Carl Linnaeus (Swedish: Carl Linnaeus, 1707-1778) - an outstanding Swedish scientist, naturalist and physician, professor at Uppsala University. He laid down the principles of classification of nature, dividing it into three kingdoms. The merits of the great scientist were the detailed descriptions of plants he left behind and one of the most successful artificial classifications of plants and animals. He introduced the concept of taxa into science and proposed a method of binary nomenclature, and also built a system of the organic world based on the hierarchical principle.
Childhood and youth
Carl Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707 in the Swedish city of Rossult in the family of a rural pastor, Nicholas Linneus. He was such a keen florist that he changed his previous surname Ingemarson to the Latinized version Linnaeus from the name of a huge linden tree (Lind in Swedish) that grew not far from his house. Despite the great desire of his parents to see their first-born as a priest, from a young age he was attracted to natural sciences, and especially botany.
When the son was two years old, the family moved to the neighboring town of Stenbrohult, but the future scientist studied in the town of Växjo - first at the local grammar school, and then at the gymnasium. The main subjects - ancient languages and theology - were not easy for Charles. But the young man was passionate about mathematics and botany. For the sake of the latter, he often skipped classes in order to study plants in natural conditions. He also mastered Latin with great difficulty, and then only for the opportunity to read Pliny’s “Natural History” in the original. On the advice of Dr. Rothman, who taught logic and medicine to Karl, the parents decided to send their son to study as a doctor.
Studying at the University
In 1727, Linnaeus successfully passed the exams at Lund University. Here, he was most impressed by the lectures of Professor K. Stobeus, who helped to replenish and systematize Karl’s knowledge. During his first year of study, he meticulously studied the flora of the area around Lund and created a catalog of rare plants. However, Linnaeus did not study in Lund for long: on Rothman’s advice, he transferred to Uppsala University, which had a more medical focus. However, the level of teaching in both educational institutions was below the capabilities of the student Linnaeus, so most of the time he was engaged in self-education. In 1730, he began teaching in the botanical garden as a demonstrator and had great success among his students.
However, there were still benefits from staying in Uppsala. Within the walls of the university, Linnaeus met Professor O. Celsius, who sometimes helped a poor student with money, and Professor W. Rudbeck Jr., on whose advice he went on a trip to Lapland. In addition, fate brought him together with student P. Artedi, with whom the natural history classification would be revised.
In 1732, Karl visited Lapland to study in detail the three kingdoms of nature - plants, animals and minerals. He also collected a large amount of ethnographic material, including about the life of the aborigines. As a result of the trip, Linnaeus wrote a brief review work, which was published in an expanded version in 1737 under the title “Flora Lapponica”. The aspiring scientist continued his research activities in 1734, when, at the invitation of the local governor, he went to Delecarlia. After that, he moved to Falun, where he was engaged in assaying and studying minerals.
Dutch period
In 1735, Linnaeus went to the shores of the North Sea as a candidate for a doctorate in medicine. This trip took place, among other things, at the insistence of his future father-in-law. Having defended his dissertation at the University of Harderwijk, Karl enthusiastically studied the natural science classrooms of Amsterdam, and then went to Leiden, where one of his fundamental works “Systema naturae” was published. In it, the author presented the distribution of plants into 24 classes, laying the basis for classification according to the number, size, location of stamens and pistils. Later, the work would be constantly updated, and 12 editions would be published during Linnaeus's lifetime.
The created system turned out to be very accessible even to non-professionals, allowing them to easily identify plants and animals. Its author was aware of his special purpose, calling himself the chosen one of the Creator, called upon to interpret his plans. In addition, in Holland he writes “Bibliotheca Botanica”, in which he systematizes literature on botany, “Genera plantraum” with a description of plant genera, “Classes plantraum” - a comparison of various classifications of plants with the system of the author himself, and a number of other works.
Return to homeland
Returning to Sweden, Linnaeus began practicing medicine in Stockholm and quickly entered the royal court. The reason was the healing of several ladies-in-waiting with a decoction of yarrow. He widely used medicinal plants in his activities, in particular, he used strawberries to treat gout. The scientist made a lot of efforts to create the Royal Academy of Sciences (1739), became its first president and was awarded the title of “royal botanist”.
In 1742, Linnaeus fulfilled his old dream and became a professor of botany at his alma mater. Under him, the Department of Botany at Uppsala University (Karl headed it for more than 30 years) acquired enormous respect and authority. The Botanical Garden played an important role in his studies, where several thousand plants grew, collected literally from all over the world. “In the natural sciences, principles must be confirmed by observations.”- said Linnaeus. At this time, real success and fame came to the scientist: Karl was admired by many outstanding contemporaries, including Rousseau. During the Age of Enlightenment, scientists like Linnaeus were all the rage.
Having settled on his estate Gammarba near Uppsala, Karl moved away from medical practice and plunged headlong into science. He managed to describe all the medicinal plants known at that time and study the effects of drugs produced from them on humans. In 1753, he published his main work, “The System of Plants,” on which he worked for a quarter of a century.
Linnaeus's scientific contributions
Linnaeus managed to correct the existing shortcomings of botany and zoology, whose mission had previously been reduced to a simple description of objects. The scientist forced everyone to take a fresh look at the goals of these sciences by classifying objects and developing a system for recognizing them. Linnaeus's main merit is related to the field of methodology - he did not discover new laws of nature, but he was able to organize the already accumulated knowledge. The scientist proposed a method of binary nomenclature, according to which names were assigned to animals and plants. He divided nature into three kingdoms and used four ranks to systematize it - classes, orders, species and genera.
Linnaeus classified all plants into 24 classes in accordance with the characteristics of their structure and identified their genus and species. In the second edition of the book "Species of Plants" he presented a description of 1260 genera and 7540 species of plants. The scientist was convinced that plants have sex and based the classification on the structural features of stamens and pistils he highlighted. When using the names of plants and animals, it was necessary to use the generic and species names. This approach put an end to the chaos in the classification of flora and fauna, and over time became an important tool for determining the relationship of individual species. To make the new nomenclature easy to use and not cause ambiguity, the author described each species in detail, introducing precise terminological language into science, which he outlined in detail in the work “Fundamental Botany.”
At the end of his life, Linnaeus tried to apply his principle of systematization to all of nature, including rocks and minerals. He was the first to classify humans and monkeys as members of the general group of primates. At the same time, the Swedish scientist was never a supporter of the evolutionary direction and believed that the first organisms were created in some kind of paradise. He sharply criticized proponents of the idea of species variability, calling it a departure from biblical traditions. “Nature does not make a leap,” the scientist repeated more than once.
In 1761, after four years of waiting, Linnaeus received a title of nobility. This allowed him to slightly modify his surname in the French manner (von Linne) and create his own coat of arms, the central elements of which were three symbols of the kingdoms of nature. Linnaeus came up with the idea of making a thermometer, for the creation of which he used the Celsius scale. For his numerous merits, in 1762 the scientist was admitted to the ranks of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
In the last years of his life, Karl was seriously ill and suffered several strokes. He died in his own home in Uppsala on January 10, 1778 and was buried in the local cathedral.
The scientist's scientific heritage was presented in the form of a huge collection, including a collection of shells, minerals and insects, two herbariums and a huge library. Despite the family disputes that arose, it went to Linnaeus’s eldest son and his full namesake, who continued his father’s work and did everything to preserve this collection. After his premature death, she came to the English naturalist John Smith, who founded the Linnean Society of London in the British capital.
Personal life
The scientist was married to Sarah Lisa Morena, whom he met in 1734, the daughter of the city doctor of Falun. The romance proceeded very stormily, and two weeks later Karl decided to propose to her. In the spring of 1735, they rather modestly became engaged, after which Karl went to Holland to defend his dissertation. Due to various circumstances, their wedding took place only 4 years later in the family farm of the bride’s family. Linnaeus became the father of many children: he had two sons and five daughters, two of whom died in infancy. In honor of his wife and father-in-law, the scientist named Moraea a genus of perennial plants from the Iris family, native to South Africa.
Carl Linnaeus is known throughout the world as a scientist and naturalist. His contribution to biology is high and relevant to this day. This Swedish scientist not only created a special system of the animal and plant world, which the whole world still uses today, but also made many other important scientific discoveries. By the way, it was this system of flora and fauna that brought him fame. Therefore, it is so important to know not only his scientific discoveries, but also to study the life and work of Carl Linnaeus.
Childhood years
The biography of Carl Linnaeus began at the end of May 1707 in Sweden. It is known that the boy’s father was a pastor in the village and he even had his own large wooden house and a garden where there were a huge number of flowers. Therefore, even in his childhood, the future scientist began not only to observe plants, but also collected them, dried them, and even compiled various herbariums from them.
Education
The future naturalist received his first primary education at a local school, where there were only primary classes. It is known that at that time teachers had a negative attitude towards the child and considered the future scientist a bad student who had no abilities and studied academic sciences with difficulty.
But nevertheless, Karl continued his education and even began to succeed. The parents decided that medical education would be perfect for their son. Therefore, immediately after finishing school he was sent to Lund, where the medical university was located.
But a year later, Carl Linnaeus, whose contribution to biology was significant, moved to Uppsala, where he continued his studies at another university, receiving a botanical education.
First scientific expedition
Having proven himself during his years at the university, Carl Linnaeus was sent to Lapland, where the Royal Swedish Scientific Society wanted to conduct an expedition. AND From this scientific expedition the young scientist brought several collections:
- Plants.
- Minerals.
- Animals.
Scientific activities
The young scientist wrote his first scientific work after returning from the expedition. However, it was not “Flora of Lapland” that brought him fame and fame. In 1735, the work “System of Nature” was published, the content of which brought recognition to the young naturalist. Karl created his own classification of the entire organic world: any plant or, for example, animal received two names, the first of which indicated, for example, the genus, and the second designation already indicated the species. Later he continued to work on his classification.
The contribution of the scientist Linnaeus to biology
Carl Linnaeus spent some time in Holland, where he successfully received his doctorate. And after that, the young scientist went to Leiden, where he spent two years. The young scientist decided to organize the three natural kingdoms into a system. He not only divided the plants into species and genera, but also identified 6 animal classes:
- Fish.
- Insects.
- Birds.
- Worms.
- Mammals.
- Amphibians.
Soon the scientist divided plants into classes. There were 24 of them in total, and this classification was based on the structural features of flower stamens and pistils. Each class was also subsequently divided into squads.
It is believed that, after all, the main merit of Carl Linnaeus is that he improved the terminology in biology. Instead of huge and incomprehensible names, the scientist provided clear and concise definitions that indicated the characteristics of plants.
In addition to this classification, scientists were offered another: in it, all plants were arranged into families.
Publication of scientific works
Trying to study the animal and plant world in more detail, the biologist visited several more scientific expeditions. And after that he settled in Uppsala and from 1742 he taught botany at the university. Students came from all over the world to listen to his lectures. A Botanical Garden was also created at the university, which contained more than 3 thousand plants. During this time, botanist scientists wrote and published many scientific works.
All the discoveries and merits of Carl Linnaeus were highly appreciated, and in 1762 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris.
Carl Linnaeus and the theory of evolution
Despite the fact that Carl Linnaeus was a scientist, he still adhered to the theory of evolution in biology. He supported the biblical legend that, after all, the first pairs of organisms appeared on the paradise island, where they multiplied. At first, the scientist was sure that no changes were happening to the plants. But he soon noticed that it was possible to obtain new types of plants as a result of crossing. Therefore, he created an artificial classification of plants. The system of nature that the famous scientist created played an important role in the theory of evolution.
It is known that over time, Carl Linnaeus created many other classifications:
- Minerals.
- Soils.
- Illnesses.
- Races.
Besides this, it was the famous scientist who was able to discover the beneficial and poisonous properties of plants. From 1749 to 1766 he created the following scientific works:
- “Medicinal substances” (3 volumes);
- “Kinds of diseases”;
- "The Key to Medicine"
In 1977, Carl Linnaeus fell ill. His illness was severe. And already in early January 1778 he died. The scientist's widow sold all his manuscripts, as well as most of the collection, to a library named after Linnaeus Smith.
We present to your attention a biography of Carl Linnaeus. This man (years of life - 1707-1778) is a famous Swedish naturalist. The scientist gained worldwide fame thanks to the system of flora and fauna created by him. The biography of Carl Linnaeus presented below will introduce you to the main events of his life and scientific achievements.
Origin and childhood of the future scientist
The future naturalist was born in southern Sweden, in the area of Roshult. The biography of Carl Linnaeus begins on May 25, 1707. That's when he was born. The boy's father was a village pastor who owned a wooden house and garden, where Karl first became acquainted with the world of plants. The future scientist collected them, dried them, sorted them and formed herbariums. Karl received his primary education at a local school. It is interesting that the teachers considered Linnaeus a child of little ability.
University studies, scientific expedition
In the hope that their son would receive a medical education, his parents decided to send him to a university located in Lund. A year later, Linnaeus moved to Uppsala. The future scientist received a higher botanical education here. After some time, the biography of Carl Linnaeus was marked by an important event. The Royal Swedish Society decided to send Karl on a scientific expedition to Lapland. From his travels, Linnaeus brought back a large collection of minerals, animals and plants. On November 9, 1732, the scientist presented to the Royal Society a report on what he saw during the expedition.
"Flora of Lapland" and "System of Nature"
"Flora of Lapland" is the first work of Carl Linnaeus on botany, which he wrote based on this trip. However, he gained fame with a very small work (only 12 pages), published in Leiden (Holland) in 1735. The essay is called “The System of Nature.”
Karl created a classification of the organic world. Each plant and animal received two Latin names. The first of them served as a designation for the genus, and the second for the species. John Ray (1627-1705) introduced biology to the concept of individuals differing from each other no more than children of the same parents differ. Carl Linnaeus identified all the species of animals and plants known at that time.
An important merit of Linnaeus is that in the 10th edition of his work “System of Nature,” which appeared in 1759, the scientist applied the concept of binary nomenclature and introduced it into use. Binarius means "double" in Latin. Each, in accordance with this, is designated using two Latin names - specific and generic. Linnaeus defined the concept of “species” using both a physiological criterion (the presence of fertile offspring) and a morphological one, which John Ray spoke about. Karl established subordination between the following categories of the system: variation, species, genus, order (order), class. All generally accepted botanical and zoological nomenclature in Latin originates from this work.
Life in Holland, new works
Linnaeus, having received his doctorate in medicine in Holland (Gartkali), spent 2 years in Leiden. It was here that he developed brilliant ideas to organize all 3 kingdoms of nature into a system. While in Holland, the scientist published his main works. It is worth noting, however, that the most important place in Linnaeus’ classification was occupied in zoology by the “System of Nature”, and in botany by the work “Species of Plants”. In 1761, the second edition of this work on botany was published. It described 7540 species and 1260 genera of plants. In this case, the varieties are highlighted separately.
6 classes of animals
Which we will consider in detail further, divided all animals into six classes: insects, worms, fish, amphibians, birds, mammals. The class of amphibians included reptiles and amphibians, and the class of worms included all forms of invertebrates known in his time (with the exception of insects). The advantage of the classification proposed by the scientist is that humans are classified in the order of primates of the class of mammals. Thus, Linnaeus included it in the system of the animal kingdom.
24 plant classes
Carl Linnaeus did not stop there. His contribution to biology concerned the classification of not only animals, but also plants. Linnaeus divided all species existing in nature into 24 classes. The scientist recognized their gender.
He based the classification he created, called sexual (sexual), on the characteristic features of pistils and stamens. The scientist believed that the reproductive organs are the most permanent and essential parts of the body in plants. Linnaeus divided all classes into orders based on the peculiarities of the structure of the pistils (female organs of the plant).
Note that the system of Carl Linnaeus was artificial. Groups of plants were distinguished on the basis of single characteristics. This inevitably led to the appearance of numerous errors by Carl Linnaeus. However, his system played a big role in the development of science, and this scientist’s approach itself is interesting.
Two Linnaean classifications
It is believed that the main achievements of Carl Linnaeus were the creation of binary nomenclature, as well as the standardization and improvement of terminology in botany. Instead of the previous definitions, which were very cumbersome, the scientist introduced clear and concise names that contained a list of plant characteristics in a certain order. Carl Linnaeus distinguished the following categories of the system of living organisms, subordinate to each other: varieties, species, genera, orders and classes. The scientist understood that the system he created was artificial, that his classification was arbitrary, since the characteristics for it were chosen arbitrarily. Linnaeus, striving for perfection, proposed another classification. He distributed all the plants into orders (or rather, families) that seemed natural to him.
Giving lectures in Uppsala, publishing scientific papers
Linnaeus made several more trips for scientific purposes, after which he settled in Uppsala. In 1742 he became a teacher of botany at the local university. Students from all over the world began to flock to Carl Linnaeus to listen to his lectures. The university's botanical garden played a special role in the classes. Linnaeus collected more than 3 thousand plants from all over the world. This garden later also became a zoological garden. Linnaeus wrote the textbook Philosophy of Botany in 1751. In addition, he published several major works and many articles in journals of scientific communities in London, St. Petersburg, Uppsala, Stockholm and other cities. The merits of Carl Linnaeus did not go unappreciated. The scientist became a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1762.
Merits of the scientist in the classification of plants
So, Carl Linnaeus, whose contribution to science we briefly reviewed, was the first to give an accurate description of the genera and species of 10 thousand plants. The scientist himself discovered and described approximately 1.5 thousand species. He drew attention to the movement of their leaves and flowers, although Carl Linnaeus did not try to explain the mechanics of this process. The classification of flora he created was simple, although artificial. It was based on the location and size of the pistils and stamens of the flower. The classification adopted by Linnaeus was recognized throughout the world.
Carl Linnaeus and the theory of evolution
However, this scientist was not a supporter of the theory of evolution in biology. He claimed, in accordance with the legend from the Bible, that the first pairs of organisms were created on the paradise island and subsequently multiplied and spread. At first, Carl Linnaeus believed that every species had not undergone change since the day of creation. However, he later noticed that new species could be obtained through crossing. Despite this, the scientist argued that discussions about the changeability of organisms are a deviation from the dogmas of religion, and therefore they are worthy of condemnation.
Thus, Linnaeus laid the basis for the artificial classification of plants on the idea of the immutability of all species. Although he was not an evolutionist, the static systematics he created became the cornerstone in the further development of natural science. Many scientists involved in research in the field of evolution turned to the works written by Carl Linnaeus. From this point of view, his contribution to science is great. The double names of animals and plants not only brought order to the chaos that had previously been observed in the classification of flora and fauna. After some time, these names became an important means by which the relatedness of species was determined. Carl Linnaeus's system of nature thus played a prominent role in evolutionary theory.
Other classifications and works of Linnaeus
Karl also classified minerals and soils, diseases (according to symptoms), and discovered the healing and poisonous properties of many plants. He is the author of several works, mainly on zoology and botany, as well as in the field of practical and theoretical medicine. Thus, in the period from 1749 to 1763, three volumes of “Medicinal Substances” were written, in 1763 - “Generations of Diseases”, in 1766 - “The Key to Medicine”.
The last years of life, the fate of the legacy
In 1774, the scientist became seriously ill. The life of Carl Linnaeus ended in Uppsala on January 10, 1778. His widow sold Linnaeus's collections, manuscripts and libraries to Smith, an English botanist. He founded the Linnean Society in London in 1788. And today it exists and is one of the world's largest scientific centers.
Swedish doctor and naturalist.
Creator of a unified system of classification of flora and fauna. Carl Linnaeus divided all of nature into the mineral, plant and animal “kingdoms”, and also proposed a stepwise hierarchy (species, genera, orders, classes), which is still used today.
“His entire childhood was spent in the garden of Roshult, a small Swedish town where his father was a priest. In hindsight, the “great babies” are often credited with all sorts of prophecies. And oh Linnaeus They also say that the baby stopped crying as soon as they put a flower in his hands. Whether it is true or not, who knows, but he studied so poorly that the teachers hinted to his parents that it would be better to teach him a craft rather than science. Nothing interested him except botany. However, strictly speaking, such a science did not yet exist, so it was difficult to notice his talent.(You can’t help but think that maybe even now some “underachieving” Kolya or Petya is absorbed in a science that we are not yet able to name.) It is unknown how his fate would have worked out if he had not met Dr. Rothman, who believed in the abilities of the high school student. Linnaeus was generally very lucky to have good people, and precisely in his youth, when it was especially needed. In all his biographies and “Handwritten Notes about himself” there are many names of friends, patrons and patrons of the arts. Dr. Rothman teaches him physiology and medicine, Professor Rudbeck, who taught botany at Uppsala University, makes him, a student, his assistant. The scientific society sends him on a trip to Lapland. The famous Leiden doctor Burgaw becomes his patron, and the rich man Clifford, who is in love with botany, showers him with benefits, publishes his works, and pays for his trip to England.”
Golovanov Y.K., Sketches about scientists, M., “Young Guard”, 1976, pp. 163-164.
«... Carl Linnaeus in his book “The System of Nature” (1735), he placed man in his classification next to the apes. Lamarck published his Philosophy of Zoology in 1809. In this book, he pointed out the anatomical kinship between humans and primates. The book “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” appeared in 1859 and caused a storm of emotions. The book The Descent of Man appeared in 1872. At the end of the 19th century, all progressive and educated people believed in Darwinism.”
Limonov E.V., Titans, “Ad Marginem Press”, 2014, p. 89.
“In the 18th century, the population of newly discovered continents and countries not only aroused the surprise of educated Europeans, but also gave rise to naive ideas about the similarity of the diversity of people to the diversity of the flora and fauna. The collected ethnographic and anthropological data are famous Carl Linnaeus applied in his classification of plants and natural phenomena, highlighting the human race with six varieties:
1) wild man;
2) a monstrous, that is, outlandish, person;
3) American - reddish, choleric, tattooed, custom-driven person;
4) European - white, fleshy, sanguine, covered with a tight-fitting dress, a person governed by laws;
5) Asian - yellowish, strongly built, with black straight hair, melancholic, stubborn, cruel, stingy, loving luxury, wearing wide dresses, a person governed by beliefs;
6) African - black, with flabby and velvety skin, matted hair, phlegmatic, lazy and indifferent, smeared with fat, controlled by arbitrariness.
For Europe, Linnaeus's classification was the quintessence of anthropological knowledge in the 18th century. And yet, for the “king of nature”, likening flowers or predators was unnatural and incorrect. However, in the 18th century there was not enough knowledge to understand the absurdity of such a classification, to recognize man, although he emerged from the animal world, as a special social species. Such knowledge Not merchants, monks and warriors could give, enriching the memory of past generations. Such knowledge could only be brought by those who could be called both travelers and scientists.”
Its R.F., Centuries and generations: ethnographic studies, L., Lenizdat, 1986, p. 91-92.
