), which is used to express the syntactic (coordinating or subordinating) connection of units of different nature and volume, from clauses ( Research continues and hypotheses multiply[“Knowledge is power” (2003)]) to phrases ( Apples and prunes are traditionally served with goose[Recipes of national cuisines (2000-2005)]) and even components of words ( two- and three-story houses). Conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions prototypically connect clauses (although a connection between a word and a clause is possible ( The decisive argument was the fact that the Germans did the same to the French in 1940["Domestic Notes" (2003)]) and words with the word ( Petya is smarter than Vasya)), and coordinating - any homogeneous components (word and word, word and clause, clause and clause). Unlike the preposition, which is functionally close to the subordinating conjunction, the conjunction does not assign a case.

Conjunctions are classified on a number of formal and semantic grounds: by formal structure, by syntactic and semantic properties, by their ability to be used illocutionarily (see Illocutionary uses of conjunctions):

Classification of unions by formal structure (I)

Classification of unions by formal structure (II)

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Classification of conjunctions according to syntactic and semantic properties

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Classification of conjunctions according to their ability to be used illocutionarily

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Etymologically, many Russian conjunctions come from prepositional-pronominal and prepositional-nominal phrases ( because while), less often - from participial forms of the verb ( Although) Many conjunctions are polysemic and sometimes belong in other meanings to other parts of speech, primarily to particles ( yes, and at least barely) and pronouns ( what, how); sometimes significant parts of speech are used as conjunctions ( Truth), which significantly complicates their statistics.

In some cases, a word traditionally classified as a conjunction (see lists of conjunctions below) has in one sense or another intermediate properties (conjunction and particle, conjunction and preposition, coordinating and subordinating conjunction, simple and compound conjunction). In these cases, in the absence of more detailed research, the assignment of a word to conjunctions or to one or another class of conjunctions should be considered to some extent conditional.

Unions should be distinguished from the so-called. allied words (pronominal words that connect parts of a complex sentence and are at the same time members of the sentence).

The lists of conjunctions in this article are given according to the Academic Grammar 1954 [Grammar 1954: 665–673] and the Academic Grammar 1980 [Grammar 1980: §§1673–1683].

The term "union" is a translation from the Greek. syndesmos and lat. conjunctio.

1. Formal classes of unions

Conjunctions are traditionally divided into simple (see) (consisting of one word) and compound () (consisting of more than one word). This division, although in most cases there are purely spelling conventions behind it, is also given in this article.

Based on how many conjunctions are connected by a conjunction and which of them are marked with a conjunction indicator, conjunctions are divided into:

1.1. Simple vs. compound unions

1.1.1. Simple conjunctions

Simple conjunctions consist of one, usually one- or two-syllable word.

List of simple conjunctions [Grammar 1980: §1673]: a, anyhow, as much, an, good, it will be, as if, like, yes, so that, even, barely, if, if, then, but, and, for, or, so, if, how, when, if, if, whether, either, only, rather than, but, while, for the time being, as long as, since, moreover, moreover, let, let, once, perhaps, exactly, that is, as if, so, also, also, only, exactly, at least, although, than, purely, that, so that, slightly, supposedly.

1.1.2. Complex or compound conjunctions

Complex, or compound, conjunctions consist of two or more words that semantically represent one unit. The formation of most composite unions involves:

Some complex conjunctions, for example because, because, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in view of the fact that, then that; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; as, after, since, just as, in case, in order to and some others allow different punctuation - a comma is placed either before the entire conjunction or before the word what / how / to / if:

(1) Almost all gardeners despite the fact that this was not officially permitted; a strip of land about two meters wide was plowed in front of the fence on the street side, and potatoes grew on it. [A. Varlamov. Kupavna (2000)]

(2) <…>many issuers from list A could leave it and pension funds would have to sell these securities despite the fact that they are reliable and promising. [A. Verzhbitsky. Pensioners' assets will be preserved (2010)]

In the terminology of AG-80 [Grammar 1980(2): §2949], the first option is called “undivided”, the second – “dismembered”.

Different punctuation reflects a certain semantic difference between the dissected and unsegmented variants: in the first case, the meaning corresponding to the main clause is included in the meaning of the complex sentence as a presumption. Accordingly, this meaning does not fall within the scope of various types of modal operators. Wed:

(3) a. Shekhtel came to Moscow because

b. Perhaps Shekhtel ended up in Moscow because

When (3a) is included in the scope of the modal word Maybe the meaning of ‘Shekhtel got to Moscow’ remains unaffected by the epistemic modality expressed by this word, i.e. (3b) does not imply ‘it is possible that Shekhtel ended up in Moscow’.

For a similar sentence with undivided because This statement is incorrect:

(4) a. Shekhtel ended up in Moscow, because his mother was the Tretyakovs' housekeeper. ["Izvestia" (2002)]

b. Perhaps Shekhtel ended up in Moscow, because his mother was the Tretyakovs' housekeeper.

1.1.2.1. Simple conjunctions within compounds

Below are the main simple unions with the participation of which complex unions are formed. At the same time, the lists of complex conjunctions are not exhaustive; their purpose is to demonstrate the mechanism of word formation.

With the participation of the union What compound unions formed thanks to the fact that, no matter what, for nothing, then that, despite the fact that, not that, because, because, provided that, unless, so that, especially since, especially since, just now.

With the participation of the union How compound unions formed all the same, as, while, before, as if, as suddenly, as if, as for example, as soon as, meanwhile, before, likewise, as, after just like, because, just like, just like, almost like, just like, just like, just like, just like, since, since, whereas, exactly like.

With the participation of the union to compound unions formed without, not, instead of, in order to, then so that, not that, for the sake of, for the purpose of, so that.

With the participation of the union If unions formed in case, if not, as if, in case.

With the participation of unions how, than unions formed whatever, earlier than, before; before.

With the participation of unions only, only unions formed barely, as soon as, only just, just barely, just barely, barely, just, just barely.

1.1.2.2. Prepositions as part of compound conjunctions

Conjunctions are formed with the participation of prepositions in view of the fact that, instead of, in spite of the fact that, in relation to the fact that, up to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, like the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that that, due to the fact that, in comparison with the fact that, due to the fact that, based on the fact that, in addition to the fact that, on the basis of the fact that, along with the fact that, regarding the fact that, in spite of the fact that, unlike how , regardless of that, despite the fact that, regarding that, under the guise of that, just as, under the pretext that, as, in addition to that, regarding the fact that, due to the fact that, after that how, in comparison with that, in addition to that, depending on the fact that, judging by the fact that.

1.1.2.3. Particles in compound unions

With the participation of particles would, no, really unions formed as if, good, if, if, as if, as if, as if, when, if, if only, as if, if only, even if, that, and not, than, as if not, not yet, not yet, not yet, not that, not that, not that, if, when, if, since, since.

1.1.2.4. Adverbs in complex conjunctions

Conjunctions are formed with the participation of adverbs: for nothing that, how suddenly, as soon as, before, just like, as well as, earlier than, just like, especially, nevertheless, exactly-V-exactly like.

1.1.2.5. Pronouns in complex conjunctions

With the participation of a pronominal noun That The following unions were formed: otherwise, and even then, or even, otherwise, yes even then, not really, I mean, that is, be it, due to the fact that, thanks to the fact that, just like, while, despite the fact that, especially since, meanwhile, before. With the participation of a pronominal adjective That union formed since.

1.2. Single, double and repeating conjunctions

1.2.1. Single unions

The vast majority of conjunctions in the Russian language are single; they are found both among coordinating and subordinating ones. Single conjunctions are located between the connected parts of the text or are positionally adjacent to one of them:

(5) She came A he left; He left because she came; He's tired And left; Because She came, he left.

List of simple single conjunctions (see also list of Simple conjunctions (see)): a, anyhow, as much, an, good, be, as if, like, yes, so that, -even, barely, if, if, then, then, and, for, or, so, if, as, as that, when, if, if, whether, either, only, than, but, while, while, as long as, since, moreover, moreover, let, let, once, perhaps, exactly, that is, as if, so, also, also, only, exactly, at least, although, than, purely, that, so that, slightly, supposedly.

List of compound single unions: and not that, and that, and and that, and then and, and not, and not that, without not, thanks to the fact that, as if, be it, in view of the fact that, instead of, in spite of the fact that, in in relation to the fact that, up to the point that, in contrast to the fact that, in contrast to the fact that, as a result of the fact that, like the fact that, anyway, anyway, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that , in case, in comparison with the fact that, while, and even then, for nothing that, in order that, good, until, until, until, barely, hardly only, if, if would, if, if not, due to the fact that, then what, then so that, based on the fact that, as if, as if, as if, as if not, how suddenly, as if, as for example, how- then, as soon as, whenever, when already, if only, if only, if only, in the meantime, on the basis of the fact that, along with the fact that, in case if, about that that, despite the fact that, not as an example of how, regardless of the fact that, despite the fact that, not that, not that, not that, but not, regarding that, because, before, under the guise that, just as, under the pretext that, not yet, not yet, not yet, as, in addition to the fact that, regarding the fact that, due to the fact that, after, compared to the fact that, because, because, before, before, on condition that, simply as, just like, just as, just as, in order that, unless, since, before than, in addition to that, as if, depending on the fact that, just like, since, for the purpose that, judging by the fact that, since, so that, so that, especially since, all the more so, that is, whereas, that is, only if only, if only not, just, just, just like, even if, with what, whatever, so as not, just, just barely.

Not obvious from the point of view of the formal classification of conjunctions is a construction like Masha and Petya and Vanya, where, on the one hand, the coordinating conjunction And marks more than one conjunction, but on the other hand, does not mark all conjunctions. The first circumstance would seem to exclude this And from among single unions; the second excludes it from the number of repeating ones (see).

This article adopts the interpretation that in a design like Masha and Petya and Vanya features a repeat of a single And. This interpretation is justified by the fact that the specified construction in its semantic-syntactic properties is close to a single And, but not with repeating and... and. Yes, repetitive and... and, unlike a single one, is not used with a symmetrical predicate (for more details, see Coordinating conjunctions / paragraph 2. Repeating conjunctions), and this restriction does not apply to the construction under discussion. Wed: * Spanish, Italian, and French are all similar vs. Spanish and Italian and French are similar.

1.2.2. Double alliances

Double conjunctions are found among both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. They consist of two parts, each of which is located in one of two syntactically or semantically unequal parts connected.

Subordinating double conjunctions are characterized by syntactic inequality - one of the clauses is the main one (see Glossary), and the other is dependent (see Glossary):

(6) If the sauce won't be spicy enough That you can add ground red pepper [Recipes of national cuisines: Scandinavian cuisine (2000-2005)];

(7) I just guessed that If I wish I could save this woman That would be rewarded with some magical reward. [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]

(8) But barely he threw back the pillow, How found a cigarette case made of dark red transparent plastic [A. Solzhenitsyn]

Moreover, the second part of the union if... then may be omitted, especially in colloquial speech, provided that each of the clauses contains a subject:

(9) However, If you are tired and want to relax, we have such places here, like cafes and restaurants. ["Screen and Stage" (2004)]

(10) If the sauce will not be spicy enough, you can add ground red pepper

(11) *I just guessed that If If I saved this woman, I would be rewarded with some kind of magical reward.

Coordinating double conjunctions are characterized by semantic inequality of conjuncts: usually the second conjunct is more unexpected for the Speaker: He wasn't so much tired as he was upset; He was more angry than offended. In this way, double coordinating conjunctions differ from repeating ones, which assume equality of parts: He was both tired and upset(for more details, see Coordinating conjunctions / clause 3.2. Double conjunctions, Coordinating conjunctions / clause 2.1. Repeating conjunctions: Semantics, Coordinating conjunctions / clause 2.3. Repeating vs. double coordinating conjunctions).

Coordinating and subordinating double conjunctions have their own characteristics.

Double coordinating conjunctions usually connect not entire clauses, but homogeneous members, and consist of two parts, the first of which is placed before the first of the compared members, the second before the second: He is equally good at both the theoretical and practical sides of the matter.

Double subordinating conjunctions consist of two parts, the first of which is placed before the first clause, the second before the second: As soon as she entered, he stood up and left.

List of double unions: enough...that, barely...how..., if...then, if...then, if we talk about... (then), if not...then, how...so and, not only that... (also), not... ah, not... but, not to say that... (but), not as much... as, not only... but also, not that... but, rather... than, it was worth... how, only... how, than... it would be better, as for... (that), at least...otherwise.

1.2.3. Repeating conjunctions

Repeating conjunctions are found only among coordinating conjunctions. They are formed by reproducing the same or, less commonly, functionally similar components: and...and, or...or, then...then etc., which are placed before each of two or more equal and formally identical parts:

(12) I always had a dream that someone would appear who or will buy or will give or will give Spivakov a real violin for lifelong use. [WITH. Spivakova. Not everything (2002)]

The exception is the union whether... whether, parts of which are located in the position of the Wackernagel clitic, i.e. after the first full-stressed word:

(13) First of all, your peace is open, think about it; suddenly someone sees us, a dwarf whether, full-length whether household member (T. Mann, trans. S. Apta)

At the union either... or the first part is located in the position of the Wackernagel clitic, the second - in front of the conjunct:

(14) First of all, your peace is open, think about it; suddenly someone sees us, a dwarf whether, or full-sized household member

List of repeating conjunctions: And ... And ... And; neither ... neither ... neither; whether ... whether... whether; or ... or ... or; That ... That ... That; either... or... or,not that ... not that ... not that; or ... or ... or; be ... be, at least ... at least; That ... That ... otherwise; That ... That ... or even; or ... or ... either; or ... or ... or; either ... either ... or; be it ... or; or ... or ... or maybe; Maybe ... Maybe ... or maybe; Maybe ... Maybe; Maybe ... or maybe.

Repeating conjunctions deserve detailed consideration because they have common semantic and syntactic features that are typologically relevant. To understand these features, it is important to distinguish a repeating conjunction from a formally similar unit - a repeated single conjunction. The main formal difference between them is that a repeating conjunction is repeated before each, including the first, conjunct, while a single conjunction can only be located between conjunctions, thereby not affecting the position before the first conjunct. Wed. examples with repeating and... and and repeat single And, respectively:

(15) Sounded And requirements, And criticism … ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]

(16) So that inside you there is peace, and outside there is a lively life, cultural values And boutiques, And trams, And pedestrians with shopping, And small cafes with the aroma of sweet cheesecakes. ["Brownie" (2002)]

2. Semantic-syntactic classes of conjunctions

This section examines two types of conjunctions - coordinating and subordinating, in accordance with the two types of relationships between syntactic units that the conjunction expresses - coordination and subordination.

2.1. Essay vs. subordination

Composition and subordination are two fundamental types of syntactic relations that have varied manifestations in different languages.

For example, in German, composed clauses require different word orders:

(17) Er geht nach Hause, denn er ist krank – ‘He’s going home because he’s sick, lit. there is a patient’

(18) Er geht nach Hause, weil er crank ist– ‘He’s going home because he’s sick, literally. the patient is’

Although composition and subordination are basic concepts in grammar, there is no single generally accepted approach to defining them (see Composition, Subordination, Composition and Subordination). Along with the traditional syntactic approach, according to which the elements of a coordinating construction are characterized by the same syntactic function, and the elements of a subordinating construction are characterized by different syntactic functions [Beloshapkova 1977], there are also semantic and pragmatic-communicative approaches.

Despite all the differences in approaches, the generally accepted idea is that coordinating relations are characterized by symmetry, and subordinating relations are characterized by asymmetry. The symmetry of the composition manifests itself at different levels of language: morphological (cf. * smoking and reading while lying down are harmful; *he was handsome and smart), syntactic (usually identical parts of the sentence are composed), lexical-semantic (cf. when and where did this happen vs. *yesterday and at five o'clock).

In the Russian grammatical tradition, the question of distinguishing between composition and subordination and the question of distinguishing between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are equated to each other. Strictly speaking, however, these are different questions. But the difference is significant, first of all, for those languages ​​where the conjunction is not the main means of polypredicative communication. For the Russian language, where the conjunctive method of forming dependent predication dominates, this difference, somewhat coarseningly, can be neglected. Typical examples of coordinating conjunctions in Russian are: and, but, or, either, typical examples of subordinating conjunctions are since, when, so that, due to which, if, although.

Within the class of subordinating conjunctions, the following distinction is also significant: conjunctions that usually introduce actant (subject or object) clauses, and conjunctions that usually introduce circonstant clauses. In Russian terminology, the first roughly correspond to explanatory conjunctions (what, to, as if etc.), and the second – all other subordinating conjunctions ( because, although, if, when etc.). In the typological literature, the term is adopted for conjunctions heading an actant clause complementizer, for conjunctions heading a constant clause - the term adverbial subordinator. English term complementizer broader than the Russian term explanatory union: complementizers include, in particular, the interrogative particle whether, heading an actant clause.

It should be borne in mind that conjunctions introducing actant and sirconstant clauses do not necessarily form two non-overlapping groups. So, in Russian the conjunctions so that, as if, as if can act in both functions. Wed:

(19) <…>Kazbich imagined as if Azamat, with the consent of his father, stole his horse from him, at least I think so. [M. Yu. Lermontov. Hero of Our Time (1839-1841)] – the subordinate clause fills the objective valency of the main predicate

(20) The snakes busily studied the situation, as if were wondering where to start... ["Crime Chronicle" (2003)] - the subordinate clause does not fill the valency of the main predicate

The distinction between actant and circonstant clauses - and in the case when both types of clauses can be introduced by the same conjunction, as in (18)–(19), and the distinction between conjunctions - is based on a number of formal grounds (see the article Subordination for more details). For example, the removal of an interrogative pronoun is permissible from an actant clause, but not from a circonstant clause, cf. examples (20) and (21) respectively:

(21) a. Do you want to be paid a million?

b. How many do you want to get paid?

(22) a. Have you come to be paid a million?

b. ??? How many did you come to get paid?

2.2. Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are traditionally divided into three semantic groups:

• connecting conjunctions: and, yes, and also; both... and, not only that... also, not... but, not... but, not to say that... but, not so much... as, not only... but also, not that... but, rather... than;and... and... and; yes... yes... yes; neither... nor... nor; whether... whether... whether; or... or... or; then... then... then; either... or... or, not that... not that... not that; either... or... or; be... be, at least... at least; then... then... and then; then... then... and even; either... or... or; either... or... or; either... or... or; be it... or; or... or... or maybe; maybe... maybe... maybe; perhaps... perhaps; maybe... or maybe;
• adversative conjunctions: but, yes in meaning but, however, and, on the other hand, and that;
• dividing unions: or, or, or else, not that, not that; or... or, either... or; whether... whether, whether... or, at least... at least, what... what, be it... or; and then, and maybe (maybe) and; not... so, if (and) not... then; maybe (be), maybe (be)... maybe (be), maybe (be)... and maybe (be); not that... not that, or... or; then... then.

2.3. Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are divided into the following semantic groups:

(1) causal conjunctions ( since, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, for, then that);

(2) consequence unions ( so, or else, or else);

(3) target unions ( so that, in order to, in order to, then in order to, in order to);

(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, once, if, as soon as, if (would), if, if only);

(5) concessionary alliances ( although, at least; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, whereas; It would be good, let it be; only, really);

(6) temporary unions ( barely, barely, as soon as, as, when, only, only, as, after, since, until, until, while, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, just, barely, barely, before, while);

(7) comparative unions ( how, what, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (as), likewise, exactly, exactly (as), than, rather than).

(8) explanatory conjunctions ( what, in order, as if, how);

3. Illocutionary use of conjunctions

The use of a conjunction is called illocutionary when it expresses the connection between the propositional content of one clause as part of a complex sentence and the illocutionary modality of another:

(23) Yes, and not yet I forgot, give them a coin. [A. Belyanin. The Fierce Landgrave (1999)]

Bye expresses here the temporary connection between the propositional meaning of the subordinate clause and the illocutionary modality of the request included in the content of the main one. Wed. with non-illocutionary use of the conjunction Bye(see Subordinating conjunctions / clause 7.1. Temporary conjunctions) :

(24) Knead the dough until Bye it Not will become shiny and will not lag behind the fun. [Recipes of national cuisines: Czech Republic (2000-2005)]

Conjunctions are capable of illocutionary use because, because, once, If, Bye, to, otherwise, otherwise, otherwise, So, for and some others. Wed. examples:

(25) Because We don’t know each other, let me introduce myself: Vasily Ivanovich Stepanenko. ["Science and Life" (2007)]

(26) A once So, what should we test combines on? [A. Azolsky. Lopushok (1998)]

(27) You, brat, turn around, otherwise you should lie in your grave! [M. Gigolashvili. Ferris Wheel (2007)]

(28) Rejoice, you didn’t ask anything, So Rest! [SMS messages from high school students (2004)]

4. Statistics

Statistics of groups of unions are given based on the Main Corpus with homonymy not removed, because the check shows that in the Corpus with the homonymy removed, the homonymy of conjunctions with particles and pronouns is not removed. Thus, the data for the much smaller Corpus with the homonymy removed are not more accurate. In addition, many conjunctions are multi-valued and belong to several classes at once. Any accurate statistics of many conjunctions, especially frequent, polysemantic, double ones, often turns out to be completely impossible. The data below reflects, therefore, a far from complete picture. In general, conjunctions, like other auxiliary parts of speech, quite evenly permeate a variety of speech registers, so that their diachronic analysis, as well as analysis in different linguistic registers, is relatively uninformative, especially in relation to entire classes and subclasses of conjunctions.

More informative is the statistical analysis of some individual conjunctions, namely, those that are unambiguous and not homonymous with other parts of speech. This is usually typical for compound (see), but not double (see) and non-repeating (see) conjunctions, such as just like. Such an analysis makes it possible to correct the descriptions of some conjunctions existing in dictionaries and grammars as bookish, outdated or rare. Compare, for example, unions so that, single or and some others that have returned to modern language as colloquial or frequent in newspaper texts. Statistics of some individual unions are given for the Main and Newspaper Corps.

Some conjunctions are given with homonymy not completely removed, but only in cases where their statistics are still relatively representative. For example, for the union And homonymy with the particle is not removed And. However, since the conjunction lexeme is significantly more frequent, statistics on And, however, is of interest. For some unions, individual filters were developed, which made it possible to partially remove homonymy - for example, for the comparative union how only contexts were taken into account comparative degree.

Table 1. Frequency of the main semantic-syntactic classes of conjunctions

Table 2. Frequency of main conjunctions as a percentage (of the total number of words)

Notes on Tables:

1) homonymy with particles and pronouns has not been removed;

2) the homonymy between single and double/repeating conjunctions has not been removed;

3) homonymy between unions of different groups has not been removed;

4) parts of double and repeating conjunctions are given with a distance of up to 4 words, unless another distance is indicated.

Bibliography

Basic literature

For punctuation in compound subordinating conjunctions and the conditions for their division, see also [Rosenthal et al. 1999: section 108]. “The conditions for the dismemberment of a complex conjunction include: 1) the presence of a negation before the conjunction Not; 2) the presence of intensifying, restrictive and other particles in front of the union; 3) the presence of an introductory word before the conjunction, 4) the inclusion of the first part (correlative word) in a series of homogeneous members.

Conjunctions with a similar set of properties are found in the main European languages ​​(cf. English. both... and, either... or, neither... nor, German. sowohl… als auch, entweder… oder etc.). However, as can be seen from the examples, the very sign of “repetition”, i.e. the coincidence of parts of the union is not typologically significant.

Before we start studying the topic “Coordinating Conjunctions,” let’s consider in which section of the Russian language they are included. In the Russian language there are functional parts of speech, where particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives are studied. They do not have a nominative function, i.e. do not name objects, signs, phenomena, but help express the relationships between them. In a sentence they are not members and are used as a formal grammatical means of the language. They have no accent, they are unchangeable and morphologically indivisible.

Unions

Conjunctions connect homogeneous members of simple sentences and parts of a complex sentence. They are coordinating and subordinating.

Homogeneous members of a sentence and parts of a complex sentence can be connected by coordinating conjunctions.

Unions and their groups

According to their meaning, these unions are divided into the following groups:

1. Connecting: and, yes (and), neither...nor, and...and. For example: Write And read in Russian. It rained all day And the wind continued to whistle outside the window. And he listens to everything Yes shakes his head. Neither wind, neither storm, neither the thunder couldn't keep him from going. AND first, And second, And the third was served on the table without delay.

2. Opposite: a, but, yes (but), but, however, the same. For example: My father told me A the whole family listened attentively. It's cloudy today But warm. Small, Yes remote. It was difficult there but very interesting. The officer approached the building, however I was in no hurry to enter the entrance.

3. Dividers: or, or...or, either, or...or, then...that, or...or, not that...not that. For example: Either Sun, either snow, either love you either No. Be or not to be? Wet dogs wandered around or sat waiting for food. Or I had to go forward or stay and wait. Sharp gusts of wind That plucked leaves from trees, That bent the branches to the ground.

4. Comparative: both...and; not only...but (and). For example: Guests How arrived unexpectedly so and suddenly they left. They visited not only in Moscow, But and in Kyiv.

5. Connecting: yes and, also, too. For example: We study, adults study Same. He laughed, we Also it became fun. We were praised for our work yes and for the children too

They differ:

Singles: But...

Recurring: and...and, or...or, either...either, neither...nor...

Double: both...and, not only..., but also...

Spelling coordinating conjunctions. Punctuation marks

A comma is placed before the conjunction And when it connects parts of a complex sentence.

Before the union And a comma is not used if it connects two parts of a sentence.

When repeating the union And a comma is placed after each part of the sentence it connects.

Before opposing alliances a, but, yes (but) is always put with a comma: The sky was cloudy, But there was no rain anymore. We went to the commandant, A the son went into the room. Small spool Yes expensive

The conjunctions are written together: too, also, but. To make sure that too, also, but unions are needed instead too, also substitute an alliance And, and instead but- union But. If such a stand is possible, then these are conjunctions and they need to be written together.

1. I Same wrote, but also in Same(pronoun That and particle same) listened carefully for a while.

2. Poet Also sang well. They all Also(adverb So and particle same) every day we wait for letters from children.

3. Hide for that(pretext for and demonstrative pronoun That) tree. We worked a lot but everyone's finished.

Conclusion

Sentences with coordinating conjunctions are very widely used in scientific, colloquial, and official vocabulary of the Russian language. They make our speech rich and interesting.

In this lesson we will talk about what types of conjunctions there are and how they can be classified.

All the windows, both in the manor's house and in the servants' house, are wide open.

(Union so...as well double compound, or pair).

The wolf cub jumped off the road into a ditch, making his way through the thickets near the road, and turned sharply into the depths of the forest.

(Union And simple, connects homogeneous members in a simple sentence).

One day I got up earlier than everyone else because the day before I noticed several figs on a tree.

(Union because composite).

The horses were wary but calm.

(Union But simple, nasty).

Between heaven and earth, now fading, now becoming clearly visible again, the trills of a simple but sweet song of a lark murmured and rang continuously.(Fig. 3) .

(Union And simple, connective, union then... then repeating, dividing, conjunction But simple, nasty).

Rice. 3. Larks ()

They went down the overgrown slope, since the river here came close to its foot.

(Union because composite).

He heard as if someone was knocking on the window.

(Union as if composite).

We had to hurry, as the water was rising.

(Union because composite).

As they moved forward, the contours of the island became clearer.

(Union as composite).

References

1. Razumovskaya M.M., Lvova S.I. and others. Russian language. 7th grade. Textbook. 13th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009.

2. Baranov M.T., Ladyzhenskaya T.A. and others. Russian language. 7th grade. Textbook. 34th ed. - M.: Education, 2012.

4. Lvova S.I., Lvov V.V. Russian language. 7th grade. In 3 parts, 8th ed. - M.: Mnemosyne, 2012.

2. Internet portal "YaKlass" ()

Homework

1. Rewrite the sentences and write simple and compound conjunctions in two columns.

I was sailing on a boat down the river and suddenly I heard as if in the sky someone began to carefully pour water from a ringing glass vessel into a similar vessel. These sounds filled the entire space between the river and the sky. It was the cranes flying. I raised my head to get a better look at them. The birds said goodbye to Russia, with its swamps and thickets, as autumn air was already oozing from there, giving off freshness. I'm writing this even though it's late at night. Autumn is not visible outside the window, but as soon as you step out onto the porch, it will surround you. Autumn persistently breathes into the face the cold, bitter smell of the first thin ice, which bound the still waters by night.

In this article we will look at what unions are. This relates to the morphology section. In the picture below you can see the answer to the question about what parts of speech there are in the Russian language.

The peculiarity of conjunctions is that they do not belong to independent parts of a sentence and do not change like verbs or adverbs. So, more details.

Definition

Below is an image with the answer to the question: “What is a union?” Let's highlight three points:

1. Conjunctions belong to the functional parts of speech. What does this mean? What are unions used for? This is a method of communication that is used to connect homogeneous members, simple sentences that are part of a complex one.
2. It is impossible to distinguish morphemes in them, since they are whole and indivisible.
3. These are not independent members of the sentence.

Communication examples

Conjunctions are different from prepositions: they are not related to the grammatical features of neighboring words. They do not require nouns to be in a specific case. This is a higher level syntactic relationship. In this case, unions can be repeated, although this is absolutely not necessary. Let's take a closer look at sentences with conjunctions:

1. He hung the portrait back and looked thoughtfully out the window. "And" connects homogeneous predicates.
2. Lessons were canceled because the air temperature was very low. “Because” connects two parts of one complex sentence.
3. We often forget memorable dates, names of acquaintances, birthdays of loved ones. We also show inattention to our work colleagues. “And also” combines two separate sentences in the text.

Types of unions

We present to your attention a table. Unions differ in the way they are formed, which can be clearly seen below:

The table shows that from the point of view of morphology they are divided into simple ones, which consist of one base ( and, for), and compound (two or more). Example of the second type: while. Compounds, in turn, are divided into double and repeating. In double ones, the obligatory part can be highlighted.

Example: “He didn’t want it so much as circumstances required it.” Other options are more common: “If it’s cloudy outside, then he absolutely doesn’t want to get up early.” The most common repeating ones are: neither...nor, or...or, then...that. Example: “Neither she nor he were ready to take a step towards each other.”

You should pay attention to spelling: all compound (derivative) conjunctions are written separately. Example: “She was happy, no one noticed her absence.”

The diagram just above shows that, depending on the syntactic feature, all conjunctions are divided into two types: coordinating and subordinating.

The first connect simple sentences that are equal in meaning, as well as homogeneous members. The second occurs when the parts are not equal. One sentence is subordinate to another and a question can be asked from it. In turn, they have a finer gradation. Examples are presented in the table in the picture below.

Coordinating Conjunctions

To understand the meaning of these conjunctions, consider the table.

From the table shown in the picture it can be seen that sometimes other coordinating conjunctions are distinguished. These are explanatory and connecting. There is also such a concept as comparative conjunctions in the Russian language. But they are more often referred to as the first option - connecting. Example: “Both children and parents did not accept the new teacher.”

Subordinating conjunctions

By connecting unequal components and indicating the dependence of one on the other, subordinating conjunctions are used not only to connect sentences, but also homogeneous and heterogeneous members.

Examples: “The series is interesting, although somewhat drawn out.” Here “although” connects. What conjunctions are used for such connections? This as if, than, as if, how. Example: “The lake is like a mirror in winter.”

We will give the categories of subordinating conjunctions, but note: some can be attributed to several at once. Examples of polysemantic ones: to(explanatory and targeted); When(conditional and temporary).

You should pay attention to the spelling of conjunctions. Most often they are written together (z ato, too, also). They must be distinguished from another part of speech - prepositions with adverbs. Only compound conjunctions, as well as “that is” and “that is” are written separately.

§1. General characteristics of unions

A conjunction is a service part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence and individual sentences in the text. The uniqueness of unions lies in the role they perform. This role is the expression of coordinating and subordinating syntactic connections. Unlike prepositions, conjunctions are not associated with the grammatical features of other words. Why? Because they serve for higher-level syntactic connections.

Conjunctions are an unchangeable part of speech. The union is not a member of the proposal. Conjunctions are a class that unites dissimilar words. Unions differ in formation, structure, function, and meaning.

§2. Formation of unions

Like prepositions, conjunctions according to the method of formation are divided into non-derivative and derivative.

• Non-derivatives unions: and, but, or, how, what etc.
• Derivatives educated differently:
  • connection of non-derivative conjunctions: as if, but also, since
  • by combining an index word and a simple conjunction: in order to, in order to
  • connecting a conjunction with a pronoun and a word with a generalized meaning: while, until
    from other parts of speech: although to

§3. Alliance structure

According to their structure, conjunctions are divided into simple and compound:

• Simple:and, and, but, or, that, so that, how, if, however, but, also, also, moreover, moreover etc., consisting of one word.
• Composite: since, while, as soon as, due to the fact that, due to the fact that. Compounds are divided into double and repeating: not only..., but also..., neither... nor..., then... then...

§4. Function (role) of unions. Places by value

The function (role) of conjunctions is the expression of syntactic connections: coordinating and subordinating.

A coordinating connection is a connection that expresses equal relationships between elements.

Coordinating conjunctions. Places by value

1. Connectors: and, yes (=and: cabbage soup and porridge), and...and..., not only... but also, like... so and, too, also
2. Dividing: or, either, then...that, not that...not that, or...or, either...either
3. Nasty: A, But, Yes(=but: good-looking, but poor), however, but
4. Gradational*: not only, but also, not so much... as, not so much... but
5. Explanatory*: that is, namely
6. Connecting*: also, also, yes and, and moreover, and

* Traditionally, sentences with a coordinating connection are considered more accessible to understanding and are introduced into teaching earlier than others: already in elementary school. Then the children are taught to distinguish the meanings of conjunctions. Therefore, the material is presented in a simplified form. This is how the idea is learned that there are three types of coordinating conjunctions: connecting, disjunctive and adversative. In high school, children are faced with a wider range of phenomena that need to be understood and realized. For example, everyone should be able to distinguish and write conjunctions correctly too, also and combinations the same, the same, you need to know how to punctuate sentences with different conjunctions. But the question of what kind of unions these are does not arise. However, gradational, explanatory and connecting conjunctions are very frequent; they can be found in test tasks. Therefore, I advise high school students and graduates to pay special attention to them.

A subordinate relationship is a connection of unequal components, in which one of the components depends on the other. This is how parts of complex sentences are connected.

Subordinating conjunctions. Places by value

1. Temporary: when, while, barely, only, while, just, barely, barely
2. Causal: since, because, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, for (obsolete), due to the fact that
3. Conditional: if (if only, if, if - obsolete), if, once, whether, as soon
4. Target: in order to, in order to, in order to (obsolete), with the aim of, in order to, then in order to
5. Consequences: so
6. Concessive: although, despite the fact that
7. Comparatives: as, as if, as if, exactly, than, as if, similarly as, rather than (obsolete)
8. Explanatory: what, how, to

Attention:

Some conjunctions are multi-valued and can, performing different functions, be included in different categories. For example, compare:

Tell him to he didn’t call: I won’t be at home.
to - explanatory union

To To please his mother, he washed the dishes that were left in the sink in the morning.
to- target union

When The teacher entered the class, Mishka was talking on the phone.
When- temporary union

I don't know, When he will call.
When- explanatory union

When he doesn’t want to understand anything, how can you explain it to him?
When- conditional union

Attention:

Many conjunctions have homonymous forms, which creates problems in distinguishing them and spelling them correctly. See Unified State Exam: "A, B, C" - everything for preparation. A18. Integrated, hyphenated, separate spelling of words.

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What are unions used for?

   • To connect words in a sentence
   • To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and individual sentences in the text

2. Is there a difference between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions?

3. Is it correct to assume that simple conjunctions are coordinating, and compound conjunctions are subordinating?

4. Is it correct to assume that simple conjunctions are used in simple sentences, and compound conjunctions in complex ones?

5. What syntactic connection expresses the equal relations of elements?

   • Essay
   • Subordinating

6. What syntactic connection expresses the unequal relations of elements, in which one depends on the other?

   • Essay
   • Subordinating

7. Do coordinating or subordinating conjunctions express a coordinating relationship?

   • Essays
   • Subordinates

8. Do coordinating or subordinating conjunctions express a subordinating relationship?

   • Essays
   • Subordinates

9. Are there polysemantic conjunctions in the Russian language?

10. Is it true that many conjunctions have homonyms?

11. The following conjunctions are derivative or non-derivative: and, but, or, how - ?

    • Derivatives
    • Non-derivative