In Newton's theory of gravitation and Einstein's theory of relativity, the gravitational constant ( G) is a universal constant of nature, unchanging in space and time, independent of the physical and chemical properties of the environment and gravitating masses.

In its original form in Newton's formula, the coefficient G was absent. As the source indicates: “The gravitational constant was first introduced into the law of universal gravitation, apparently, only after the transition to a unified metric system of measures. Perhaps this was first done by the French physicist S.D. Poisson in his “Treatise on Mechanics” (1809), at least, historians have not identified any earlier works in which the gravitational constant would appear.”

Introduction of coefficient G was caused by two reasons: the need to establish the correct dimension and to reconcile the gravitational forces with real data. But the presence of this coefficient in the law of universal gravitation still did not shed light on the physics of the process of mutual attraction, for which Newton was criticized by his contemporaries.

Newton was accused for one serious reason: if bodies attract each other, then they must spend energy on this, but it is not clear from the theory where the energy comes from, how it is spent and from what sources it is replenished. As some researchers note: the discovery of this law occurred after the principle of conservation of momentum introduced by Descartes, but from Newton’s theory it followed that attraction is a property inherent in interacting masses of bodies that expend energy without replenishment and do not become less! This is some kind of inexhaustible source of gravitational energy!

Leibniz called Newton's principle of gravity "an immaterial and inexplicable force." The suggestion of gravity in a perfect void was described by Bernoulli as "outrageous"; and the principle of “actio in distans” (action at a distance) did not meet with much favor then than now.

It was probably not out of nowhere that physicists met Newton’s formula with hostility; it really does not reflect the energy for gravitational interaction. Why do different planets have different gravity, and G constant for all bodies on Earth and in Space? Maybe G depends on the mass of bodies, but in its pure form mass does not have any gravity.

Considering the fact that in each specific case the interaction (attraction) of bodies occurs with a different force (effort), this force must depend on the energy of the gravitating masses. In connection with the above, Newton’s formula must contain an energy coefficient responsible for the energy of attracting masses. A more correct statement in the gravitational attraction of bodies would be to speak not about the interaction of masses, but about the interaction of energies contained in these masses. That is, energy has a material carrier, without which it cannot exist.

Since the energy saturation of bodies is related to their heat (temperature), the coefficient should reflect this correspondence, because heat generates gravity!

Another argument about the non-constancy of G. I will quote from a retro physics textbook: “In general, the ratio E = mc 2 shows that the mass of any body is proportional to its total energy. Therefore, any change in the energy of a body is accompanied by a simultaneous change in its mass. So, for example, if a body heats up, its mass increases."

If the mass of two heated bodies increases, then in accordance with the law of universal gravitation, the force of their mutual attraction should also increase. But there is a serious problem here. As the temperature increases, tending to infinity, the masses and forces between gravitating bodies will also tend to infinity. If we assert that the temperature is infinite, and now sometimes such liberties are allowed, then the gravity between two bodies will also be infinite, as a result, when heated, the bodies should compress and not expand! But nature, as you see, does not reach the point of absurdity!

How to get around this difficulty? It’s trivial - you need to find the maximum temperature of a substance in nature. Question: how to find it?

Temperature is finite

I believe that a huge number of laboratory measurements of the gravitational constant have been and are being carried out at room temperature equal to: Θ=293 K(20 0 C) or close to this temperature, because the instrument itself, a Cavendish torsion balance, requires very careful handling (Fig. 2). During measurements, all interference must be excluded, especially vibration and temperature changes. Measurements must be carried out in a vacuum with high accuracy; this is required by the very small size of the measured quantity.

In order for the “Law of Universal Gravitation” to be universal and worldwide, it is necessary to connect it with the thermodynamic temperature scale. The calculations and graphs presented below will help us do this.

Let's take the Cartesian coordinate system OX – OU. In these coordinates we construct the initial function G=ƒ( Θ ).

On the abscissa axis we plot the temperature, starting from zero degrees Kelvin. Let us plot the values ​​of the coefficient G on the ordinate axis, taking into account that its values ​​must fall within the range from zero to one.

Let's mark the first reference point (A), this point with coordinates: x=293.15 K (20⁰С); y=6.67408·10 -11 Nm 2 /kg 2 (G). Let's connect this point to the origin of coordinates and get a graph of the dependence G=ƒ( Θ ), (Fig. 3)

Rice. 3

We extrapolate this graph and extend the straight line until it intersects with the ordinate value equal to one, y=1. There were technical difficulties when constructing the graph. In order to plot the initial part of the graph, it was necessary to greatly increase the scale, since the parameter G has a very small value. The graph has a small elevation angle, so to fit it onto one sheet, we will resort to a logarithmic x-axis scale (Fig.4).

Rice. 4

Now, pay attention!

Intersection of a graph function with an ordinate G=1, gives the second reference point (B). From this point we lower the perpendicular to the abscissa axis, on which we obtain the coordinate value x=4.39 10 12 K.

What is this value and what does it mean? According to the construction condition, this is temperature. The projection of point (B) onto the “x” axis reflects - the maximum possible temperature of a substance in nature!

For ease of perception, let us present the same graph in double logarithmic coordinates ( Fig.5).

Coefficient G cannot have a value greater than one by definition. This point closed the absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, which was started by Lord Kelvin in 1848.

The graph shows that the G coefficient is proportional to body temperature. Therefore, the gravitational constant is a variable quantity, and in the law of universal gravitation (1) it should be determined by the relation:

G E – universal coefficient (UC), in order not to be confused with G, we write it with an index E(Eergy – energy). If the temperatures of the interacting bodies are different, then their average value is taken.

Θ 1– temperature of the first body

Θ 2– temperature of the second body.

Θ max– the maximum possible temperature of a substance in nature.

In this writing, the coefficient G E has no dimension, which confirms it as a coefficient of proportionality and universality.

Let's substitute G E into expression (1) and write the law of universal gravitation in general form:

Only thanks to the energy contained in the masses does their mutual attraction occur. Energy is the property of the material world to do work.

Only due to the loss of energy due to attraction, interaction between cosmic bodies occurs. Energy loss can be identified with cooling.

Any body (substance), when cooled, loses energy and due to this, oddly enough, is attracted to other bodies. The physical nature of gravity of bodies is the desire for the most stable state with the least internal energy - this is the natural state of nature.

Newton's formula (4) took on a systematic form. This is very important for calculating space flights of artificial satellites and interplanetary stations, and will also make it possible to more accurately calculate, first of all, the mass of the Sun. Work G on M known for those planets, the motion of satellites around which was measured with high accuracy. From the motion of the planets themselves around the Sun we can calculate G and the mass of the Sun. The errors in the masses of the Earth and the Sun are determined by the error G.

The new coefficient will finally make it possible to understand and explain why the orbital trajectories of the first satellites (pioneers) did not correspond so far to the calculated ones. When launching satellites, the temperature of the escaping gases was not taken into account. Calculations showed lower rocket thrust, and the satellites rose to a higher orbit; for example, the Explorer-1 orbit turned out to be 360 ​​km higher than the calculated one. Von Braun passed away without understanding this phenomenon.

Until now, the gravitational constant had no physical meaning; it was just an auxiliary coefficient in the law of universal gravitation, serving to connect dimensions. The existing numerical value of this constant turned the law not into a universal one, but into a particular one, for one temperature value!

The gravitational constant is a variable quantity. I will say more, the gravitational constant, even within the limits of gravity, is not a constant value, because It is not the masses of bodies that participate in gravitational attraction, but the energies contained in the measured bodies. This is the reason why it is not possible to achieve high accuracy in measuring the gravitational constant.

Law of Gravity

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation and the universal coefficient (G E =UC).

Since this coefficient is dimensionless, the formula for universal gravitation received the dimension dim kg 2 / m 2 - this is an extra-system unit that arose as a result of the use of body masses. With dimension, we came to the original form of the formula, which was determined by Newton.

Since formula (4) identifies the force of attraction, which is measured in Newtons in the SI system, we can use the dimensional coefficient (K), as in Coulomb’s law.

Where K is a coefficient equal to 1. To convert the dimension to SI, you can use the same dimension as G, i.e. K= m 3 kg -1 s -2.

Experiments testify: gravity is not generated by mass (matter), gravity is carried out with the help of energies contained in these masses! The acceleration of bodies in a gravitational field does not depend on their mass, so all bodies fall to the ground with the same acceleration. On the one hand, the acceleration of bodies is proportional to the force acting on them and, therefore, proportional to their gravitational mass. Then, according to the logic of reasoning, the formula for the law of universal gravitation should look like this:

Where E 1 And E 2– energy contained in the masses of interacting bodies.

Since it is very difficult to determine the energy of bodies in calculations, we leave masses in Newton’s formula (4), replacing the constant G by energy coefficient G E.

The maximum temperature can be more accurately calculated mathematically from the relationship:

Let's write this ratio in numerical form, taking into account that (G max =1):

From here: Θ max=4.392365689353438 10 12 K (8)

Θ max– this is the maximum possible temperature of a substance in nature, above which no value is possible!

I would like to note right away that this is far from an abstract figure; it suggests that in physical nature everything is finite! Physics describes the world based on the fundamental concepts of finite divisibility, finite speed of light, and accordingly, the temperature must be finite!

Θ max 4.4 trillion degrees (4.4 teraKelvin). It is difficult to imagine, by our earthly standards (sensations), such a high temperature, but its finite value puts a ban on speculation with its infinity. This statement leads us to the conclusion that gravity also cannot be infinite, the ratio G E =Θ/Θ max puts everything in its place.

Another thing is if the numerator (3) is equal to zero (absolute zero) of the thermodynamic temperature scale, then the force F in formula (5) will be equal to zero. The attraction between bodies must stop, bodies and objects will begin to crumble into their constituent particles, molecules and atoms.

Continued in the next article...

(Gravitational constant – size not a constant)

Part 1

Fig.1

In physics, there is only one constant associated with gravity - the gravitational constant (G). This constant was obtained experimentally and has no connection with other constants. In physics it is considered fundamental.

Several articles will be devoted to this constant, where I will try to show the inconsistency of its constancy and the lack of a foundation under it. More precisely, there is a foundation under it, but it is somewhat different.

What is the meaning of constant gravity and why is it measured so carefully? To understand, it is necessary to return again to the law of universal gravitation. Why did physicists accept this law, moreover, they began to call it “the greatest generalization achieved by the human mind.” Its formulation is simple: two bodies act on each other with a force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and directly proportional to the product of their masses.

G– gravitational constant

Many very nontrivial conclusions follow from this simple formula, but there is no answer to the fundamental questions: how and due to what does the force of gravity act?

This law says nothing about the mechanism by which the force of attraction arises; however, it is still used today and will obviously continue to be used for centuries to come.

Some scientists deride him, others idolize him. Both of them cannot do without it, because... Nothing better was invented or discovered. Practitioners in space exploration, knowing the imperfection of this law, use correction tables, which are updated with new data after each spacecraft launch.

Theorists are trying to correct this law by introducing corrections, additional coefficients, looking for evidence of the existence of an error in the dimension of the gravitational constant G, but nothing takes root, and Newton’s formula remains in its original form.

Considering the variety of ambiguities and inaccuracies in calculations using this formula, it still needs to be corrected.

Newton’s expression is widely known: “Gravity is Universal,” i.e., gravity is universal. This law describes the gravitational interaction between two bodies, no matter where they are in the Universe; This is considered to be the essence of his universalism. The gravitational constant G, included in the equation, is considered as a universal constant of nature.

The constant G allows for satisfactory calculations under terrestrial conditions; logically, it should be responsible for the energy interaction, but what can we take from the constant?

The opinion of a scientist (Kostyushko V.E.), who carried out real experiments to understand and reveal the laws of nature, is interesting, the phrase: “Nature has neither physical laws, nor physical constants with dimensions invented by man.” “In the case of the gravitational constant, science has established the opinion that this quantity has been found and numerically estimated. However, its specific physical meaning has not yet been established, and this is, first of all, because in fact, as a result of incorrect actions, or rather gross errors, a meaningless and completely meaningless quantity with an absurd dimension was obtained.”

I would not like to put myself in such a categorical position, but we need to finally understand the meaning of this constant.

Currently, the value of the gravitational constant is approved by the Committee on Fundamental Physical Constants: G=6.67408·10 -11 m³/(kg·s²) [CODATA 2014] . Despite the fact that this constant is carefully measured, it does not satisfy the requirements of science. The thing is that there is no exact matching of results between similar measurements carried out in different laboratories around the world.

As Melnikov and Pronin note: “Historically, gravity became the first subject of scientific research. Although more than 300 years have passed since the advent of the law of gravity, which we owe to Newton, the gravitational interaction constant remains the least accurately measured compared to the others."

In addition, the main question about the very nature of gravity and its essence remains open. As is known, Newton’s law of universal gravitation itself has been tested with much greater accuracy than the accuracy of the constant G. The main limitation on the accurate determination of gravitational forces is imposed by the gravitational constant, hence such close attention to it.

It is one thing to pay attention, and quite another thing is the accuracy of the results when measuring G. In the two most accurate measurements, the error can reach about 1/10000. But when measurements were carried out at different points on the planet, the values ​​could exceed the experimental error by an order of magnitude or more!

What kind of constant is this when there is such a huge scatter of readings when measuring it? Or maybe it’s not a constant at all, but a measurement of some abstract parameters. Or are the measurements affected by interference unknown to the researchers? This is where new ground appears for various hypotheses. Some scientists refer to the Earth’s magnetic field: “The mutual influence of the Earth’s gravitational and magnetic fields leads to the fact that the Earth’s gravity will be stronger in those places where the magnetic field is stronger.” Followers of Dirac claim that the gravitational constant changes with time, etc.

Some questions are removed due to lack of evidence, while others appear and this is a natural process. But such disgrace cannot continue indefinitely; I hope my research will help establish a direction towards the truth.

The first person credited with pioneering the experiment in measuring constant gravity was the English chemist Henry Cavendish, who in 1798 set out to determine the density of the Earth. For such a delicate experiment, he used torsion balances invented by J. Michell (now an exhibit in the National Museum of Great Britain). Cavendish compared the pendulum oscillations of a test body under the influence of gravity of balls of known mass in the gravitational field of the Earth.

Experimental data, as it turned out later, were useful for determining G. The result obtained by Cavendish was phenomenal, differing by only 1% from what is accepted today. It should be noted what a great achievement this was in his era. For more than two centuries, the science of experiment has advanced by only 1%? It's incredible, but true. Moreover, if we take into account fluctuations and the inability to overcome them, the value of G is assigned artificially, it turns out that we have not advanced at all in the accuracy of measurements since the time of Cavendish!

Yes! We have not advanced anywhere, science is in prostration - not understanding gravity!

Why has science made virtually no progress in accurately measuring this constant over more than three centuries? Maybe it's all about the tool Cavendish used. Torsion balances, an invention of the 16th century, remain in service with scientists to this day. Of course, these are no longer the same torsion scales, look at the photo, fig. 1. Despite the bells and whistles of modern mechanics and electronics, plus vacuum and temperature stabilization, the result has hardly budged. Clearly something is wrong here.

Our ancestors and contemporaries made various attempts to measure G in different geographic latitudes and in the most incredible places: deep mines, ice caves, wells, and on television towers. The designs of torsion balances have been improved. New measurements, in order to clarify the gravitational constant, were repeated and verified. The key experiment was carried out at Los Alamos in 1982 by G. Luther and W. Towler. Their setup resembled a Cavendish torsion balance, with tungsten balls. The result of these measurements, 6.6726(50)?10 -11 m 3 kg -1 s -2 (i.e. 6.6726±0.0005), was the basis recommended by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) values ​​in 1986.

Everything was calm until 1995, when a group of physicists at the German PTB laboratory in Braunschweig, using a modified installation (scales floating on the surface of mercury, with balls of large mass), obtained a G value of (0.6 ± 0.008)% more than the generally accepted one. As a result, in 1998 the error in measuring G was increased by almost an order of magnitude.

Experiments to test the law of universal gravitation, based on atomic interferometry, to measure microscopic test masses and further test Newton's law of gravitation in the microcosm, are currently being actively discussed.

Other methods of measuring G have been attempted, but the correlation between measurements remains virtually unchanged. This phenomenon is today called a violation of the inverse square law or the “fifth force.” The fifth force now includes certain Higgs particles (fields) - particles of God.

It seems that the divine particle was recorded, or rather, calculated, this is how the physicists who participated in the experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) sensationally presented the news to the World.

Rely on the Higgs boson, but don’t make a mistake yourself!

So what is this mysterious constant that walks by itself, and without it you can’t go anywhere?

Read the continuation of the article