Signs of cultural speech. What is speech culture

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

Higher professional education

"Tambov State University named after G.R. Derzhavin"

Department of Political Economy and World Global Economy

COURSE WORK/ABSTRACT

Topic: Interaction of marginal costs in business activities

Completed by: 1st year student Vladimir Vladimirovich Androsov

Scientific adviser: k.f. And. assistant professor Moiseeva L.S.

Introduction........................................................ ........................................................ ................3

1. Speech culture as the main component aspect of a person’s high general culture.................................................... ........................................................ ..........4

2.Culture of communication and culture of speech.................................................... ........................9

3. Etiquette and culture of verbal communication.................................................... ...................13

Conclusion................................................. ........................................................ .........16

Bibliography................................................ ...............................................18

Introduction

Speech culture and communication are important in the development and formation of a person as an individual, and today education places great emphasis on this aspect.

And since education and culture are two interconnected processes, language can introduce education into the context of culture. In the history of mankind, the role of language in the life of society is increasing. The volume of circulating information per capita can be an indicator of the level of development of society.

Language is a mirror of culture, it reflects not only the real world surrounding a person, not only the real conditions of his life, but also the social consciousness of the people, their mentality, national character, way of life, traditions, customs, morality, value system, attitude, vision peace.

It is a treasury, a storehouse, a treasury of culture. It stores cultural values ​​- in vocabulary, in grammar, in proverbs, sayings, in folklore, in fiction and scientific literature, in forms of written and oral speech.

Language is not only a means of communication and expression of thought, but also the accumulation of cultural values.

One of the most important indicators of a person’s level of culture, his thinking, and intelligence is his speech. Well-developed speech serves as one of the most important means of human activity in modern society. Speech is a way of understanding reality. On the one hand, the richness of speech largely depends on the enrichment of a person with new ideas and concepts; on the other hand, good command of language and speech contributes to the successful knowledge of complex connections in nature and in the life of society. Speech is one of the types of communication that people need in their joint activities, in social life, in the exchange of information, in cognition, in education; it enriches a person spiritually and serves as a subject of art.

Speech culture, as a rule, is understood as a concept widespread in Soviet and Russian linguistics of the 20th century, combining mastery of the linguistic norms of oral and written language, as well as “the ability to use expressive language means in different communication conditions”

Speech culture as the main component aspect of a person’s high general culture.

In the life of a modern person, speech activity occupies a particularly important place; without it, neither mastering professional knowledge nor general cultural development is unthinkable. The ability to conduct dialogue becomes one of the main characteristics of personality as a social phenomenon.

And also the concept of “Culture of Speech” is interpreted as mastery of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the selection and organization of linguistic means are carried out, allowing in a certain communication situation and subject to communication ethics to ensure the greatest effect in achieving the communication goals.

“So, speech culture is such a choice and such an organization of linguistic means that, in a certain communication situation, while observing modern language norms and communication ethics, make it possible to ensure the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative goals,” this is how E.N. defines the concept of speech culture. Shiryaev.

In order to understand the ways and means of independent development of speech culture, it is necessary to clearly understand the content and scope of the concepts of this discipline.

The central concept of this discipline is the concept of language. Language is “a naturally occurring and developing system of symbolic units expressed in sound form in human society, capable of expressing the entire set of human concepts and thoughts and intended primarily for the purposes of communication”

The ability to relate sound and meaning is the most important characteristic of language. Language at the same time is a system of signs that replace objects and speech and a set of meanings that concentrate the spiritual experience of people.

The concept of speech is closely related to language. Speech is “specific speaking, occurring over time and expressed in sound (including internal pronunciation) or written form. Speech is usually understood as both the speaking process itself and the result of this process, i.e. both speech activity and speech works, recorded by memory or writing" Speech is perceptible, concrete and unique, deliberate and directed towards a specific goal, it is conditioned by the situation, subjective and arbitrary. In speech, the functions of the language appear in various combinations with the predominance of one of them.

Communication between people is both a socio-psychological interaction and a channel for transmitting information. Therefore, textbooks on speech culture use the term communication. Communication is communication between people, the process of exchanging information, a process that supports the functioning of society and interpersonal relationships. Communication consists of communicative acts in which communicants (the author and addressee of the message) participate, generating statements (texts) and interpreting them. The process of communication begins with the intention of the speaker and has the goal of understanding the statement by the addressee.

The result of the speech activity of the speaker is the text. A text is a completed speech work (written or oral), the main properties of which are integrity and coherence. The correctness of text construction consists in meeting the requirements of external coherence, internal meaningfulness, the possibility of timely perception, and the implementation of the necessary conditions of communication. The correct perception of the text is ensured not only by linguistic units and their connections, but also by the necessary general background of knowledge.

The concept of speech qualities is important. Speech qualities are properties of speech that ensure the effectiveness of communication and characterize the level of speech culture of the speaker.

In philology, a distinction is made between the speech culture of the individual and the speech culture of society. The speech culture of an individual is individual. It depends on erudition in the field of speech culture of society and represents the ability to use this erudition. The speech culture of an individual borrows part of the speech culture of society, but at the same time it is broader than the speech culture of society. Correct use of language presupposes your own sense of style, correct and sufficiently developed taste.

The speech culture of society is the selection, collection and storage of the best examples of speech activity, the formation of literary classics and adherence to the norms of the literary language. Yu.V. adheres to this understanding of speech culture. Rozhdestvensky (General Philology. M., 1996. P. 14).

Of course, within the framework of the science of speech culture, not only examples of a high level of mastery of literary norms and rules of communication are considered, but also cases of violation of norms, both in the speech activity of an individual and in the speech practice of society.

The basic concepts of speech culture are also such concepts as literary language, language norms, style, language standard, linguistic personality, types and forms of speech, speech etiquette.

Linguistic norms (standards of literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as: compliance with the structure of the language; massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers; public approval and recognition.

Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different: they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them.

The main sources of language norms include: works of classical writers; works of modern writers who continue classical traditions; media publications; common modern usage; linguistic research data. The characteristic features of language norms are: relative stability; prevalence; common use; universal obligatory; correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system. Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.

A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication.

The normalization of speech is its compliance with the literary and linguistic ideal. S.I. Ozhegov emphasized the social side of the concept of norm, which consists of a selection of available linguistic elements, formed again and extracted from the passive stock. S.I. Ozhegov drew attention to the fact that norms are supported by social speech practice (fiction, stage speech, radio broadcasting).

Until the end of the twentieth century. literary works and radio broadcasts could indeed serve as models of normative usage. Today the situation has changed. Not every literary work and not every radio and television broadcast can serve as an example of the normative use of language. The scope of strict adherence to language norms has narrowed significantly; only some programs and periodicals can be used as examples of literary normed speech.

B.N. Golovin defined a norm as a functional property of language skills: “A norm is a property of the functioning structure of a language, created by the team using it due to the constant need for better mutual understanding.”

The language system, while in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it. What is new in speech experience, which does not fit into the framework of the language system, but works, is functionally expedient, leads to restructuring in it, and each successive state of the language system serves as the basis for comparison in the subsequent processing of speech experience. Thus, language develops and changes in the process of speech functioning, and at each stage of this development the language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations and variations are inevitable in any language.

Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable figures of speech, and ways of expressing thoughts. From the language of these texts, it selects the most appropriate words and figures of speech, takes what is relevant for itself from what was developed by previous generations, bringing in its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations are abandoning what seems archaic, not in tune with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitudes towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new angles of understanding. In every historical era, the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions.

In a literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished: 1) norms of written and oral forms of speech; 2) norms of written speech; 3) norms of oral speech. The norms common to oral and written speech include: lexical norms; grammatical norms; stylistic norms. Special norms of written speech are: norms of spelling; punctuation standards.

The following are applicable only to oral speech: pronunciation standards; accent norms; intonation norms. Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.

1. Speech culture- part of the general human culture. By the way a person speaks, one can judge the level of his spiritual development, his internal culture.

Speech culture refers to the ability, firstly, to speak and write correctly, and secondly, to use linguistic means in accordance with the goals and objectives of communication.

The speech of a cultured person should be, first of all, meaningful, which is determined by a good knowledge of the material, the ability to logically and consistently express thoughts, supporting them with specific facts.

In addition, the speech must be accurate, which is manifested in the speaker’s ability to use words in full accordance with their lexical meaning. Therefore, it is incorrect, for example, to use a verb in a sentence Earth spinning around the sun(I should say rotates). Especially often, inaccuracy of presentation is associated with the use of foreign words, for example: Nothing can throw Oblomov out of balance(instead of equal no-spirit, indifference). When choosing a word, you should also take into account the existing compatibility of this word with others in the language. You can say advanced years, but you can't: Grandfather was an elderly man(an elderly person).

Correct speech is considered in which the norms of the literary language are not violated (for norms, see ticket No. 11). However, only compliance with literary norms for mastering speech culture is not enough. You can speak correctly, but your speech will be colorless, monotonous, boring - in a word, inexpressive.

Expressiveness of speech is achieved by the skillful and appropriate use of stylistically colored vocabulary, various syntactic structures, and in oral speech the richness of intonation is also important. Thus, a condition for cultural speech is also mastery of the expressive means of language, the ability to use them depending on the communication situation. To comply with this second condition, you need to know stylistics (see ticket No. 26), be able to use stylistically colored means. Thus, book words are appropriate in scientific and business speech and are not desirable in situations of casual communication. K.I. Chukovsky sneered at the translator of children's fairy tales, whose translation included the following expressions: For lack of a red rose, my life will be ruined. When it was pointed out to him that such a phrase was inappropriate in a fairy tale for children, he corrected: Due to the lack of a red rose... On the contrary, expressive vocabulary and colloquial expressions are absolutely inappropriate in an official business style.

The stylistic appropriateness of using linguistic means and their compliance with the needs of communication are important principles of speech culture.

We must remember: the more meaningful, correct, precise, and expressive the speech, the more convincing and accessible it is to listeners. This is why it is so important to observe the principles of speech culture.

2. For the definition of phraseological units and their characteristics, see ticket No. 12, question 1.

Phraseologisms are almost always bright, figurative expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language, used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and graphic characteristics of characters, the surrounding reality, etc.

For example, K. Paustovsky in the novel “Smoke of the Fatherland”, characterizing the action of one of the heroes, instead of words without thinking, thoughtlessly uses phraseological units headlong: She was attracted to him by his childishness, his tendency to get carried away headlong, his chivalry, his ironic attitude towards himself.

A. Sitkovsky’s poem “All the best that is in the world” is based on the use of phraseological phrases.

All the best that is in nature,

And wherever we find,

As was the custom among the Russian people,

We call it red from time immemorial.

Available in every home red corner,

Honorary, festive, for those

Who has the honor to be our friend,

With whom we share grief and success!

And a girl like you won't meet,

At least go around the whole world,

Of those that are better in the world,

We red maiden we're calling.

AND Red Square since ancient times

Glorified, exalted!..

There are even red trees,

People live in society, and communication is an integral part of human existence. Therefore, without it, the evolution of intelligence would hardly have been possible. At first these were attempts at communication, similar to baby babble, which gradually, with the advent of civilization, began to improve. Writing appeared, and speech became not only oral, but also written, which made it possible to preserve the achievements of mankind for future descendants. From these monuments one can trace the development of oral traditions of speech. What is speech culture and speech culture? What are their standards? Is it possible to master speech culture on your own? This article will answer all questions.

What is speech culture?

Speech is a form of verbal communication between people. It involves the formation and formulation of thoughts, on the one hand, and perception and understanding, on the other.

Culture is a term with many meanings and is the object of study in many disciplines. There is also a meaning that is close in meaning to communication and speech. This is a part of culture associated with the use of verbal signals, which means language, its ethnic characteristics, functional and social varieties, which have oral and written forms.

Speech is a person’s life, and therefore he must be able to speak correctly and beautifully, both in writing and orally.

Thus, speech culture and speech culture are mastery of the norms of the language, the ability to use its expressive means in various conditions.

The culture of speech, regardless of the nationality of the speakers, developed gradually. Over time, the need arose to systematize existing knowledge about the language. Thus, a section of linguistics appeared, which is called speech culture. This section explores the problems of language normalization in order to improve it.

How was the culture of speech formed?

Speech culture and speech culture as a branch of linguistics developed in stages. They reflect all the changes that have occurred in the language. For the first time, people thought about fixing the norms of written speech in the 18th century, when society realized that the lack of uniform rules of writing made communication difficult. In 1748, V.K. Trediakovsky wrote about Russian spelling in his work “A conversation between a foreigner and a Russian about ancient and new spelling.”

But the foundations of the grammar and stylistics of the native language were laid by M. V. Lermontov in his works “Russian Grammar” and “Rhetoric” (1755, 1743-1748).

In the 19th century, N.V. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakov and A.I. Galich supplemented the library of studies of speech culture with their works on rhetoric.

Linguists of the pre-revolutionary period understood the importance of standardizing the rules of language. In 1911, V. I. Chernyshevsky’s book “Purity and Correctness of Russian Speech” appeared. Experience of Russian stylistic grammar”, in which the author analyzes the norms of the Russian language.

The post-revolutionary period was a time when the established norms of speech culture were shaken. At that time, social activities were carried out by people whose speech was simple and replete with slang and dialect expressions. The literary language would have been under threat if a layer of Soviet intelligentsia had not formed in the 1920s. She fought for the purity of the Russian language, and a directive was given according to which the “masses” had to master proletarian culture. At the same time, the concepts of “language culture” and “speech culture” emerged. These terms are used for the first time in relation to the new, reformed language.

In the post-war years, speech culture as a discipline received a new round of development. An important contribution to the formation of the discipline was made by S. I. Ozhegov as the author of the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” and E. S. Istrina as the author of “Norms of the Russian Language and Speech Culture”.

The 50-60s of the 20th century became the time of the formation of the culture of speech as an independent discipline:

• “Grammar of the Russian Language” was published.
• The scientific principles of speech culture have been clarified.
• Issues of the “Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language” are published.
• At the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a sector of speech culture appears under the leadership of S. I. Ozhegov. Under his editorship, the journal “Issues of Speech Culture” is published.
• D. E. Rosenthal and L. I. Skvortsov are working on a theoretical basis for some issues. They devote their works to separating two terms from each other - “culture of speech” and “culture of language”.

In the 1970s, speech culture became an independent discipline. She has a subject, object, methodology and techniques of scientific research.

Linguists of the 90s do not lag behind their predecessors. At the end of the 20th century, a number of works devoted to the problem of speech culture were published.

The development of speech and the culture of verbal communication continue to be one of the pressing linguistic problems. Today, the attention of linguists is focused on such issues.

• Establishing internal connections between improving the speech culture of society and the development of national culture.
• Improving the modern Russian language taking into account the changes occurring in it.
• Scientific analysis of the processes occurring in modern speech practice.

What are the signs and properties of speech culture?

Speech culture in linguistics has a number of distinctive properties and features, which are also the logical basis of the phenomenon being studied:

Knowing the basics of speech culture and applying them as intended is the duty of every educated person.

What is a type of speech culture?

The type of speech culture is a characteristic of native speakers depending on their level of language proficiency. The ability to use language is also important. Here, an important role is played by how well developed verbal communication and speech culture are. Let's consider the question in more detail.

Based on the above, it is necessary to highlight the basic norms of speech culture:

• Regulatory. Protects the literary language from the penetration of colloquial expressions and dialectisms and keeps it intact and in accordance with generally accepted norms.
• Communicative. Implies the ability to use the functions of the language in accordance with the situation. For example, accuracy in scientific speech and the admissibility of inaccurate expressions in colloquial speech.
• Ethical. It means observing speech etiquette, that is, norms of behavior in communication. Greetings, addresses, requests, questions are used.
• Aesthetic. It involves the use of techniques and methods of figurative expression of thoughts and decorating speech with epithets, comparisons and other techniques.

What is the essence of human speech culture?

Above we examined the concepts of “language” and “speech culture” as a social phenomenon that characterizes society. But society consists of individuals. Consequently, there is a type of culture that characterizes the oral speech of an individual. This phenomenon is called “human speech culture.” The term should be understood as a person’s attitude towards language knowledge and the ability to use it and improve it if necessary.

These are skills not only in speaking and writing, but also in listening and reading. For communicative perfection, a person must master all of them. Mastering them presupposes knowledge of patterns, signs and patterns of constructing communicatively perfect speech, mastery of etiquette and the psychological foundations of communication.

Human speech culture is not static - it, like language, is subject to changes that depend both on social transformations and on the person himself. It begins to form with the child’s first words. It grows with him, transforming into the speech culture of a preschooler, then a schoolchild, a student and an adult. The older a person is, the more advanced his speaking, writing, reading and listening skills become.

What are the differences between Russian speech culture?

Russian speech culture belongs to the section of disciplines that study national speech cultures. Each nation has formed its own language norm during its existence. What is natural for one ethnic group may be alien to another. These features include:

ethnic features of the linguistic picture of the world;

use of verbal and non-verbal means;

a body of texts that includes all texts ever written in that language - both ancient and modern.

An ethnic picture of the world is understood as a set of views on the world through the words and expressions of a particular language, which is shared by all people who speak it and is taken for granted. But the difference between national pictures of the world can be easily traced through the analysis of folklore and the epithets used. For example, the expressions “bright head” and “kind heart” imply high intelligence and responsiveness. It is no coincidence that the head and heart were chosen in these epithets, since in the Russian understanding, a person thinks with his head and feels with his heart. But in other languages ​​this is not the case. For example, in the Ifaluk language, internal feelings are conveyed by the intestines, in the Dogon language by the liver, and in Hebrew they do not feel with the heart, but think.

At what level is modern Russian speech culture?

Modern speech culture reflects:

• typological features of the Russian language;
• scope of its application;
• unity of speech throughout the Russian Federation;
• territorial variants of the Russian language;
• written and oral texts of not only artistic, but also national significance, which reveal ideas about good and correct speech, about the achievements of science about the Russian language.

Russian speech etiquette

Russian speech etiquette is understood as a set of norms and rules of communication that developed under the influence of national culture.

Russian speech etiquette divides communication into formal and informal. Formal is communication between people who do not know each other well. They are connected by the event or reason for which they gathered. Such communication requires unquestioning adherence to etiquette. In contrast to this style, informal communication occurs between people who know each other well. This is family, friends, loved ones, neighbors.

Features of speech etiquette in Russia involve addressing a person as “you” during formal communication. In this case, you need to address the interlocutor by name and patronymic. This is necessary, since forms similar to “sir”, “mister”, “Mrs” or “Miss” are absent in Russian speech etiquette. There is a general “ladies and gentlemen”, but it applies to a large number of people. In pre-revolutionary Russia there were such addresses as sir and madam, but with the advent of the Bolsheviks they were replaced by words such as comrade, citizen and citizen. With the collapse of the USSR, the word "comrade" became obsolete and acquired its original meaning - "friend", and "citizen" and "citizen" began to be associated with the police or court. Over time, they too disappeared, and were replaced by words that attract attention. For example, “sorry”, “excuse me”, “could you...”.

Unlike the speech culture of the West, in Russian there are many topics for discussion - politics, family, work. At the same time, sexual activities are prohibited.

In general, the culture of speech etiquette is acquired from childhood and improves over time, acquiring more and more subtleties. The success of its development depends on the family in which the child grew up and on the environment in which he develops. If the people around him are highly cultured, then the child will master this form of communication. Conversely, supporters of the vernacular type of speech culture will teach their child to communicate in simple and uncomplicated sentences.

Is it possible to develop speech culture on your own?

The development of speech culture depends not only on a person’s environment, but also on himself. At a conscious age, if desired, you can develop it yourself. To do this, you need to devote time to independent study every day. It will take 3 days to complete all the tasks, and before learning a new one, you need to repeat the old one. Gradually it will be possible to complete tasks not only together, but also separately. At first, such a speech culture lesson will take 15-20 minutes, but will gradually increase to an hour.

Expanding vocabulary. For the exercise you need to take any Russian or foreign language dictionary. Write down or underline all the words of one part of speech - nouns, adjectives or verbs. And then choose synonyms. This exercise helps expand passive vocabulary.

Writing a story using keywords. Take any book, select any 5 words at random with your eyes closed and make up a story based on them. You need to compose up to 4 texts at a time, each of which takes no more than 3 minutes. This exercise helps develop imagination, logic and intelligence. A more difficult option is to compose a story of 10 words.

Conversation with the mirror. For this exercise you will need the text from task 2. Stand in front of the mirror and tell your story without facial expressions. Then retell your story a second time, using facial expressions. Analyze your facial expression and manner of speaking by answering 2 questions - “do you like your facial expression and the way you present information” and “whether others will like them.” This task is aimed at developing the habit of consciously managing your facial expressions.

Listening to a recording from a voice recorder. This exercise will help you hear yourself from the outside and identify the strengths and weaknesses of your speech, and therefore, correct the shortcomings and learn to use the advantages of your speaking style. Read any literary text or poem you like into the recorder. Listen, analyze it like the previous task, and try to retell it or read it by heart a second time, taking into account the corrections.

1. Conversation with your interlocutor. This type of exercise helps develop dialogue skills. If among your friends or acquaintances there are people who do these exercises, then you can do exercise 2 with one of them. If not, then ask someone to help you. To do this, prepare a topic of conversation and a plan in advance. Your goal is to interest your interlocutor, arouse his curiosity and hold his attention for at least 5 minutes. The task is considered completed if the interlocutors talked on 3-4 of the given topics.

The development of speech culture requires constant practice - only in this case success will not be long in coming.

- correctness(speech must correspond to the norm, i.e. the tradition of use in the field of orthoepy, vocabulary, grammar, spelling (for written speech), stylistics);

- purity(speech free of non-literary words, not clogged with jargon, dialectisms, “weed” words, maintained in the same style);

- accuracy(the word corresponds to the content, the thought is fully expressed);

-expressiveness(use of figurative and expressive language means: epithets, comparisons, metaphors, etc.);

-logic(speech is strictly organized, consistent, observing logical transitions);

- relevance(corresponding to the communication situation);

- wealth(appropriate use of language units at all levels: phonetic, lexical, grammatical).

Linguistic norms (norms of a literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by the following features:

1. Compliance with the structure of the language;

2. massive and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers;

3. public approval and recognition.

Below are the main sources of language norms.

1. Works of classical writers;

2. works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;

3. media publications;

4. generally accepted modern usage;

5. linguistic research data.

The characteristic features of language norms are:

1. relative stability;

2. prevalence;

3. common use;

4. universally binding;

5. correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.

A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication.

Style is a type of language, a relatively closed system that serves the purposes of communication between people in one or another area of ​​their activity.

Functional styles are the most general differentiation of language, allowing one to generalize all the particular manifestations of the dependence of language on the conditions of communication.

Functional styles are distinguished not only by the presence of certain features, but also by the impossibility of including in each style elements that are “not allowed” (negative features of the style).

27.Functional styles of the Russian language

Functional speech styles- a historically established system of speech means used in one or another sphere of human communication; variety literary language, performing a specific function in communication.

To avoid confusion with language styles, functional styles are sometimes called language genres, functional varieties of language. Each functional style has its own characteristics of using a general literary norm; it can exist both in written and oral form. There are five main types of functional speech styles, differing in the conditions and goals of communication in some area of ​​social activity: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial, artistic.

1. Literary and artistic.

The artistic style used in fiction. It affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the wealth of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, and is characterized by imagery and emotionality of speech.

The emotionality of an artistic style differs from the emotionality of colloquial and journalistic styles. The emotionality of artistic speech performs an aesthetic function. Artistic style requires pre-selection linguistic means; All language means are used to create images.

2. Journalistic.

Journalistic style serves to influence people through mass media. It is found in genres articles, essay, reportage, feuilleton, interview, oratory and is characterized by the presence of socio-political vocabulary, logic, emotionality.

This style is used in the spheres of political-ideological, social and cultural relations. The information is intended not only for a narrow circle of specialists, but for broad sections of society, and the impact is directed not only on the mind, but also on the feelings of the addressee.

It is characterized by abstract words with socio-political meaning (humanity, progress, nationality, openness, peace-loving).

The task is to provide information about the life of the country, influence the masses, and form a certain attitude towards public affairs

3. Official business.

Business style is used to communicate, inform in an official setting (sphere legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). This style is used to design documents: laws, orders, resolutions, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates. Scope of application of official business style - right, author - lawyer, lawyer, diplomat, Just citizen. Works in this style are addressed to the state, citizens of the state, institutions, employees, etc., with the aim of establishing administrative-legal relations.

This style exists more often in written speech, type of speech- mainly reasoning. Type of speech- more often monologue, type of communication - public.

Style features - imperativeness (due character), accuracy, not allowing two interpretations, standardization (strict composition of the text, precise selection of facts and ways of presenting them), lack of emotionality.

The main function of the official business style is informational (transfer of information). It is characterized by the presence of speech cliches, a generally accepted form of presentation, a standard presentation of the material, the widespread use of terminology and nomenclature names, the presence of complex unabridged words, abbreviations, verbal nouns, and the predominance of direct word order.

4.Scientific.

Scientific style is the style of scientific communications. The scope of use of this style is the science, the recipients of text messages can be scientists, future specialists, students, or simply anyone interested in a particular scientific field; The authors of texts of this style are scientists, experts in their field. The purpose of style can be described as describing laws, identifying patterns, describing discoveries, teaching, etc.

Its main function is to communicate information, as well as to prove its truth. It is characterized by the presence of small terms, general scientific words, abstract vocabulary, it is dominated by a noun, and many abstract and real nouns.

The scientific style exists mainly in written monologue speech. His genres - Research Article, educational literature, monograph, school essay etc. The stylistic features of this style are emphasized logic, evidence, accuracy (unambiguity), clarity, generalization.

5. Conversational.

The conversational style is used for direct communication, when the author shares his thoughts or feelings with others, exchanges information on everyday issues in an informal setting. It often uses colloquial and vernacular vocabulary. It is distinguished by its large semantic capacity and colorfulness, giving liveliness and expressiveness to speech.

The usual form of implementing the conversational style is dialogue, this style is more often used in oral speech. There is no preliminary selection of language material. In this style of speech, extra-linguistic factors play an important role: facial expressions, gestures, environment. Linguistic means of conversational style: emotionality, expressiveness of colloquial vocabulary, words with suffixes of subjective assessment; the use of incomplete sentences, introductory words, words of address, interjections, modal particles, repetitions, inversion, etc.

General features of the scientific style.

The scientific style has a number of common features that appear regardless of the nature of certain sciences (natural, exact, humanities) and differences between genres of statement (monograph, scientific article, report, textbook, etc.), which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole . At the same time, it is quite natural that, for example, texts on physics, chemistry, mathematics differ markedly in the nature of presentation from texts on philology or history. The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of connections between parts of the statement, and the authors’ desire for accuracy, conciseness, and unambiguity while maintaining richness of content. Logic - this is the presence of semantic connections between successive units of text. Consistency only a text in which conclusions follow from the content, they are consistent, the text is divided into separate semantic segments that reflect the movement of thought from the particular to the general or from the general to the particular. Clarity, as the quality of scientific speech, presupposes understandability and accessibility. In terms of accessibility, scientific, scientific-educational and popular science texts differ in material and in the method of its linguistic design. Accuracy scientific speech presupposes unambiguous understanding, the absence of discrepancies between the signified and its definition. Therefore, scientific texts, as a rule, lack figurative, expressive means; words are used mainly in their literal meaning; the frequency of terms also contributes to the unambiguity of the text. The strict accuracy requirements for a scientific text limit the use of figurative language: metaphors, epithets, artistic comparisons, proverbs, etc. Sometimes such means can penetrate into scientific works, since the scientific style strives not only for accuracy, but also for persuasiveness and evidence. Sometimes figurative means are necessary to implement the requirement of clarity and intelligibility of presentation. Emotionality, like expressiveness, in a scientific style, which requires an objective, “intellectual” presentation of scientific data, is expressed differently than in other styles. The perception of a scientific work can evoke certain feelings in the reader, but not as a response to the emotionality of the author, but as an awareness of the scientific fact itself. Although a scientific discovery has an impact regardless of the method of its transmission, the author of a scientific work himself does not always abandon his emotional and evaluative attitude towards the events and facts presented. The desire for a limited use of the author’s “I” is not a tribute to etiquette, but a manifestation of an abstract and generalized stylistic feature of scientific speech, reflecting the form of thinking. A characteristic feature of the style of scientific works is their saturation of terms ( in particular, international ones). However, the degree of this saturation should not be overestimated: on average, terminological vocabulary usually accounts for 15-25 percent of the total vocabulary used in the work. Plays a big role in the style of scientific work use of abstract vocabulary. The vocabulary of scientific speech consists of three main layers: commonly used words, general scientific words and terms. In any scientific text, commonly used vocabulary forms the basis of the presentation. First of all, words with a generalized and abstract meaning are selected (being, consciousness, fixes, temperature). Using general scientific words, phenomena and processes in different fields of science and technology are described (system, question, meaning, designate). One of the features of the use of general scientific words is their repeated repetition in a narrow context. A term is a word or phrase that accurately and unambiguously names an object, phenomenon or concept of science and reveals its content. The term carries a large amount of logical information. In explanatory dictionaries, terms are accompanied by the mark “special”. Morphological features of the scientific style: - predominance of nouns; - wide distribution of abstract nouns (time, phenomena, change, state); - use in the plural of nouns that do not have plural forms in common use (cost, steel...); - use of singular nouns for generalized concepts (birch, acid);

The use of almost exclusively forms of the present tense in a timeless meaning, indicating the constant nature of the process (stands out, comes).

1. A characteristic feature of the scientific style is its high terminology - saturation with terms (biosphere, photosynthesis, leukocytes, selection, organ).

2.The language of science is characterized by the use of borrowed and international models ( macro-, micro-, meter, inter-, graph etc.): macroworld, intercom, polygraph.

3. The zero connective between subject and predicate is often used. See point 7

4. In the scientific literature there is a tendency to reduce the use of the pronoun I. Instead, the pronoun WE is used (we read...).

5. National style has its own phraseology.

A. Composite terms (classification of species, animal kingdom, protein synthesis, natural selection).

B. Various kinds of clichés - standard phrases (consists of...).

6.Use of abstract vocabulary (development, creativity, consciousness, expression, comprehension).

7. In scientific works, the singular form of nouns is often used to mean plural (a wolf is a predatory animal of the dog family).

8.Verbs in the present tense (chloride decomposes).

9.When constructing sentences, there is a noticeable desire to use fewer verbs and more nouns.

10.Adjectives are widely used, performing a terminological function (participial, participial).

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§ compliance with communication ethics.

1. Normative

2. Communicative

3. Ethical

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Language norms.

Language- a system of multi-level linguistic units that are in relationships of interconnection and interdependence.

Language norms- rules for the use of linguistic units of various levels.

The concept of norm applies to all levels of language. In accordance with the level correlation and specificity, the following types of language norms are distinguished.

1. Phonetic.

A syllable is a phonetic unit formed by one expiratory impulse.

A phonetic word is a word united by one verbal stress.

Rags - 1 word and 1 word stress.

Well, come on - 1 verbal stress and 3 words.

Functional parts of speech do not have verbal stress unless stylistically stipulated.

Vegetable storage facility - first additional. stress, second verbal. Also a sofa bed.

CHINA (fish), THINKING - equal emphasis.

Logical stress is the most significant word in the context.

Emphatic stress is a stretching of a word.

2. Graphic.

Grapheme is a superscript and subscript (letter, punctuation mark, diacritic, comma, underscore, etc.).

3. Lexical.

Lexical meaning is the conceptual content of a word.

Archaism is outdated words.

Lanita - cheeks, shuya - left hand, right hand - right hand.

Comrade from goods, eyelash from ryasno (fringe), burr from sleep (skin).

4. Word formation.

Morpheme is the minimally significant part of a word.

Beat (bi-root), fight (the word is the root), athlete (change-suffix), gentleman (word-root), superman (1-prefix, 2-root), dress (e-root), put on shoes (y -root) from the old word uti, which means shoes, pantrantash (1-root, 2-suffix).

An interfix is ​​an asemantic component between morphemes that performs a connecting function and is not a morpheme.

5. Grammatical.

A word form is a word in a certain grammatical form; it is formed by conjugating or declension of the main dictionary form of the word.

There are three degrees of normativity, which are reflected in various dictionaries:

§ The norm of the 1st degree is strict, rigid, does not allow options (putting down, not laying down);

§ The norm of the 2nd degree is neutral, allows equivalent options (decent (w));

§ The norm of the 3rd degree is more flexible, allows colloquial, outdated forms (cottage cheese, cottage cheese).

The norm of the 1st degree is called a mandatory norm, the norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees are called dispositive norms.

In the linguistic literature of recent years, two types of norms are distinguished: imperative and dispositive.

Imperative(strictly mandatory) - the norms are the only correct ones, they have one representation.

Dispositive- norms allow stylistically different or neutral options.

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Blazers, jackets, hats.

From the butcher shop

Aunt Zina came running. (I. Reznikova)

If we take this passage in the literal sense, it turns out that along with people (moms, dads, Aunt Zina), things (jackets, vests, hats) were also rushing along the street. When using synecdoche, the name of the clothing can be used in a figurative sense to refer to the person who wears this clothing.

The most common types of synecdoche:

1. A part of a phenomenon is named in the sense of the whole.

For example: All flags will come to visit us (A. Pushkin), i.e. ships flying the flags of all countries.

2. The whole in the meaning of the part.

For example:

Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, look how you are! Fight with a helmet?

Well isn't it sneaky people?

3. Singular number in the meaning of general and even universal.

For example: There is moaning Human from slavery and chains. (M. Lermontov) From here we will threaten Swede. (Meaning: Swedes)

4. Replacing a number with a set:

For example:

Be of good cheer now

With your zeal to prove,

What can own Platonov

And quick in mind Nevtonov

Russian land gives birth. (M.V. Lomonosov)

Mylons you. Us - darkness, And darkness, And darkness(A. Blok)

5. Replacement of the generic concept with a specific one.

For example: ...Most of all, take care and save a penny: This thing is the most reliable. A comrade or friend will deceive you and in trouble will be the first to betray you, and kopeck will not betray you, no matter what trouble you are in. You will do everything and you will ruin everything in the world a penny. (Instead of the generic, broader concept money, the specific one is used, the narrower one is a penny, and instead of the plural, the singular is used)

We hit penniless! Very good! (V. Mayakovsky)

6. Replacing the specific concept with a generic one.

For example:

A tear from the eyes himself - (Meaning plural - tears)

the heat was driving me crazy

but I told him

for the samovar:

"Well,

sit down, light!” (Instead of the narrower concept of sun, the broader, generic concept of luminary is used)

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Lexical homonyms.

They are words of the same part of speech, identical in spelling and pronunciation, but different in meaning.

1. Bor - a section of coniferous forest.

Bur - dental drill.

Boron is a chemical element.

2. Peace - absence of war.

The world is like the universe.

3. Focus - a circus trick.

The focus is in physics, the point of refraction of rays.

4. Club - special. a building where ceremonial and entertainment events are held.

Club - a meeting of interests.

The club is like a coil of smoke.

5. Braid is a type of hairstyle.

Spit - sandbank.

A scythe is an agricultural tool.

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Antonyms with different roots.

Big small;

High - low.

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Slang vocabulary

These are words and expressions characteristic of groups of people and connected by a common occupation, interests, living conditions, and social status.

Forms of communication can be different:

Schooling;

Military service;

Playing sports;

Drunkenness;

Playing cards, etc.

Jargon is a social type of speech, not a special language, but just a specific vocabulary. This differs from territorial dialects.

Researchers distinguish the heterogeneity of modern jargon:

1. general layer (bazaar, roof, shoes, buzz);

2. narrow-group (specialized) jargons (dirich, botanist, parasha, chimera, hysterical, jelly, philoluhi, crazy, pervaki, cloacquism, spurs, etc. - understandable to schoolchildren and students).

Jargon has an emotional value, but it is fleeting.

The formation of a jargon dictionary occurs from the same sources that are characteristic of the language as a whole:

Metaphorical, metonymic transfer (conductor = beggar; parents = farm laborers, shoelaces, stockings, antiques; printer = computer science teacher; pocket = rich man; boar = girl’s friend);

Borrowing from other languages ​​(drink = drink, style - style);

Borrowing from thieves' jargon (cop, garbage);

Derivation (suffixal addition) (scourge package, dorm, slip away, dump);

Argo vocabulary - words and expressions used by a separate, closed group of people - is used by representatives of the criminal world (for example, burglar, window keeper, shchipach, bracelets = handcuffs, green shot = work in a logging camp). Some argotic words are fixed in the literary language: homeless, lawlessness.

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Pronunciation of vowels.

In Russian speech, only vowels that are under stress are pronounced clearly: s[a]d, v[o]lk, d[o]m. Vowels that are in an unstressed position lose their clarity and clarity. This is called the law of reduction (from the Latin: reduce).

The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: deer - [a]laziness, being late - [a]p[a]zdat, magpie - s[a]roca.

In the unstressed position (in all unstressed syllables, except the first pre-stressed one), after hard consonants in place of the letter o, a short (reduced) unclear sound is pronounced, the pronunciation of which in different positions ranges from [s] to [a]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [ъ]. For example: side - side [a]rona, head - g[a]lova, dear - d[a]rogoy, gunpowder - gunpowder[']kh, gold - ash[']t['].

After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letters a, e, i, a sound is pronounced, intermediate between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the sign [ie]: tongue - [ie]zyk, pen - p[ie]ro, clock - h[ie]sy.

The vowel [and] after a hard consonant, a preposition, or when pronouncing a word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: pedagogical institute - pedagogical institute, to Ivan - k[y]van, laughter and tears - laughter [s] tears. If there is a pause, [i] does not turn into [s]: laughter and tears.

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Grammatical norms of the modern Russian language. Variants of case endings for nouns

One of main features literary language is its normalization, i.e. the presence of norms. Language norm- this is a model, this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given linguistic society in a given era. The norm determines what is right and what is wrong, it recommends some linguistic means and methods of expression and prohibits others. For example, you can't talk collidor, follows - corridor, cannot be pronounced calls- only calls. Linguistic norms are objectively formed in the process of language practice of members of society. Norms may change over time, but they are still stable over a long period of time. Compliance with norms facilitates the use of literary language. Norms permeate all tiers of the literary language.

Syntactic.

There are two big problems with word formation:

) compliance with the norms or rules of word formation;

) the choice of a particular word, which contains evaluative morphemes, in accordance with a specific communication situation.

The first problem relates to the field of speech culture, the second is more related to stylistics.

Morphological norms determine the correct formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of the genitive plural is many stocking, boot, socks, you can't talk places, business, should not be changed indeclinable nouns: in the new coat, incorrect: more better (simply - better) or the smartest (the smartest or the smartest).

Morphological norms apply to all parts of speech of the Russian language. The gender of nouns is a permanent feature, so violations of grammatical norms are often associated precisely with the incorrect use of nouns in a certain gender. Determining the gender of a noun is not difficult; it is enough to choose the correct pronoun for it ( he she it).

There are also morphological norms for the declension of nouns, where the variants of case endings are clearly defined. The main grammatical rules for variant case endings are as follows:

1) standard endings im.p. plural noun m.r. are -s(s), non-standard (-(s), -e), for example: moles, horses, snow, chairs.

2) in the form of gen.p. inanimate by him. noun m.r. in units have the ending -у (-у), which is most often found in words with a real meaning and in collective nouns in the meaning of quantity from a part of a whole, for example: pour sand/sand.

) the form with -у firmly holds in phraseological combinations, for example : Tet-a-tet.

)diminutive forms with an accent on the ending are used mainly with the form -у, for example: cognac, cottage cheese.

) zero ending in the names of units of measurement (watt, erg); names of vegetables, fruits, food, measured by masses (eggplant, tangerine, pomegranate); names of persons by nationality (Avar, Ossetian, Gypsy); names of persons according to military units ( hussar, midshipman); names of paired objects or objects consisting of several parts ( felt boots, clips, stockings); some nouns that have only the plural form. ( splash, timpani, space).

)expressed null ending, for example: uncles, aunts, nurseries, etc.

) other cases.

The norms for variant endings of nouns in the nominative plural form have been determined, for example: constructor-constructors, front-fronts, anchor-anchors.

There are norms for phraseological combination and combination with forms ending in -y in the prepositional case, for example: there is not enough gunpowder, hour after hour, out of harmony with the heart, at every step.

The grammatical norms for the endings of masculine nouns with a solid consonant in the genitive plural have been determined, for example: Bermuda-Bermuda, cuff-cuff, Greek-Greek, Evenki-Evenki.

A certain group of nouns used with certain grammatical norms consists of nouns with the noun endings m.r., zh.r., sr.r. with a base on a soft consonant, Ж, or a sibilant consonant in the genitive plural, for example: psaltery-psaltery, gossip-gossip, lie-lye, gear-gear.

There are norms for the declension of proper nouns: surnames and geographical names, in particular the declension of surnames. For example, foreign language and Russian surnames ending in a consonant are declined if they refer to men and not declined if they refer to women: to Oleg Finkel and Maria Finkel. The same group of grammatical norms includes the norms of declension of geographical names. For example, geographical names like Sheremetyevo(V Sheremetyevo), Komarovo (Komarovo) have inflected and indeclinable variants as a norm, but are not inflected if they appear with generic names ( from the port of Vanino) or names are enclosed in quotation marks (for example, near the farm " Golovlevo»)

There are grammatical rules for the use of adjectives. The full form of the adjective most often indicates a permanent attribute of the object, and the short form indicates a temporary one. For example: she is educated and she is educated. The short form expresses the characteristic more categorically than the full form: he's smart - he's smart.

The grammatical norms for declension of numerals have also been determined. For example, when declension of complex numerals denoting hundreds and tens and ending in - hundred or - ten in the nominative case, each part is declined as a simple numeral ( fifty, seventy). There are also norms for the use of collective nouns. For example, in cases of their use with personal pronouns: there were two of us, there were five of them.

There are also grammatical rules for the formation of personal forms of verbs. For example, for verbs offend, protect, convince and so on. 1L form is not formed. units Some verbs (for example, drive) the imperative form is not formed. Verbs must agree with nouns in number. When using a verb, you need to pay attention to verb control. Certain difficulties arise when forming the past tense forms of some verbs. So, for example, verbs ending in -nut in the indicated form have grammatical variants: penetrated - penetrated, dried-dried. However, recently there has been a tendency to lose the suffix -y.

The grammatical norms for the formation of participles contain, for example, the norm that passive past participles are not formed from verbs ending in - (a) no: push, hit from the verbs kiss, orphan, etc.

The same applies to the rules on the formation of gerunds. Participles are not formed, for example, from unprefixed imperfective verbs ending in -nut: dry, freeze, hang, stick and so on. The action expressed by the gerund must refer to the same person (object) to which the action expressed by the predicate verb refers.

Syntactic norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when managing: You can't talk about it, it shows... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience has come (patience), pay for travel (pay for what?); After watching this film, I became sad (After watching this film, I became sad. Or: I felt sad after watching this movie).

Knowledge of grammatical norms and rules for constructing phrases and sentences and careful attention to one’s own speech culture allows one to avoid syntactic errors in speech. Collocation- is a combination of two or more words of significant parts of speech, in which there is a main (s) and dependent (s) word (s). Collocations are not a means of communication. They form the basis of a sentence, which serves as a means of communication. A sentence is specifically intended to express a message, motivation or question.

Thus, we have examined the main groups of grammatical norms of the modern Russian language. Ignorance of grammatical norms leads to the fact that the incorrect use of certain speech patterns violates the grammatical structure of the language.

Variants of case endings for nouns

Usually there is one characteristic ending for each case. However, in some cases, the same case may have different endings:

1) Some inanimate masculine nouns can have singular endings in the genitive case not only -and I, but also - y, -y. These nouns include:

real, when indicating the quantity of something ( hundredweight of granulated sugar - sand, little snow - snow) or the absence of a certain amount ( not a gram of sand - sand, not a drop of alcohol - alcohol); This especially applies to real nouns with diminutive suffixes ( pour some sand);

abstract, in the same cases ( how much squeal - squeal; no scream - scream, no noise - noise);

words included in stable combinations ( a week without a year, no time for laughter). Forms with endings -u, -yu are conversational in nature.

2) Some inanimate masculine nouns in the prepositional singular case with prepositions V And on with spatial meaning can always have stressed endings -u, -yu (in the corner, on the closet). The most common of these nouns are: coast, board (ship), Crimea, forest, bridge, port, row, garden, corner, closet.

If there are ending options -e, -y (on vacation - on vacation, in the cold - in the cold, in the workshop - in the workshop) the first is neutral in nature, and the second is colloquial.

3) A number of masculine nouns in the nominative plural have stressed endings - and I): address - addressA, poplar - poplar. The most common nouns receiving this form are: side, shore, century, evening, eye, director, house, doctor, edge, master, room, island, passport, train, professor, volume. In case of hesitation in choosing endings –s(s) – -and I) the latter are more typical of everyday and professional speech: years - years, inspectors - inspectors, searchlights - searchlights, sectors - sectors, mechanic - mechanic, turner - turner, poplar - poplar,. tractors - tractors, anchors - anchors. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that some variant forms differ in meaning: images (artistic and literary) and images (icons), teachers (ideological leaders) and teachers (teachers), flowers (plants) - colors (coloring), etc.

4) Some groups of masculine nouns in the genitive plural have the nominative singular form (with a zero ending). These groups are:

individual names of persons by nationality ( Buryats, Georgians, Lezgins, Turks, Gypsies; but compare: Arabs, Mongols);

individual names of persons associated with military service ( hussar, partisan, soldier; but compare: captains, colonels);

individual names of paired items ( boot, felt boots, shoulder straps, boots, stockings; but compare: socks);

separate names of units of measurement when indicating their quantity ( ampere, watt, volt, hertz, ohm, x-ray).

In the case of vibrations of forms with zero ending and with - ov the former are characteristic of colloquial speech, and the latter - strictly literary language ( sector - sectors, orange - oranges).

5) Nouns of the second declension in the instrumental case of the singular have varying endings -oh) And - oh): head, page - head, page. The latter forms are found, as a rule, in poetry, being determined by the rules of rhyme.

6) Common nouns are declined according to the feminine declension model, but are used most often in colloquial speech : pretentious, dude, bore.

7) Depending on the meaning of the word, the grammatical gender of some nouns that contain an augmentative suffix varies - looking for. Wed: gorodische (big city)) - male; gorodische (ancient settlement) – neuter; conflagration (big fire)- male; conflagration (the place where the fire occurred, the remains of something burned) – neuter.

8) Although the category of animate/inanimate has a certain grammatical expression in the Russian language, in some cases there are fluctuations in classifying some words as animate or inanimate nouns. Fluctuations are observed in the names of microorganisms: study bacteria/bacteria, research bacilli/bacillus, destroy germs/germs; the same for words embryos, larvae, embryos etc. In general literary language these words are used as inanimate nouns : study bacteria, destroy germs. Classifying them as animate nouns is associated with a more archaic use or with use in specialized literature, in professional speech: Textile paint protonized kills pathogenic microbes in the human body.

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Peculiarities

Despite the differences in content and variety of genres, the official business style is generally characterized by a number of common features. These include:

1) conciseness, compact presentation, economical use of language;

2) standard arrangement of material, frequent obligatory form (identity card, various kinds of diplomas, birth and marriage certificates, monetary documents, etc.), the use of clichés inherent in this style;

3) widespread use of terminology, names (legal, diplomatic, military, administrative, etc.), the presence of a special stock of vocabulary and phraseology (official, clerical), inclusion of complex abbreviations and abbreviations in the text;

4) frequent use of verbal nouns, denominate prepositions (based on, in relation to, in accordance with, in fact, by virtue of, for the purposes of, at the expense of, along the line, etc.), complex conjunctions (due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, etc.), as well as various stable phrases that serve to connect parts of a complex sentence (in case ...; on the basis that ...; for the reason that ...; with that the condition that ...; in such a way that ...; the fact that ... etc.);

5) the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with listing;

6) direct word order in a sentence as the predominant principle of its construction;

7) a tendency to use complex sentences that reflect the logical subordination of some facts to others;

8) almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;

9) weak individualization of style.

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Speech culture is part of a person’s general culture.

Speech culture is part of a person’s general culture. By the way a person speaks or writes, one can judge the level of his spiritual development, his internal culture. A person’s mastery of speech culture is not only an indicator of a high level of intellectual and spiritual development, but also a unique indicator of professional suitability for people of various professions: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, journalists, managers. It is important to have a culture of speech for everyone who, by the nature of their work, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, teaches, educates, conducts business negotiations, and provides various services to people.

Speech culture is, to some extent, a set of requirements for the form, content, order, nature and situational relevance of statements. Speech etiquette is associated with the so-called postulates of speech communication, which make the interaction of communication participants possible and successful.

To have a culture of speech means not only to understand the meaning of all elements of language, but also to remember how they are usually used in literary speech.

The speech culture of each individual person depends on how developed his sense of language, or linguistic flair, is. The highest culture of speech is the possession of a sense of style.

The lack of speech culture is manifested, for example, in the fact that a person pronounces sounds in words incorrectly, that is, pronounces words the way they are written, incorrectly constructs phrases, and gives words the wrong meaning.

Mastering the art of communication is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in, since success in the personal, industrial and social spheres of life depends on the level and quality of his communication.

The term speech culture means:

1. mastery of the norms of both oral and written language (rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, grammar, stylistics), as well as the ability to use expressive means of language in various communication conditions in accordance with the purposes and content of speech;

2. a section of linguistics that studies the problems of normalization with the aim of improving language as a tool of culture.

Speech culture means:

§ mastery of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written forms;

§ the ability to select and organize linguistic means that, in a certain communication situation, contribute to the achievement of communication goals;

§ compliance with communication ethics.

Thus, speech culture contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical.

1. Normative. Speech culture presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech, that is, compliance with the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speakers and writers) as a model.

2. Communicative. Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, so it is important to know the basic communicative qualities of speech that have the best impact on the addressee, taking into account the specific situation and in accordance with the goals and objectives. These include: accuracy, logic, richness and variety of speech, its purity, expressiveness.

3. Ethical. The ethical aspect of speech culture prescribes knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical standards of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greetings, requests, thanks, congratulations, etc.; addresses to you and you; choice of a full or abbreviated name, address formulas, etc.).

The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced by extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in the speech act, their social background. status, the nature of the relationship between them, the time and place of verbal interaction, etc.

The ethical component of the culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication and condemns speaking in a raised voice.