Why do candles go out due to carbon dioxide? Studying the combustion process

Locally produced air Since the inner planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars - are located close to the Sun (Fig. 5.2), it is quite reasonable to assume that they consist of the same raw materials. This is true. Rice. 5.2. Orbits of the planets of the solar systemScale images

How much does the air in the room weigh? Can you say at least approximately how much weight the air contained in your room represents? A few grams or a few kilograms? Are you able to lift such a load with one finger or would you barely be able to hold it on your shoulders? Now,

How much does all the air on Earth weigh? The experiments now described show that a column of water 10 m high weighs the same as a column of air from the Earth to the upper boundary of the atmosphere, which is why they balance each other. It is not difficult to calculate therefore how much it weighs

Iron steam and solid air Isn't it a strange combination of words? However, this is not nonsense at all: both iron vapor and solid air exist in nature, but not under ordinary conditions. What conditions are we talking about? The state of matter is determined by two

FIRST STUDY AND EDUCATION Mary's father, Wladyslaw Sklodovsky, was removed from the post of director of the institute where he taught because of his political beliefs. Vladislav was forced to occupy positions of a lower category with a lower salary, until he was eventually dismissed

The Formation and Disappearance of Breathable Oxygen The oxygen we breathe is O2: a molecule of two oxygen atoms bonded by a pair of electrons. There is a lot of oxygen on Earth in other forms: in carbon dioxide, water, and minerals in the earth’s crust.

ILiterature review

1. The history of the creation of the candle……………………………………………………………………………………………………………2

   Types of candles……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...3

   Soap making……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..4

IIExperimental part

2.1 Physical analysis of candles………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..5

2.2 Where is the hottest part of the candle?………………………………………………………………………………….…….6

2.3 What burns in a candle? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6

2.4 Chemical analysis of candle combustion products………………………………………………………….…….6

IIIMaking and practical use of candles

3.1 Making candles…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7

3.1.1 Wax candle

3.1.2 Paraffin candle

3.1.3 Stearic suppository

3.2 Obtaining soap from stearin…………………………………………………………………………………………8

Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …..8

Conclusion

References

Applications

Introduction

Although candles have long been replaced by electric lamps, they are still in use and create a festive mood for the New Year, and sometimes help out during an unexpected power outage. Nowadays, candles can be found in a variety of colors and shapes. They are used for decorative purposes, for scenting rooms, and for measuring time. Candles have also found their use in religion. Church candles and candles in Buddhism have a thin, elongated shape and are made of wax. Many famous artists used the theme of candles, the play of light and shadow in their work. Boris Pasternak wrote the famous poem “Winter Night”, written in 1946, the main character of which is a candle. So magical and attractive, known to man since ancient times, they have becomethe topic of my project.

Relevance of the study: Candles originated in ancient times, but even now they are still popular: they create a festive mood for the New Year and save us during an unexpected power outage. Despite the fact that a candle is the most common item for us, we know little about it.

Research objectives:

Analyze scientific literature on this topic

Compare the physical properties of candles made from different materials

Find out where the hottest part of the flame is and what exactly is burning in the candle.

Conduct a chemical analysis of combustion products of candles made from various materials

Make candles of various materials with your own hands

Make soap

I Literature review

1.1 History of the creation of the candle.

Candles were invented by man a long time ago, but for a long time they were used only in the homes of rich people and were expensive. The combustible material for a candle can be: lard, stearin, wax, paraffin, spermaceti or another substance with suitable properties (fusibility, flammability, solid). The prototype of a candle is a bowl filled with oil or fat, with a sliver of wood as a wick (later they began to use fiber or fabric wicks). Such lamps gave off an unpleasant odor and produced a lot of smoke. The first candles of modern design appeared in the Middle Ages and were made from tallow (most often) or wax. Wax candles have long been very expensive. To illuminate a large room, hundreds of candles were required; they smoked, blackening the ceilings and walls. In the 15th century, beeswax slowly began to increase in popularity as a combustible material for candles. In the 16th-17th centuries, American colonists invented the production of wax from some local plants, and candles produced in this way temporarily gained great popularity - they did not smoke, did not melt as much as tallow ones, but their production was labor-intensive, and popularity soon faded to No. The development of the whaling industry in the late 18th century brought the first major changes to the candle-making process because spermaceti (a waxy oil obtained from the top of the sperm whale's head) became readily available. Spermaceti burned better than fat and did not smoke, and in general was closer to beeswax in properties and benefits. Most of the inventions that influenced the candle making industry date back to the 19th century. In 1820, the French chemist Michel Chevrolet discovered the possibility of isolating a mixture of fatty acids from animal fats - the so-called. stearin Stearin, otherwise sometimes called stearic wax due to wax-like properties, turned out to be hard, tough and burned without soot and almost odorless, and the technology for its production was not expensive. And as a result, soon stearin candles almost completely replaced all other types of candles, and mass production was established. Around the same time, the technology of impregnating candle wicks with boric acid was mastered, which eliminated the need to frequently remove wick residues (if not removed, they could extinguish the candle). Closer to the beginning of the 20th century, chemists were able to isolate petroleum wax - paraffin. Paraffin burned cleanly and evenly, giving off virtually no odor (the only strong smell was the smoke produced when extinguishing the candle, but this smell was not very unpleasant), and it was cheaper to produce than any other combustible substance for candles known at that time. Its only drawback was its low melting point (compared to stearin), due to which the candles tended to float before they burned, but this problem was solved after they began to add harder and more refractory stearin to the paraffin. Even with the introduction of electric lighting for quite a long time at the beginning of the 20th century, paraffin candles were only gaining popularity, this was facilitated by the rapid development of the oil industry at that time. Over time, their importance in lighting changed to decorative and aesthetic.

Today, paraffin candles are almost the only type among candles. Candles are made from a mixture of highly purified (snow-white or slightly transparent) paraffin with a small amount of stearin, or from low-purified (yellow) paraffin, both with and without the addition of stearin. The former are more aesthetically pleasing and less odorous, the latter do not float so much. Occasionally, candles are made from unrefined paraffin (red-yellow) without additives, which float very much and are therefore not in demand.

1.2 Types of candles

When making candles the following are used:

Paraffin - waxy mixture of saturated hydrocarbons (mineral wax) with composition from C 18 N 38 to C 35 N 72 . It has low chemical activity and is poorly soluble in water. The product of petroleum distillation is the most popular material for candles, and in one form or another is included in most candles. In the 19th century, stearin significantly replaced it as a candle material.

Beeswax - a natural product produced by bees. Simple lipids (esters of higher fatty acids and higher high molecular weight alcohols). Beeswax consists mainly of the ester of palmitic acid and myricyl alcohol. The wax is very stable, insoluble in water, but soluble in gasoline, chloroform, and ether. Beeswax candles burn longer and brighter than paraffin candles and are preferred by connoisseurs because they are natural. Due to the higher cost of wax candles, candles are often not made entirely from beeswax, but rather it is added to other materials to extend the burning time of the candle and imitate the natural aroma. The wax used for candles comes in different types.

Stearin - stearic acid with an admixture of palmitic, oleic and other saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. It is added to paraffin so that it shrinks more and when it cools, candles cast from it are easier to remove from the mold. Stearine also prevents candles from melting. For some time, stearin was the main material for making candles until they learned to extract paraffin from crude oil.

Glycerol - used in a mixture with gelatin and tannin. Glycerin candles are completely transparent; they can be given any color using different dyes. Inside a glycerin candle you can place various compositions of colored paraffin, which gives the candle extraordinary decorative properties.

Fat , for example beef. In some countries, due to the fight against obesity, they are trying to find other uses for this fat other than food. Sodium nitrate (up to 5%) and potassium alum (up to 5% by weight) are usually added to fat suppositories. Candles burn cleanly, without smoke or soot.

1.3 Soap making

Soap was invented much earlier than gunpowder and paper, no one knows when and no one knows by whom. It happened for the first time when melted fat, dripping from roasting meat, fell onto wood ash. The fat was immediately partially hydrolyzed, forming fatty acids that combined with sodium and potassium salts in the ash. These compounds were actually soap. This is the first surfactant. Soap production was put on a scientific basis at the beginningXIXcentury. This was facilitated by numerous studies by the French chemist M. Chevral in the field of fat chemistry. Chevreul established that the basis of any soap is fats, chemical compounds of glycerol with higher fatty acids. In the middleXIXcenturies, chemists could accurately name the composition of all soaps obtained and used. Since then, soap production has not undergone fundamental changes. The cleansing effect of soap is a complex process. The molecule of the salt of a higher carboxylic acid has a polar ionic part (-COONa) and a nonpolar hydrocarbon radical. The polar part of the molecule is soluble in water (hydrophilic), and the non-polar part is soluble in fats and other low-polar substances (hydrophobic). Under normal conditions, particles of fat or oil stick together, forming a separate phase in an aqueous environment. In the presence of soap, the picture changes dramatically. The non-polar ends of the soap molecule dissolve in the oil droplets, while the polar carboxylate anions remain in the aqueous solution. As a result of the repulsion of like charges on the surface of the oil, it is broken into tiny particles, each of which has an ionic shell of COO anions - . The presence of this shell prevents the particles from coalescing, resulting in the formation of a stable oil-in-water emulsion. Emulsification of fat and grease containing dirt is responsible for the cleansing effect of soap.

II Experimental part

2.1 Physical analysis of candles

For physical analysis, we took candles from various materials and compared their properties.

Observations

Wax candle

Paraffin candle

Stearic suppository

Appearance of the candle

Yellow-brown solid

Off-white solid

White solid

Candle burning time

Burns longer

Burns less

Burns longer

Presence of odor when burning

Gives off a faint honey smell

No

No

Soot formation during combustion

Smokes less

Smokes more

Smokes less

Flame brightness

Almost the same

Candle melting when burning

Floats less

Floats more

Floats less

2.2 Where is the hottest spot of the flame?

At first glance it seems to be in the very center. We checked this by holding a sheet of paper over the middle of the candle flame, across it. There should be no drafts in the room so that the flame is even and does not fluctuate.

Research results

A charred ring-shaped area appeared on the paper. It was narrower the higher the paper was held, and it turned into a solid spot at the level of the upper third of the flame - that’s where its hottest spot is located. This seemingly strange result turns out to be quite obvious if we remember that oxygen is necessary for combustion. It enters the flame only from the periphery, and only there does the combustion reaction occur. Therefore, the temperature of the flame in its different parts is different.

2.3 What burns in a candle

Probably the material from which it is made (paraffin, stearin or wax). But if we turn a burning candle over, the material will flow along the wick and, instead of flaring up, extinguish it. So what burns in a candle? We carefully blew out the candle, breathing lightly on it. A thin stream of bluish smoke trailed from the wick. They brought a match to her.

Research results

The flame along this stream from a distance of 1-2 centimeters jumped to the wick and the candle lit up again. What we mistook for smoke was paraffin vapor (stearin or wax) - it is they that burn in the candle. The molten paraffin material (stearin or wax) rises through the wick, like water through a thin capillary. The flame of a match evaporates it and ignites the vapor. The wick serves only as a “pipeline” supplying fuel to the “firebox” - the tongue of the flame.

2.4 Chemical analysis of candle combustion products

Soot detection: We fixed the glass slide in the holder, brought it into the area of ​​the dark cone of a burning candle and held it for 3 seconds. They quickly raised the glass and examined the lower plane. A dark spot will indicate the presence of soot.

Water detection: The dry test tube was secured in a holder, turned upside down and held over a flame until it fogged up. A fogged wall of the test tube will indicate the formation of water.

Carbon dioxide detection: 2 ml of lime water was added to the same test tube. The formation of carbon dioxide was determined by the cloudiness of the lime water.

Research results

Combustion products

Wax

Paraffin

Stearic

Soot

+

+

+

Water

+

+

+

Carbon dioxide

+

+

+

Combustion reaction equations

Wax candle 2 C 15 H 31 COOC 31 H 63 + 139 O 2 =94 CO 2 + 94 H 2 O

Paraffin candle 2C 16 H 34 +49 O 2 =32 CO 2 + 34 H 2 OC 17 H 36 + 26 O 2 =17 CO 2 + 18 H 2 O

Stearic suppository C 17 H 35 COOH+ 26O 2 =18O 2 + 18H 2 O

III Production and practical use of various types of candles.

3.1 Making candles with your own hands

3.1.1 Wax candle

A wax candle was made from beeswax. Beeswax can be purchased from honey sellers. For production, we chose the “twisting” method: the wick is pulled horizontally and evenly covered with wax, softened in warm water. When the workpiece reaches the required thickness, they begin to roll it on a smooth board with a flat board to give the future candle a cylindrical shape. Then the candle is cut from the bottom and its top is pulled out.

3.1.2 Paraffin candle

Since it is not possible to obtain paraffin on our own, to make a paraffin candle of the required size, we took a ready-made paraffin candle and made a new one from it using the casting method. To do this, we made a mold and secured the wick in it. The mold can be made from any material that can withstand heating up to 50 degrees. The walls of the mold were smeared with dishwashing liquid and allowed to dry. The paraffin, heated in a water bath to a liquid state, was carefully poured into the mold and allowed to cool. The slower a paraffin candle cools, the less likely it is to crack. After cooling completely, carefully remove the candle from the mold.

3.1.3 Stearic suppository

First, we obtained a concentrated soap solution. To do this, the soap was ground on a grater. Soap shavings were placed in a container, water was added and heated, stirring with a wooden stick, until completely dissolved. After this, while still heating and stirring the solution, vinegar was poured in. After adding the acid, a white mass immediately floated to the surface. This is stearic acid. The reaction mixture must be acidic, otherwise not all soap will react with the acid. Therefore, acid must be taken in excess. The reaction of the medium was easily checked using litmus paper. After the mixture cooled, the stearin was collected on the surface. The resulting liquid under the stearin is a solution of sodium sulfate or sodium acetate. The stearin was scooped out with a spoon and washed with water to remove excess acid. We dried the mass and wrapped it in a cloth. Stearin is ready! A stearin candle can be made in a mold by securing a wick in it in advance and pouring melted stearin into the mold. You can also prepare a candle by dipping, then you don’t need a mold. A wick is dipped into the melted stearin (you can take a thread from a wick for kerosene gas or a kerosene stove). I take out the wick, and when the stearin hardens on it, I put it back into the solution. This operation is repeated several times until the candle of the required thickness grows on the wick. Reaction equation for producing stearin from soap:C 17 H 35 COONa+ CH 3 COOH= C 17 H 35 COOH+ CH 3 COONa

3.2 Making soap from a candle

We took several pieces of stearin candle. Melt the stearin in a water bath and add a saturated soda solution. A solid white mass immediately formed. This is sodium stearate, that is, soap itself. The mixture was heated for several minutes to allow the reaction to take place as completely as possible. Then we placed a mold (matchbox) and poured the resulting mass. After the soap has cooled, remove it from the mold. Reaction equation for producing soap from stearin: 2C 17 H 35 COOH+ Na 2 CO 3 =2 C 17 H 35 COONa+ H 2 O+ CO 2 .

Conclusions:

Analyzed and studied scientific literature on this topic

I compared the physical properties of candles made from different materials: wax and stearin candles have the best physical properties.

The hottest part is found at the top third of the candle flame. The reason a candle burns is not the combustion of the material, but the formation of vapors during combustion.

Based on the chemical analysis of combustion products, I found out that they all form soot, water and carbon dioxide, i.e. they are organic substances.

I made candles from various materials with my own hands.

I made soap from a stearin candle.

Conclusion

Wax and stearin candles have the best physical properties: they not only smoke and float less, but also burn longer. Paraffin candles have a cost advantage (they are slightly cheaper than wax and stearin candles), which is why they are the most common in our country. The most burning part is at the level of the upper third of the flame, and what burns in a candle is not the material from which it is made, but the vapors formed during combustion. When burned, all candles produce soot, water and carbon dioxide, i.e. they are organic substances.

References

Michael Faraday "The Story of a Candle" 1982

Gabrielyan O.G. "Chemistry. 8th grade" Moscow 2002

Gabriel O.G. "Chemistry. 10th grade" Moscow 2014

Magazine “Science and Life”, article “The candle was burning on the table” No. 6, 2014

Magazine "Young Chemist Club", article "Soap from a candle and a candle from soap"

Magazine "Chemistry and Life", article "While the candles are burning"

During the combustion process, a flame is formed, the structure of which is determined by the reacting substances. Its structure is divided into areas depending on temperature indicators.

Definition

Flame refers to gases in hot form, in which plasma components or substances are present in solid dispersed form. Transformations of physical and chemical types are carried out in them, accompanied by glow, release of thermal energy and heating.

The presence of ionic and radical particles in a gaseous medium characterizes its electrical conductivity and special behavior in an electromagnetic field.

What are flames

This is usually the name given to processes associated with combustion. Compared to air, gas density is lower, but high temperatures cause gas to rise. This is how flames are formed, which can be long or short. Often there is a smooth transition from one form to another.

Flame: structure and structure

To determine the appearance of the described phenomenon, it is enough to light it. The non-luminous flame that appears cannot be called homogeneous. Visually, three main areas can be distinguished. By the way, studying the structure of a flame shows that different substances burn with the formation of different types of torch.

When a mixture of gas and air burns, a short torch is first formed, the color of which has blue and violet shades. The core is visible in it - green-blue, reminiscent of a cone. Let's consider this flame. Its structure is divided into three zones:

1. A preparatory area is identified in which the mixture of gas and air is heated as it exits the burner opening.
2. This is followed by the zone in which combustion occurs. It occupies the top of the cone.
3. When there is insufficient air flow, the gas does not burn completely. Carbon divalent oxide and hydrogen residues are released. Their combustion takes place in the third region, where there is oxygen access.

Now we will separately consider different combustion processes.

Burning candle

Burning a candle is similar to burning a match or lighter. And the structure of a candle flame resembles a hot gas flow, which is pulled upward due to buoyancy forces. The process begins with heating the wick, followed by evaporation of the wax.

The lowest zone, located inside and adjacent to the thread, is called the first region. It has a slight glow due to a large amount of fuel, but a small volume of oxygen mixture. Here, the process of incomplete combustion of substances occurs, releasing which is subsequently oxidized.

The first zone is surrounded by a luminous second shell, which characterizes the structure of the candle flame. A larger volume of oxygen enters it, which causes the continuation of the oxidation reaction with the participation of fuel molecules. Temperatures here will be higher than in the dark zone, but not sufficient for final decomposition. It is in the first two areas that when droplets of unburned fuel and coal particles are strongly heated, a luminous effect appears.

The second zone is surrounded by a low-visibility shell with high temperature values. Many oxygen molecules enter it, which contributes to the complete combustion of fuel particles. After the oxidation of substances, the luminous effect is not observed in the third zone.

Schematic illustration

For clarity, we present to your attention an image of a burning candle. Flame circuit includes:

1. The first or dark area.
2. Second luminous zone.
3. The third transparent shell.

The candle thread does not burn, but only charring of the bent end occurs.

Burning alcohol lamp

For chemical experiments, small tanks of alcohol are often used. They are called alcohol lamps. The burner wick is soaked with liquid fuel poured through the hole. This is facilitated by capillary pressure. When the free top of the wick is reached, the alcohol begins to evaporate. In the vapor state, it is ignited and burns at a temperature of no more than 900 °C.

The flame of an alcohol lamp has a normal shape, it is almost colorless, with a slight tint of blue. Its zones are not as clearly visible as those of a candle.

Named after the scientist Barthel, the beginning of the fire is located above the burner grid. This deepening of the flame leads to a decrease in the inner dark cone, and the middle section, which is considered the hottest, emerges from the hole.

Color characteristic

Various radiations are caused by electronic transitions. They are also called thermal. Thus, as a result of combustion of a hydrocarbon component in air, a blue flame is caused by the release of an H-C compound. And when C-C particles are emitted, the torch turns orange-red.

It is difficult to consider the structure of a flame, the chemistry of which includes compounds of water, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, and the OH bond. Its tongues are practically colorless, since the above particles, when burned, emit radiation in the ultraviolet and infrared spectrum.

The color of the flame is interconnected with temperature indicators, with the presence of ionic particles in it, which belong to a certain emission or optical spectrum. Thus, the combustion of certain elements leads to a change in the color of the fire in the burner. Differences in the color of the torch are associated with the arrangement of elements in different groups of the periodic system.

Fire is examined with a spectroscope for the presence of radiation in the visible spectrum. At the same time, it was found that simple substances from the general subgroup also cause a similar coloration of the flame. For clarity, sodium combustion is used as a test for this metal. When brought into the flame, the tongues turn bright yellow. Based on the color characteristics, the sodium line is identified in the emission spectrum.

It is characterized by the property of rapid excitation of light radiation from atomic particles. When non-volatile compounds of such elements are introduced into the fire of a Bunsen burner, it becomes colored.

Spectroscopic examination shows characteristic lines in the area visible to the human eye. The speed of excitation of light radiation and the simple spectral structure are closely related to the high electropositive characteristics of these metals.

Characteristic

The flame classification is based on the following characteristics:

• aggregate state of burning compounds. They come in gaseous, airborne, solid and liquid forms;
• type of radiation, which can be colorless, luminous and colored;
• distribution speed. There is fast and slow spread;
• flame height. The structure can be short or long;
• nature of movement of reacting mixtures. There are pulsating, laminar, turbulent movement;
• visual perception. Substances burn with the release of a smoky, colored or transparent flame;
• temperature indicator. The flame can be low temperature, cold or high temperature.
• state of the fuel - oxidizing reagent phase.

Combustion occurs as a result of diffusion or pre-mixing of the active components.

Oxidative and reduction region

The oxidation process occurs in a barely noticeable zone. It is the hottest and is located at the top. In it, fuel particles undergo complete combustion. And the presence of oxygen excess and combustible deficiency leads to an intense oxidation process. This feature should be used when heating objects over the burner. That is why the substance is immersed in the upper part of the flame. This combustion proceeds much faster.

Reduction reactions take place in the central and lower parts of the flame. It contains a large supply of flammable substances and a small amount of O 2 molecules that carry out combustion. When introduced into these areas, the O element is eliminated.

As an example of a reducing flame, the process of splitting ferrous sulfate is used. When FeSO 4 enters the central part of the burner torch, it first heats up and then decomposes into ferric oxide, anhydride and sulfur dioxide. In this reaction, reduction of S with a charge of +6 to +4 is observed.

Welding flame

This type of fire is formed as a result of the combustion of a mixture of gas or liquid vapor with oxygen from clean air.

An example is the formation of an oxyacetylene flame. It distinguishes:

• core zone;
• middle recovery area;
• flare extreme zone.

This is how many gas-oxygen mixtures burn. Differences in the ratio of acetylene to oxidizer result in different flame types. It can be of normal, carburizing (acetylenic) and oxidizing structure.

Theoretically, the process of incomplete combustion of acetylene in pure oxygen can be characterized by the following equation: HCCH + O 2 → H 2 + CO + CO (one mole of O 2 is required for the reaction).

The resulting molecular hydrogen and carbon monoxide react with air oxygen. The final products are water and tetravalent carbon oxide. The equation looks like this: CO + CO + H 2 + 1½O 2 → CO 2 + CO 2 +H 2 O. This reaction requires 1.5 moles of oxygen. When summing up O 2, it turns out that 2.5 moles are spent per 1 mole of HCCH. And since in practice it is difficult to find ideally pure oxygen (often it is slightly contaminated with impurities), the ratio of O 2 to HCCH will be 1.10 to 1.20.

When the oxygen to acetylene ratio is less than 1.10, a carburizing flame occurs. Its structure has an enlarged core, its outlines become blurry. Soot is released from such a fire due to a lack of oxygen molecules.

If the gas ratio is greater than 1.20, then an oxidizing flame with an excess of oxygen is obtained. Its excess molecules destroy iron atoms and other components of the steel burner. In such a flame, the nuclear part becomes short and has points.

Temperature indicators

Each fire zone of a candle or burner has its own values, determined by the supply of oxygen molecules. The temperature of the open flame in its different parts ranges from 300 °C to 1600 °C.

An example is a diffusion and laminar flame, which is formed by three shells. Its cone consists of a dark area with a temperature of up to 360 °C and a lack of oxidizing substances. Above it is a glow zone. Its temperature ranges from 550 to 850 °C, which promotes thermal decomposition of the combustible mixture and its combustion.

The outer area is barely noticeable. In it, the flame temperature reaches 1560 °C, which is due to the natural characteristics of fuel molecules and the speed of entry of the oxidizing substance. This is where the combustion is most energetic.

Substances ignite under different temperature conditions. Thus, magnesium metal burns only at 2210 °C. For many solids the flame temperature is around 350°C. Matches and kerosene can ignite at 800 °C, while wood can ignite from 850 °C to 950 °C.

The cigarette burns with a flame whose temperature varies from 690 to 790 °C, and in a propane-butane mixture - from 790 °C to 1960 °C. Gasoline ignites at 1350 °C. The alcohol combustion flame has a temperature of no more than 900 °C.

A research team headed by Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences S.G. Semenov, without any bias towards popular experience, studied the effect of burning a candle. And here are the conclusions and recommendations of the experts that the academician talks about.

Some people are doing well in life. The candle he placed burns with a “high flame”; no swells are formed. But as soon as nervousness or some kind of mental trouble arises in a person’s inner world, the candle begins to “cry” and influxes flow through it.

If a flow line runs along a newly placed candle from top to bottom, this means that a curse has fallen on the person. Two lines - two curses. As a rule, there are no more than three lines.

If a burning candle is moved clockwise in front of a person from the head, and it begins to smoke black smoke, this means that the internal organs in this place are blocked by disease and they must be treated until the candle stops smoking.

The candle should be held with one side facing the person. If influxes form on his part, he himself is to blame for his illnesses. If it’s the opposite, it means that the disease was “ordered” for him. And if a “tear” rolls down the candle on the left or right, then it is obvious: there is an energetic struggle between a person and someone else. If the “tear” is black, it means that the person is in a state of negative energy.

Using a candle, you can diagnose not only a person’s condition, but also their home. On the days of the new moon and full moon, it is good to carry a candle flame along the doorposts so that it does not touch them closely: the fire will destroy the bad energy accumulated in the house. The candle should be carried clockwise. This way you will remove the memory of the past from yourself and the room and give life the opportunity to go in a new way. Where the candle begins to crackle and smoke as you walk around the room, you need to move it clockwise until the crackling and smoke stop.

Space cleansing rituals are difficult to explain from a scientific point of view. They belong rather to the area of ​​esotericism or borderline psychology. But what matters to us is what produces results. Moreover, even a certain amount of skepticism in such activities does not prevent you from feeling the changes that follow after performing the ritual. But it is better if you take it seriously and focus your attention on the goal you want to achieve.

You can use the following ritual to increase energy, safety and security in your home. Stand at the front door. Relax. Feel your breath, your arms, legs, the temperature of the surrounding air. Concentrate only on your feelings. Stay in this state for as long as your intuition tells you.

When you feel like you are “floating away” a little, clearly and concisely formulate instructions for your subconscious. For example: “May my home be a cup full of love, joy and inspiration.” There is no need to repeat this phrase several times.

Then light the candle in the glass lamp. Look into the center of the flame and imagine that this light is expanding and you find yourself in the center of a flickering sphere of light. Hold the candle at the center of your chest, connecting the power of the flame with your power and intention. Lift the candle up, inviting the light to “come into your home,” then lower it to the center of your chest, move it to the left and right. You create a cross - a symbol of protection and strength.

Go around the whole house, performing this ritual wherever you consider it necessary. It’s better if everything happens spontaneously, without tension and extraneous thoughts.

To attract happiness and prosperity to the house, Epiphany and Easter candles are lit - those that you purchased in church for Epiphany and Easter. And the Thursday candle, brought on Maundy Thursday, has, according to popular belief, the ability to destroy the spells of sorcerers and drive away witches. It is usually used to burn crosses on the doorposts and windows so that evil spirits do not visit the home.

Contemplation of fire is a very ancient ritual. Behind it is finding peace of mind. Fire is the most powerful element that protects a person from the effects of evil spirits and is a mediator between the human and the divine. The flame of a candle cleanses the body and soul of a person from energy “dirt”, including those caused by damage and the evil eye.

If something is bothering you, light a candle and sit quietly, looking at its fire and telling it - you can mentally, but better out loud - about what is bothering you at the moment. All negative things will burn away in the candle flame, you will feel lighter and freer, as if you have dropped a heavy load.

Because candles emit light, their power lies in the visual experience. To choose the appropriate color of a candle and enhance the magical power of your desire, you need to remember that each color has a certain energetic effect.

WHITE CANDLES are usually used in prayers and ceremonies; they symbolize light, purity and enlightenment.

A BLACK CANDLE in some cases can symbolize divinity (together with a white candle symbolizing God).

RED CANDLES are used in rituals aimed at sending love or establishing a relationship with a lover who is far from home (red candles promote passion, and PINK CANDLES symbolize tender and calm relationships between lovers, innocence).

GREEN CANDLES are used in rituals of dedication to the native land, animals and plants, as well as rites for abundance and prosperity.

BROWN CANDLES are used if, with the help of a ritual, they want to have success in all matters in the future. They are also used to heal the native land and strengthen connections with it.

BLUE CANDLES are used in rituals aimed at getting rid of high self-esteem and increasing creative activity.

PURPLE CANDLES are used in prayers and meditation, the purpose of which is to increase extrasensory abilities. They can also be used to calm a person.

YELLOW CANDLES are used to improve mood, luck and achieve stability in financial matters.

ORANGE CANDLES are used in prayers and rituals aimed at increasing vitality and self-confidence.
If you cannot choose a candle of a suitable color, then use a white one.

Newspaper "Magic", Donetsk

In these readings I propose to tell you the history of the candle from a chemical point of view.
I am very willing to take on this question, since it is very interesting and the paths it opens for the study of nature are extremely diverse. There is not a single law governing world phenomena that would not appear in the history of the candle and which would not have to be touched upon. There are no doors more widely opened to the study of nature than the consideration of the physical phenomena that take place in the burning of a candle.
I'll start with a candle flame. Let's light one or two candles; you notice how big the difference is between a lamp and a candle. The lamp has a reservoir of oil into which a wick made of cotton paper is immersed. The end of the wick is lit; when the flame reaches the oil, it goes out there, continuing to burn at the top of the wick. You will no doubt ask: how can it be that oil, which does not burn on its own, rises up the wick and begins to burn at the end of it? We'll explore it!
When a candle burns, even more outlandish things happen. After all, we have a solid substance that does not need a reservoir - how can this substance get to where we see the flame without being liquid? Or if it turns into a liquid, how can it be preserved without spilling? This candle is amazing!
There is a strong air current in our room; for some of our experiments this may be harmful. To bring correctness to our investigation and to simplify it, I will receive a completely calm flame; for how can one investigate any phenomenon if it is accompanied by all sorts of extraneous circumstances?
For our purpose, we can learn something from the traders who sell their goods on the streets in the evening. I have often observed their adaptation. They surround the candle with cylindrical glass, mounted on a kind of gallery enclosing the candle: the glass and frame can be raised and lowered at will. With the help of such glass you can get a completely calm flame, which can be easily examined in detail.
First of all, let's pay attention to how the top layer of the candle directly under the flame forms a depression like a beautiful cup. The air flowing to the candle rises upward due to the current caused by the heat of the flame; Due to air movement, the outer layers of the candle are cooled. The middle melts more than the edges of the cup, since in the middle the effect of the flame is strongest, tending to descend down the wick.
As long as air flows evenly from all sides, the edges of the cup remain completely smooth, and the molten mass of the candle floating on the cup has a horizontal surface. As soon as I blow on the candle from the side, the edges of the cup immediately become beveled, and the molten mass of the candle flows out, obeying the same laws that govern the movement of the worlds. You see, therefore, that the cup in the upper part of the candle is formed due to a uniformly ascending flow of air, cooling the outer layer of the candle from all sides. Only those substances are suitable for making candles that, when burned, are capable of forming such a cup.
We can make several observations on the influence of the ascending current of air, which it would not hurt to remember. Here, a leak formed on one side of the candle, so that the candle in this place became thicker. While the candle continues to burn quietly, the thickening remains in its place and forms a prominent column at the edge of the candle; since it rises above the rest of the wax mass and is removed from the middle of the candle, the air cools it more easily and gives it the opportunity to resist the action of heat, despite the proximity of the flame.
Thus, as in many other cases, error or misapprehension enriches our knowledge; Without these errors, we might have difficulty obtaining this information. Unwittingly in these cases we become explorers of nature. I hope that when you encounter a new phenomenon, you will remember to ask yourself: “Where is the cause of the phenomenon? How does all this happen? – and over time you will certainly find the answer to your questions.
Another question that we must answer is the following: how does the combustible material flow from the cup through the lamp to the place where combustion occurs? You know that in wax and stearin candles the flame does not descend along the burning wick to the combustible material, melting it entirely, but remains in its place, at some distance from the molten mass and without disturbing the integrity of the edges of the cup. I cannot imagine a better device: every part of the candle helps the rest in achieving the best effect. Isn’t it wonderful to see how this flammable substance gradually burns, how the flame touches it, despite the fact that this flame could completely destroy the wax if it were allowed to get too close to it?
How does a flame feed on combustible material? Using capillary attraction. "Capillary attraction?" - you ask. "Capillarity"? Well, the name doesn't have much meaning - it was invented when there was no correct idea of ​​the force that was denoted by this name. The effect of this so-called capillary attraction is that the combustible material is carried to the place of combustion and deposited there, and not just in any way, but right in the middle of the hearth in which the combustion process occurs.
The only reason a candle doesn't burn through the wick is because the melted lard extinguishes the flame. You know that a candle goes out immediately if it is turned over so that the molten mass of the candle flows down the wick to its end. This happens because the flame does not have time to heat the molten combustible material flowing in large quantities strongly enough. When the flame is in its usual position, i.e. above the molten mass, then new quantities of fresh mass melt, gradually rise through the lamp, and the flame can act with all its force.
We now come to a very important phenomenon which requires detailed study; otherwise you will not be able to fully understand what a candle flame represents. I mean the gaseous state of a combustible material. So that you can understand me well, I will show you a beautiful, although simple, experience. When you extinguish a candle, you notice how smoke rises from the wick; You are probably familiar with the unpleasant odor of these gases emitted by an extinguished candle. If you extinguish the candle very carefully, you can easily detect the gases into which the solid substance of the candle has turned.
I will now put out the candle so as not to cause air movement; To do this, I just need to breathe on the candle for a while. If I now bring a burning torch at a distance of 5–8 cm from the end of the lamp, then you will see how the flame jumps to the wick along the stream of vapor coming from the candle. All this must be done quickly enough, otherwise the gases have time to cool and thicken, or the stream of flammable vapors will have time to dissipate in the air.
Now we will look at the outline and structure of the flame. It is important for us to become familiar with the state of the flame in which it is at the end of the lamp, where the flame has such brilliance and beauty that we cannot observe anywhere else in other phenomena. You are familiar with the wonderful shine of gold and silver, and the even more wonderful shine and play of precious stones such as ruby ​​and diamond, but nothing can compare with the beauty of the flame. Which diamond shines like a flame? At night, it derives its brilliance from the flame that illuminates it. The flame illuminates the darkness - the light of a diamond is nothing; it appears only when a ray of flame light falls on the diamond. The candle shines on its own.
Let's study in more detail the structure of the flame in the form in which it is located inside our glass. The flame is constant and homogeneous; it generally has the same shape as shown in our figure, but depending on the state of the air and the size of the candle, this shape can vary significantly. It forms a cone, rounded at its lower part; the upper part of the cone is lighter than the lower. Below, near the lamp, it is easy to detect a darker part, within which the combustion is not as complete as in the upper parts of the flame.

Imagine a drawing of a flame made many years ago by Hooker when he was doing his research. The illustration shows a lamp flame, but it can also be applied to a candle flame; the oil reservoir corresponds to the candle cup, the oil corresponds to the molten candle mass, and the wick is present in both cases. Around the wick Hooker depicted a flame, and around the latter he quite correctly depicted another invisible layer, which you probably know nothing about, if at all you are in any way unfamiliar with this phenomenon. He depicted the surrounding air, which is essential for the flame and is always located near it. Next, he depicted a current of air drawing out the flame at the top; the flame that you see here is actually drawn out by a current of air and, moreover, to a fairly significant height, in exactly the same way as Hooker depicted it in his drawing.
The easiest way to verify this is by exposing a burning candle to the light and examining its shadow obtained on a white screen. Isn't it amazing: a flame that has enough light to form a shadow of other objects itself gives a shadow? At the same time, it is clearly visible how something that does not belong to the flame itself flows around it, rises upward and carries the flame along with it.

Now I will draw your attention to other facts. The different kinds of flame which you have here before you differ greatly in their form; this depends on the different distribution of air currents enveloping them. We can obtain a flame that, in its immobility, resembles a solid body, so that it is easy to photograph; Such photographs are necessary for a more detailed study of the nature of the flame. But that's not all I want to tell you.
If I take a long enough flame, it will not maintain some stable, uniform shape, but will branch out with amazing force. To show this phenomenon, instead of candle wax or tallow, I will take a new combustible material. I take a large ball of cotton wool as a lamp. I immersed it in alcohol and lit it - how is it different from an ordinary candle? The force with which combustion occurs; Never have we noticed such a strong and moving flame in a candle. You can see how the magnificent tongues of flame continuously rise upward! The direction of the flame remains the same: it tends from bottom to top; but completely new, compared to a candle, is this amazing division of the flame into separate branches and projections, into these licking tongues.
Why is this happening? I will explain this to you, and when you thoroughly understand this phenomenon, it will be easy for you to follow my further presentation. I am sure that many of you have already done the experiment that I will now show you.

After all, many of you know the children's game, which consists of pouring alcohol into a cup of raisins or plums in a dark room and then lighting it. This game perfectly reproduces the phenomenon we are considering. Here I have a cup; For the experiment to work well, you need to preheat the cup; It’s a good idea to heat up the raisins or plums. In the candle we observed the formation of a cup of molten combustible material; Here we took a cup of alcohol, and raisins play the role of a candle lamp. I light the alcohol, and immediately wonderful tongues of fire burst out; air flows over the edges of the cup into it and displaces these tongues. How so? So much so that with a strong influx of air, due to uneven combustion, the flame cannot rise upward in an even stream. The air flows into the cup so unevenly that the flame, which under other conditions could represent something whole, in this case is torn into many separate parts that exist independently of each other. I would almost like to say that we are seeing a lot of individual candles here. But you should not think that those individual tongues, which are simultaneously visible here, together would give the image of a flame. Never does the flame that we get when burning our cotton wool have the same shape that we saw. It was a series of outlines that followed one another so quickly that the eye could not see them individually, and therefore the impression was of all of them at the same time.