1. What is the essence of absolutism?
Under absolutism, all power (legislative, executive and judicial) is in the hands of the monarch. However, it differs from eastern despotism. Firstly, the absolute monarch most often was not also the head of the church. Secondly, despite his absolute power, the monarch had to take into account certain rights of classes (for example, the nobility), as well as other restrictions that were formally confirmed by documents on behalf of the monarch himself (for example, in France, the king’s special ordinances confirmed many norms of local law).
2. What are the reasons for the transition of European countries to absolutism? What prerequisites for strengthening central power have developed in Western European countries?
Reasons and prerequisites:
In the conditions of religious wars, the church could no longer be a factor of stability; only the central government could become such, especially since it was often required to unite adherents of different faiths;
The increased effectiveness of regular armies weakened the influence of the feudal militia, and therefore the local nobility;
Many already influential layers of society were interested in strengthening the central government (petty nobility, including junior branches of noble families, merchants and other financial elite);
The growth of colonial trade and the policies of mercantilism provided the monarchs with significant financial support;
The influx of precious metals and other valuables from the New World also financed the activities of certain monarchs.
3. Name the features of absolutism in England and France. Why did resistance to him take religious forms?
Peculiarities:
All real power was concentrated in the hands of government bodies completely controlled by the king (in England - the Privy Council and the Star Chamber, in France - the Great Royal Council);
The main opposition to absolutism was the large feudal nobility;
The bodies of class representation continued to meet, but no longer played the same role;
The kings did not want to resort to the help of class authorities, so they sought alternative means of replenishing the treasury, relied heavily on financial circles and generally pursued a policy of mercantilism;
During the formation of absolutism, there was persecution of the royal power against the large feudal nobility, many of whose representatives were subjected to executions, exile and other punishments with confiscation of property.
Resistance to absolutism took religious forms because the religious doctrine of the Middle Ages already contained ideological justification for the struggle against power. Even according to the teachings of F. Aquinas, a monarch who did not rule righteously was deprived of the right to the throne. Protestants included the same provision in their doctrine from their first speech against Charles V, using essentially a ready-made Catholic model.
4. Tell us about the essence of the Edict of Nantes. Did he ensure real equality for Catholics and Huguenots? What consequences did it have?
The Edict of Nantes in 1598 equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in France. He even left the latter a certain autonomy, including control over some fortresses. However, in conditions of absolutism, the main role is played by the policy of the monarch. The actions of subsequent rulers were aimed at actually revising the provisions of the edict until its complete abolition in 1685.
5. List the contradictions of European politics at the beginning of the 17th century. Which ones mattered most?
Controversies:
The struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe;
Confessional conflict in Europe.
The religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants was of greatest importance. Orthodox Russia participated as a third force in this contradiction, but its actions were limited to the neighboring Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. By this point, European countries had abandoned the idea of a broad coalition against the threat of the Ottoman Empire with the involvement of Russia as an ally (this idea was periodically returned to later), so this knot of conflicts remained on the periphery.
The main one remained the conflict between Catholics and Protestants, because it included many contradictions back in the 16th century, and also continued to divide not only states, but the subjects of one monarch (for example, the Holy Roman Emperor of the German nation), and served as the reason for the disobedience of subjects to the monarch.
6. Name the main stages of the Thirty Years' War. What were the results of the Thirty Years' War?
Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624);
Danish period (1625-1629);
Swedish period (1630-1635);
Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648).
The second part of the question is the same as the next question.
7. What were the results of the Thirty Years' War?
Confessional affiliation has almost ceased to be a factor in European politics;
Economics began to play a greater role than before in European politics, along with dynastic interests;
The principle of state sovereignty was finally established, also in religious matters;
A new system of international relations has emerged - Westphalian;
The Habsburgs retained most of their lands, but their position in Europe weakened;
France received a number of lands along the Rhine;
Sweden received lands on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea;
Protestantism in the Czech Republic was completely destroyed, but Germany continued to be divided along religious lines;
The lands of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, where most of the fighting took place, were completely devastated by the war, and the empire for a long time ceased to play an important role in the economy, politics, etc.
8. What were the features of the Westphalian system of international relations? Are its principles still relevant today?
The Westphalian peace system was aimed at ending the decades-long conflict. Many of its mechanisms were aimed at minimizing religious conflicts. Today in a secular society they are not relevant. But some principles enshrined then are still in effect, for example, the sovereignty of the government of an independent state.
The Holy Alliance and the rampant reaction in Europe
The decisions of the Congress of Vienna contributed to the strengthening of the noble-monarchist reaction in Europe. “...After 1815,” wrote Engels, “in all countries the anti-revolutionary party held the reins of power in its hands.
Feudal aristocrats ruled in all offices from London to Naples, from Lisbon to St. Petersburg.”( F. Engels, The situation in Germany, K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, vol. 2, pp. 573-574.)
To intensify the fight against revolutionary and national liberation movements, the reactionary governments of European states concluded the so-called Holy Alliance among themselves.
The creators of the Holy Alliance were Russian Tsar Alexander I, Austrian Emperor Franz I and Prussian King Frederick William III. The text of the document they signed in September 1815 stated that, “bound by the bonds of true and indissoluble brotherhood” and by the principles of the Christian religion, they undertake to provide each other with assistance and support “on every occasion and under all circumstances.” Later, almost all European monarchs joined the treaty. England was not formally a member of the Holy Alliance, but its government at first actually supported its reactionary policies. The Holy Alliance was an alliance of monarchs united to fight together against the nations. His goal was to prevent and crush the revolutionary movement wherever it arose.
In 1818, at the congress in Aachen, four powers - Russia, Prussia, Austria and England - renewed the treaty of alliance directed against any changes in France that “threaten the peace and security of its neighbors.” The Congresses of the Holy Alliance in 1820 in Troppau (Opava), in 1821 in Laibach (Ljubljana) and in 1822 in Verona discussed measures to combat the rising revolutionary movements in various European countries.
One of the most important weapons of reaction in Europe was the Catholic clergy, led by the Vatican. Servants of the Vatican seized public education in various countries, interfered in all spheres of public and private life, spied, intrigued, and incited religious fanaticism. The Vatican led the crusade against advanced “freethinking” ideas.
The noble-clerical reaction sought to oppose its ideology to the worldview of the bourgeois enlighteners of the 18th century, to materialist philosophy, and to the humanistic and democratic principles of the French Revolution. Glorification of religion and the church, exaltation of the absolutist state and class inequality, attacks on science, sweeping denial of everything new and advanced, idealization of medieval chivalry and monasticism - these were the main features of this reactionary ideology.
The embittered enemy of the revolution, Count Joseph de Maistre, who considered man a born slave, praised the Inquisition, proclaimed the executioner the pillar of society, condemned science, proposed restoring the unlimited secular power of the Pope and prohibiting the spread of knowledge among the people. Another ideologist of the reaction, Louis-Gabriel Bonald, preached in his writings the need to restore strong church power and the class system of society; he argued that the main evil lies in personal freedom. The reactionary Swiss publicist Ludwig Haller justified the absolute power of the monarch by its divine origin and called for unquestioning obedience to it.
Question 01. What were the reasons for the strengthening of separatist aspirations and nationalism in Russia in the early 1990s? Describe the policy of the federal center in the current conditions.
Answer. The desire of many peoples for self-determination manifested itself with all its force even during “perestroika” for the following reasons:
1) inflexible Soviet national policy, which lasted for many decades;
2) the desire of local national leaders for independent power (if it is impossible to achieve power in the center, it is necessary to achieve independence from the center);
3) the activities of the national intelligentsia during the years of perestroika, who understood freedom and de-Stalinization in exactly this way;
4) an example of many republics of the USSR, which achieved national independence relatively easily.
These reasons continued to operate in the Russian federation, and the struggle began to take violent forms; in some places, for example, in Chechnya, outright oppression of the Russian population began. The federal government, which had a positive attitude towards Russia's secession from the USSR, had an extremely negative attitude towards the secession of national autonomies from Russia. Such a withdrawal was prevented by all possible means, from the signing of the Federal Treaty on March 31, 1992 to the deployment of troops (meaning Chechnya).
Question 02. What is the essence of the Chechen problem? What trends and contradictions in the development of the Russian Federation does it reflect?
Answer. Chechnya considered itself an independent state and in fact was such with its government and security forces. However, formally, the independence of Chechnya was not recognized by any country in the world, nor was it recognized by Russia, because there was no state border between them, which is why Chechnya turned into a transit point for the international trade in drugs, weapons, and the illegal import and export of goods from Russia. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the Russian population in Chechnya was openly oppressed, terrorized, forcing them to flee. This clearly shows the problem of exacerbation of interethnic conflicts in Russia, or rather hatred of Russians, whose resettlement began to be considered a clear indicator of the imperial policy of Russia (both Tsarist and Soviet) to oppress the national borderlands.
Question 03. Describe the 1996 presidential elections and their result. Why do you think B.N. Did Yeltsin achieve victory?
Answer. On the eve of the elections, polls predicted victory for Communist Party deputy G.A. Zyuganov (the majority in parliament were already communists). There was a threat of deprivatization (new nationalization), possibly free of charge. Under these conditions, the oligarchs who benefited the most from privatization and who, over the course of several years, had amassed huge fortunes thanks to it, supported B.N. Yeltsin. Taking advantage of the difficult financial situation of many media outlets, they bought up most of them, creating large media holdings. Using the media, they were able to convince voters that there were only two alternatives: either A.G. Zyuganov, that is, a return to the Soviet past with empty store shelves and total ideological control, or B.N. Yeltsin, that is, the continuation of reforms. Candidates who could have formed a third alternative had little access to voters, but still had it, but were unable to use it properly. The slogan of the election campaign was “Vote with your heart!” And indeed, the candidates did not offer clear programs for resolving the existing problems with expected advantages and specific ways to achieve these advantages; they all wanted to please voters as individuals. As a result, despite the abundance of candidates, the country actually voted for a return to the state before 1991 (that is, for A.G. Zyuganov), or against such a return (that is, for B.N. Yeltsin), and the majority chose the second.
Question 04. What was the economic situation in Russia after the 1996 elections? What were the consequences of the 1998 default?
Answer. The economic situation became increasingly deteriorating after the elections. Unemployment grew, and many workers' salaries were delayed for many months. From 22 to 40% of citizens, according to various estimates, were below the poverty line. The 1998 default made the situation even worse. Prices have risen sharply while wages have remained the same. Many small entrepreneurs went bankrupt, which further aggravated social tensions. At the same time, the default did not solve the government’s financial problems.
Question 05. Describe the political situation in the country at the end of the 20th century.
Answer. At the end of the twentieth century, the political situation was unstable. The president's health was getting worse, and doubts arose whether he was able to govern the country. Voices were heard louder and louder that all power was actually in the hands of the “family” (a union of oligarchs led by the daughter of B.N. Yeltsin). The president constantly changed governments (the record was broken by the cabinet of S.V. Stepashin, which lasted less than 100 days).
“Classification of reactions” - Calcium combustion reaction in air: 4. According to the state of aggregation of the reacting substances (phase composition): Endothermic reactions - reactions that occur with the absorption of energy into the external environment. Redox reaction: combustion of magnesium. Table of contents. Reaction of chromium(III) sulfate with potassium hydroxide:
"Chemical reactions practical work" - Spoon for burning. Signs of chemical reactions were observed. Gas release. 1) When KMnO4 decomposes, O2 is released. Production and properties of oxygen. Crucible tongs. O2 – Gas, colorless, odorless, heavier than air. 1) CO2 is a gas that does not support combustion. Purpose of the work. 2AI+6HCI=2AICI3+3H2 Substitution. 2) A chemical phenomenon can be judged by the signs of the reaction.
“Reaction rate” - Homogeneous systems: Gas + gas Liquid + liquid. Why do not all collisions between particles result in reactions? Determine the type of responsive systems. Contact area of reacting substances. Catalysis is a change in the rate of a reaction under the influence of catalysts. Factors affecting speed.
“Types of chemical reactions” - When chemical bonds in reagents are broken, energy is released, which is mainly used to form new chemical bonds. A reaction that occurs between simple and complex substances, in which atoms of a simple substance replace atoms of one of the elements in a complex substance, is called a substitution reaction.
“Physics Thermonuclear Reactions” - What is a thermonuclear reaction? TOKAMAK (toroidal magnetic chamber with current). Problem: Difficulty retaining plasma. Physics presentation on the topic: Controlled thermonuclear reaction is an energetically favorable reaction. Details about the reaction. Self-sustaining thermonuclear reactions occur in stars. Thermonuclear reaction.
“Nuclear reactions” - Nuclear reactions. Thermonuclear reactions. Uranium occurs in nature in the form of two isotopes: (99.3%) and (0.7%). Diagram of the development of a nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactor. The maximum permissible dose for a person per year is 0.05 Gy. The half-life is given for each isotope. Physics presentation: “Nuclear reactions and reagents.
