movement, in the face of defeats at the fronts, evolved towards “democratization”. So, in December 1919 - March 1920. the rejection of dictatorship and an alliance with the “public” were proclaimed. This was manifested in the reform of political power in the south of Russia (dissolution of the Special Conference and the formation of the South Russian government, responsible to the Supreme Circle of the Don, Kuban and Terek, recognition of the de facto independence of Georgia). In Siberia, Kolchak proclaimed the convening of the State Zemstvo Council, endowed with legislative powers. However, it was not possible to prevent the defeat. By March 1920, the Northwestern and Northern fronts were liquidated, and the Eastern and Southern fronts lost most of their controlled territory.

Activities of regional centers

The last period in the history of the Russian White movement (March 1920 - November 1922) was distinguished by the activities of regional centers on the outskirts of the former Russian Empire:

- in Crimea (Ruler of the South of Russia - General Wrangel),

- in Transbaikalia (Ruler of the Eastern Outskirts - General Semenov),

- in the Far East (Ruler of the Amur Zemsky Territory - General Diterichs).

These political regimes sought to move away from the no-decision policy. An example was the activity of the Government of the South of Russia, headed by General Wrangel and former agricultural manager A.V. Krivoshein in Crimea, in the summer-autumn of 1920. Reforms began to be implemented, providing for the transfer of “seized” landowners’ land into ownership to the peasants and the creation of peasant zemstvos. Autonomy of the Cossack regions, Ukraine and the North Caucasus was allowed.

The government of the Eastern outskirts of Russia, headed by Lieutenant General G.M. Semenov pursued a course of cooperation with the public by holding elections to the Regional People's Conference.

In Primorye in 1922, elections were held for the Amur Zemsky Council and the Ruler of the Amur Region, Lieutenant General M.K. Diterichs. Here, for the first time in the White movement, the principle of restoring the monarchy was proclaimed through the transfer of power of the Supreme Ruler of Russia to a representative of the Romanov dynasty. Attempts were made to coordinate actions with the rebel movements in Soviet Russia (“Antonovschina”, “Makhnovshchina”, Kronstadt uprising). But these political regimes could no longer count on all-Russian status, due to the extremely limited territory controlled by the remnants of the white armies.

Organized military-political confrontation with Soviet power ceased in November 1922 - March 1923, after the occupation of Vladivostok by the Red Army and the defeat of the Yakut campaign of Lieutenant General A.N. Pepelyaev.

Since 1921, the political centers of the White movement moved to the Abroad, where their final formation and political demarcation took place (“Russian National Committee”, “Meeting of Ambassadors”, “Russian Council”, “Parliamentary Committee”, “Russian All-Military Union”). In Russia, the White movement is over.

Main participants of the White movement

Alekseev M.V. (1857-1918)

Wrangel P.N. (1878-1928)

Gayda R. (1892-1948)

Denikin A.I. (1872-1947)

Drozdovsky M.G. (1881-1919)

Kappel V.O. (1883-1920)

Keller F.A. (1857-1918)

Kolchak A.V. (1874-1920)

Kornilov L.G. (1870-1918)

Kutepov A.P. (1882-1930)

Lukomsky A.S. (1868-1939)

May-Maevsky V.Z. (1867-1920)

Miller E.-L. K. (1867-1937)

Nezhentsev M.O. (1886-1918)

Romanovsky I.P. (1877-1920)

Slashchev Y.A. (1885-1929)

Ungern von Sternberg R.F. (1885-1921)

Yudenich N.N. (1862-1933)

Internal contradictions of the White movement

The white movement, which united in its ranks representatives of various political movements and social structures, could not avoid internal contradictions.

The conflict between military and civilian authorities was significant. The relationship between military and civil power was often regulated by the “Regulations on Field Command of Troops,” where civil power was exercised by the governor-general, dependent on the military command. In conditions of mobility of the fronts, the fight against the insurgent movement in the rear, the military sought to exercise the functions of civilian leadership, ignoring the structures of local self-government, resolving political and economic problems by order (the actions of General Slashchov in the Crimea in February-March 1920, General Rodzianko in Northwestern Front in the spring of 1919, martial law on the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1919, etc.). Lack of political experience and ignorance of the specifics of civil administration often led to serious mistakes and a decline in the authority of white rulers (the power crisis of Admiral Kolchak in November-December 1919, General Denikin in January-March 1920).

The contradictions between the military and civilian authorities reflected the contradictions between representatives of various political trends that were part of the White movement. The right (SGOR, monarchists) supported the principle of unlimited dictatorship, while the left (the Union of the Revival of Russia, Siberian regionalists) advocated “broad public representation” under military rulers. Of no small importance were disagreements between the right and the left on land policy (on the conditions for the alienation of landowners' land), on the labor issue (on the possibility of trade union participation in the management of enterprises), and on local self-government (on the nature of the representation of socio-political organizations).

The implementation of the principle of “One, Indivisible Russia” caused conflicts not only between the White movement and new state formations on the territory of the former Russian Empire (Ukraine, the Caucasus republics), but also within the White movement itself. Serious friction arose between Cossack politicians who sought maximum autonomy (up to state sovereignty) and white governments (the conflict between Ataman Semenov and Admiral Kolchak, the conflict between General Denikin and the Kuban Rada).

Controversies also arose regarding foreign policy “orientation.” Thus, in 1918, many political figures of the White movement (P.N. Milyukov and the Kiev group of cadets, the Moscow Right Center) spoke about the need for cooperation with Germany to “eliminate Soviet power.” In 1919, a “pro-German orientation” distinguished the Civil Administration Council of the Western Volunteer Army regiment. Bermondt-Avalov. The majority in the White movement advocated cooperation with the Entente countries as Russia's allies in the First World War.

Conflicts that arose between individual representatives of political structures (leaders of the SGOR and the National Center - A.V. Krivoshein and N.I. Astrov), within the military command (between Admiral Kolchak and General Gaida, General Denikin and General Wrangel, General Rodzianko and General Yudenich, etc.).

The above contradictions and conflicts, although they were not irreconcilable and did not lead to a split in the White movement, nevertheless violated its unity and played a significant role (along with military failures) in its defeat in the Civil War.

Significant problems for the white authorities arose due to the weakness of governance in the controlled territories. So, for example, in Ukraine, before the occupation of the AFSR troops, it was replaced during 1917-1919. four political regimes (the power of the Provisional Government, the Central Rada, Hetman P. Skoropadsky, the Ukrainian Soviet Republic), each of which sought to establish its own administrative apparatus. This made it difficult to quickly mobilize into the White Army, fight the insurgent movement, implement the laws adopted, and explain to the population the political course of the White movement.