What does it say about a person who uses profanity? Attempts to eradicate evil

Profanity is a concept that constantly appears in interpersonal communication and the media, but not everyone can explain what it is. ABOUT profanity will be discussed in this article.

Obscene insults, argot and other types of profanity

Profanity(obscene vocabulary) are speech patterns, words, expressions that have a pronounced negative, aggressive, obscene, immoral connotation. In most cases, such vocabulary is used as a reaction to a spontaneous situation (usually negative for the speaker). This can include:

• obscene insults;
• argo (a type of speech characteristic of limited groups of people and having specific features);
• swear words, words that have a vulgar, vulgar, obscene meaning.

It should be noted that scientists studying profanity(by which in most cases we mean Russian swearing), they note that this feature of Russian speech appeared a very, very long time ago. According to some authors, profanity initially it was a mandatory attribute of various ceremonies, including wedding ceremonies, agricultural ceremonies, and other everyday rituals.

Insult with obscenities. Profanity with and without obscenities

Regardless of what profanity used - insults with obscenities, swear words, vulgar words - it always performs a certain function. Depending on the context, experts identify the following purposes: profanity:

1. A means of establishing contact with another person. At the same time, depending on the status of the persons participating in the conversation, profanity can bring interlocutors closer (if they are equal), humiliate one of them, level the speaker and interlocutor, or elevate one of them.
2. As a means of expressing emotions (aggression, friendliness, protest, resentment, fear and other human feelings and experiences).
3. Like an interjection. This function profanity, perhaps, is characteristic only of our language. It is quite difficult to understand the nature of such use of obscenities and other “forbidden” expressions, but the fact remains: we sometimes use such words just like that, without any semantic load.
4. As a way for the speaker to address himself as self-deprecation or, conversely, encouragement.
5. The division of society into insiders and outsiders, ritual (magical) purposes, pathological foul language, etc.

It should also be noted that recent research by scientists shows that profanity also affects the mental and emotional state of the speaker. For example, people experiencing stress, fear, pain, tolerate these emotions and feelings more easily if they have the opportunity to scold. Experts note that this effect of obscene expressions is most likely due to the fact that subconsciously a person who expresses his emotions expressively feels calmer and more comfortable than one who is forced to restrain himself.

Than from social status and age.

The widespread belief that teenagers swear many times more than mature people fails on Russian roads, in auto repair shops and undignified drinking establishments. Here people do not restrain impulses that come from the heart, splashing out a wave of their negativity on their interlocutor and those around them. In most cases, the use of swearing is due to a lack of vocabulary or the fact that a person is not able to express his words and thoughts in a more cultural form.

From the point of view of esotericism and religion, a scolding person decomposes himself from the inside and has a bad influence on the surrounding space, releasing negative energy. It is believed that these people get sick more often than those who keep their tongues clean.

Obscene language can be heard in completely different layers. Often in the media you can find reports about yet another scandal involving famous politicians or movie and show business stars who publicly used profanity. The paradox is that even those who use swear words to connect words in a sentence condemn this behavior of celebrities and consider it unacceptable.

The attitude of the law towards the use of profanity

People use foul language regardless of profession, income and level of education. However, for many, the presence of elderly people, young children and work that requires polite communication with people is a deterrent.

Resourceful people found a way out of the situation a couple of decades ago: along with swearing, a surrogate appeared in oral speech. The words “damn”, “star”, “to get out” do not seem to be obscenities in the literal sense of the word and cannot fall under the corresponding article by definition, but they carry the same meaning and the same negative as their predecessors, and such words are constantly being replenished.

On forums and in news discussions, the use of strong words is usually prohibited, but surrogates successfully bypassed this barrier. Thanks to the emergence of an obscene surrogate, parents no longer hesitate to use it in the presence of children, harming the cultural development of their child, introducing the immature to the use of swear words.

Taboo vocabulary includes certain layers of vocabulary that are prohibited due to religious, mystical, political, moral and other reasons. What are the prerequisites for its occurrence?

Types of taboo vocabulary

Among the subtypes of taboo vocabulary, one can consider sacred taboos (on pronouncing the name of the creator in Judaism). The anathema to pronounce the name of the intended game during a hunt belongs to a mystical taboo layer. It is for this reason that the bear is called “master” in baiting, and the word “bear” itself is derived from the phrase “in charge of honey.”

Obscene vocabulary

One of the most significant types of taboo vocabulary is obscene or obscene vocabulary, in common parlance – obscene language. From the history of the emergence of Russian obscene vocabulary, three main versions can be distinguished. Proponents of the first hypothesis argue that Russian swearing arose as a legacy of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Which in itself is controversial, given that most obscene roots go back to Proto-Slavic origins. According to the second version, abusive lexemes once had several lexical meanings, one of which over time replaced all the others and became attached to the word. The third theory states that swear words were once a significant component of occult rituals of the pre-Christian period.

Let's consider lexical metamorphoses using the example of the most iconic formulations. It is known that in ancient times, “poherit” meant “to cross out a cross.” Accordingly, the cross was called “dick”. The expression “fuck you all” was introduced into use by ardent supporters of paganism. Thus, they wished Christians to die on the cross by analogy with their own god. Needless to say, current users of the language use this word in a completely different context.

Swearing also played an important role in rites and rituals of pagan origin, usually associated with fertility. In addition, it should be noted that most conspiracies for death, illness, love spells, etc. abound in obscene lexemes.

It is known that many lexical units, now considered obscene, were not such until the 18th century. These were completely ordinary words that denoted parts (or features of the physiological structure) of the human body and more. Thus, the Proto-Slavic “jebti” originally meant “to hit, hit”, “huj” - “a needle of a coniferous tree, something sharp and prickly.” The word “pisda” was used to mean “urinary organ.” Let us remember that the verb “whore” once meant “to talk idle talk, to lie.” “Fornication” - “deviation from the established path”, as well as “illegal cohabitation”. Later both verbs merged into one.

It is believed that before the invasion of Napoleonic troops in 1812, swear words were not particularly in demand in society. However, as it turned out in the process, hazing was much more effective in the trenches. Since then, swearing has confidently taken root as the main form of communication among the troops. Over time, the officer stratum of society popularized obscene language to such an extent that it became urban slang.

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Sources:

• how swearing (taboo vocabulary) appeared in 2019
• Taboo words and euphemisms (profanity) in 2019
• (OBVIOUS SPEECH AND OBVIOUS USE) in 2019

Modern dictionaries and reference books explain the term “expletive language” as a category of language related to obscene language. Often a parallel is drawn, or even a complete synonymization of the concepts of “abusive language” and “obscene”. It is assumed that swear words include only obscene, obscenely vile, vulgar words and expressions. And abusive language itself is regarded as a spontaneous reaction to certain events or sensations.

Instructions

According to the definition of swear words as part of obscene language, there is a certain thematic classification of swear words and expressions:
- emphasized negative characteristics of a person, including obscene definitions;
- names of taboo body parts;
- obscene names of sexual intercourse;
- names of physiological acts and the results of their administration.

Everything would be too simple and clear if not for one “but”. You don’t need to be a professional linguist not to trace the similarities in words and expressions: “abusive”, “self-assembly”, “battlefield”, “decoration”. Some linguists explain this similarity by its origin in the vocabulary of the predecessor of the Indo-European language. The lexical unit of the proto-language - “br”, could mean the common property of the tribe, food, and was the basis for the word formation of many terms from which the words “take”, “brushna”, as well as “bor”, “bee-keeper” were derived. It is assumed that the expression “abuse” could come from military spoils, and “battlefield” is a field of spoils. Hence the “self-assembled tablecloth” and, characteristically, “burden/pregnancy/pregnancy”, as well as agricultural terms - “harrow”, “furrow”.

Over time, words associated with the reproduction of offspring were grouped into the category of “swear words,” but they did not belong to obscenity vocabulary. Swear words were classified as taboo; only priests could use them and only in cases prescribed by custom, mainly in erotic rituals associated with agricultural magic. This guides the hypothesis about the origin of the word “mate” - agriculture - “swear words” - “mother - cheese”.

With the adoption of Christianity, the use of swear words was completely prohibited, but among the people, most words in this category were not positioned as offensive. Until the 18th century, modern swear words were used as an equal part of the Russian language.

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Please note

The list of swear words is not constant - some words go away or lose their negative connotation, such as the word “ud”, which is not perceived by contemporaries as anything other than the root of the word “fishing rod”, but in the 19th century was prohibited for use at the legislative level as a designation of male sexual organ.

The list of dirty words is quite wide. Surely you have had to catch such constructions in the speech of your interlocutor: “in general”, “as if”, “this”, “well”, “so to speak”, “this is the same”, “what’s his name”. The word Ok (“okay”), which came from the English language, has recently become very widespread among young people.

Weedy words are an indicator of general and speech culture

Among the verbal garbage there is also something that is considered indecent in any cultural society. We are talking about profanity. Elements of obscene language, without a doubt, indicate an extremely low level of general culture. Swearing carries a very strong expressive charge. In some cases, socially acceptable substitutes for obscene words are used, for example, “Christmas trees.” It is better to refrain from even such seemingly harmless expressions, even if the situation encourages an emotional reaction.

If you notice signs of dirty words in your speech, try to take control of them. Awareness of a speech deficiency is the first step towards eliminating it. Constantly monitoring the quality of your speech will help you express your thoughts more accurately and become a pleasant conversationalist.

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Related article

Profanity(obscene language, unprintable swearing) or obscene language(from Englishobscene- obscene, dirty, shameless) - segment swear words various languages, including the roughest ( obscene,obscenely vile, vulgar) abusive expressions, often expressing a spontaneous verbal reaction to an unexpected (usually unpleasant) situation. Linguists separate concepts profanity And taboo vocabulary from obscene vocabulary [ source? ] . Obscene vocabulary is just one of the types of these two linguistic phenomena [ source? ] .

One of the varieties of obscene vocabulary in Russian language is Russian swearing.

Functions of use

Experts call various functions of using obscene vocabulary in speech:

promotion emotionality speeches;

discharge psychological stress;

insult, humiliation of the addressee of speech;

demonstration of the speaker’s looseness and independence;

demonstration of disdain for the system of prohibitions;

demonstration of the speaker’s belonging to “their own”, etc.

V. I. Zhelvis identifies 27 functions of invective vocabulary, although primary and secondary functions are sometimes mixed here, and the division sometimes looks too fractional :

1. as a means of expressing the profane principle, opposed to the sacred principle,

2. cathartic,

3. a means of lowering the social status of the addressee,

4. a means of establishing contact between equal people,

5. a means of friendly teasing or encouragement,

6. “dueling” remedy,

7. expresses the attitude of two to the third as a “scapegoat”,

8. cryptographic function (like a password),

9. for self-encouragement,

10. for self-deprecation,

11. present yourself as a “person without prejudices”,

12. implementation of “the elitism of a cultural position through its negation”,

13. symbol of sympathy for the oppressed classes,

14. narrative group - attracting attention,

15. apotropaic function – “to confuse”

16. transferring the opponent to the power of evil forces,

17. magic function,

18. feeling of power over the “demon of sexuality”,

19. demonstration of the speaker’s gender,

20. eshrological function (ritual invectiveization of speech),

21. used in psychoanalysis to treat nervous disorders,

22. pathological foul language,

23. invective as art,

24. invective as rebellion,

25. as a means of verbal aggression,

26. division into permitted and unauthorized groups,

27. as an interjection.

In everyday life, we all often hear words and expressions, the use of which is completely unacceptable from the point of view of public morality and is intended both to insult the addressee and to express negative assessments of people and phenomena. This is the so-called obscene Russian vocabulary, or, more simply, swearing, which is one of the unsightly, but, unfortunately, difficult to eradicate sides of our “great and mighty” language.

Long tradition of prohibiting obscene language

Linguists call profanity, familiar to all of us from childhood, obscene language. The term comes from the English obscene, which means "shameless", "obscene" or "dirty". The English word itself goes back to the Latin obscenus, which has the same meaning.

As many researchers testify, the taboo ban on using various expressions related to the sexual sphere in the presence of women developed back in the pagan era among the ancient Slavs - the ethnic ancestors of Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. Subsequently, with the advent of Christianity, the ban on the use of profanity was universally supported by the Orthodox Church, which suggests a long historical tradition of this taboo.

Society's attitude towards the use of swear words

In this regard, the results of a sociological survey conducted in 2004 are of interest, the purpose of which was to identify the attitude of Russians towards the use of obscene expressions by show business stars. It is very characteristic that the overwhelming majority of respondents, almost 80%, expressed their negative attitude towards this phenomenon, saying that in their speeches profanity is a manifestation of lack of culture and promiscuity.

Despite the fact that in oral speech these expressions are widespread among all segments of the population, in Russia there has always been a taboo on their use in print. Unfortunately, it weakened significantly in the post-perestroika period due to the weakening of state control over the printing sector, as well as due to a number of side effects that resulted from the democratization of society. In addition, the lifting of the ban on covering many topics not previously covered by print media led to an expansion of vocabulary. As a result, obscenities and jargon have become not only fashionable, but also effective PR tools.

Offensive and derogatory language

We have to admit that among teenagers, the ability to use foul language is considered a sign of growing up, and for them, profanity is a kind of demonstration of belonging to “their own” and disdain for generally accepted prohibitions. Of course, having enriched themselves with such expressions, teenagers tend to use them, often using fences, toilet walls and school desks for this purpose, and in recent years, the Internet.

Considering the problem of the use of obscene language in society, it should be noted that, despite all the freedom of expression established in recent years, responsibility for the use of obscene expressions is not removed from those who write or speak.

Of course, it is hardly possible to prohibit foul language for a person for whom, due to his upbringing and intelligence, this is the only accessible form of self-expression. However, it should be borne in mind that swearing offends those for whom the taboo on swearing - due to their moral or religious considerations - has not lost force.

The main motives for using profanity

In modern language, swearing is most often used as an element of verbal aggression, the goal of which is to scold and insult a specific addressee. In addition, it is used by people of low culture in the following cases: to make their expressions more emotional, as a way to relieve psychological tension, as interjections and to fill speech pauses.

Contrary to the popular idea that obscene expressions entered the Russian language from Tatar during the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, serious researchers are very skeptical about this hypothesis. According to most of them, words in this category have Slavic and Indo-European roots.

In the pagan period of the history of Ancient Rus', they were used as one of the elements of sacred conspiracies. For our ancestors, profanity is nothing more than an appeal to magical power, which, according to their ideas, lay in the genitals. This is evidenced by some echoes of ancient pagan spells that have survived centuries.

But since the establishment of Christianity, church authorities have been consistently fighting this speech phenomenon. Many circulars and decrees of Orthodox hierarchs aimed at eradicating swearing have survived to this day. When in the 17th century there was a strict distinction between spoken and literary languages, swearing finally gained the status of a collection of “obscene expressions.”

Obscene language in historical documents

The research of the famous linguist V.D. Nazarov testifies to how rich the Russian vocabulary of profanity was at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. According to his calculations, even an incomplete collection of written monuments of that time contains sixty-seven words derived from the most common roots of obscene vocabulary. Even in more ancient sources - Novgorod and Staraya Russa - expressions of this kind are often found, both in ritual and humorous form.

Mat in the perception of foreigners

By the way, the first dictionary of profanity was compiled at the beginning of the 17th century by the Englishman Richard James. In it, this inquisitive foreigner explained to his compatriots the specific meaning of some words and expressions that are difficult to translate into English, which we today call obscene.

The very widespread use of them is also evidenced in his travel notes by the German scientist Master of Philosophy Adam Olearius, who visited Russia at the end of the same century. The German translators accompanying him often found themselves in a difficult situation, trying to find the meaning of the use of well-known concepts in the most unusual context for them.

Official ban on obscene language

The ban on the use of profanity in Russia appeared relatively late. For example, it is often found in documents of the Petrine era. However, by the end of the 17th century, its taboo took the form of law. It is characteristic that the poems of a well-known poet of those years, who widely used obscene vocabulary, were not published, but were distributed exclusively in lists. In the next century, immodest expressions were only part of the unofficial part of the work of poets and writers, who included them in their epigrams and comic poems.

Attempts to remove taboos from the mat

The first attempts to legalize obscene expressions were observed in the twenties of the last century. They were not of a mass nature. Interest in swearing was not self-sufficient; some writers simply believed that profanity was one of the ways to talk freely about sexual issues. As for the Soviet period, throughout its entire duration the ban on the use of swearing was strictly observed, although it was widely used in everyday conversation.

In the nineties, with the advent of perestroika, censorship restrictions were abolished, which made it possible for profanity to freely penetrate literature. It is used mainly to convey the lively spoken language of the characters. Many authors believe that if these expressions are used in everyday life, then there is no reason to neglect them in their work.

Attempts to eradicate evil

Nowadays, the fight against obscene language is limited to fines for its use in public places and an explanation from Roskomnadzor about the inadmissibility of using the four main swear words and all expressions derived from them in the media. According to existing legislation, if this resolution is violated, the perpetrators are given an appropriate warning, and in the event of a repeated violation, Roskomnadzor has the right to deprive them of their license.

However, many private publishers ignore the prohibitions. In recent years, the dictionary of profanity has even been repeatedly published and republished, which hardly allows us to hope for its possible eradication. The only way to combat swearing can be a general improvement in the culture of Russians.

FEATURES OF USING NON-NORMATIVE

VOCABULARY IN RUSSIAN SPEECH

Vakhina Veronica,

The word vocabulary (from the Greek lexikos - relating to a word) has two meanings:

1) the entire set of words, the vocabulary of the language.

2) A set of words characteristic of a given type of speech (everyday vocabulary, military, children’s, etc.), one or another stylistic layer (neutral, colloquial vocabulary, etc.).

Which group should we include profanity in?

The object of the study was the linguistic phenomenon of profanity, the subject of the study was the peculiarities of the use of profanity in Russian speech.

The following hypothesis was put forward: the widespread use of unstandardized vocabulary poses a serious danger to the stability of the literary language and undermines the existing system of literary norms.

The purpose of our research is to study the peculiarities of the use of profanity in Russian speech.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were put forward:

1.Give the concept of profanity (obscene) vocabulary; 2.Identify the reasons for the use of profanity by analyzing the literature and conducting a survey; 3. Analyze ways to solve this problem.

Profanity (obscene language, unprintable language) or obscene language (from the English Obscene - obscene, dirty, shameless) is a segment of abusive language in various languages, including the most coarse swear words, often expressing a spontaneous verbal reaction to an unexpected (usually unpleasant) situation.

One of the varieties of obscene vocabulary in the Russian language is Russian swearing. Experts call various functions of using obscene vocabulary in speech:

Increasing the emotionality of speech;

Relieving psychological tension;

Demonstration of the speaker’s looseness and independence;

Demonstration of disdain for the system of prohibitions;

A strict ban on the public use of obscene vocabulary and phraseology developed among the Eastern Slavs back in the pagan era as a strong tradition of folk culture and was strictly supported and supported by the Orthodox Church for 1000 years. So this taboo has a long tradition among the Russian people, sanctified by more than one millennium. Despite the prevalence of obscene expressions in all layers of Russian society at all stages of its history, in Russia there has traditionally been a taboo on the use of obscene language in printed form (hence, obviously, the name “obscene language”). This taboo has weakened somewhat recently due to the democratization of society and the weakening of state control over the printing sector (the first long-term abolition of censorship in Russian history), changes in public morality after the collapse of the USSR, mass publication of literary works and correspondence of recognized Russian classics and writers -dissidents and current postmodernists. The lifting of bans on the coverage of certain topics and social groups has led to an expansion of the scope of acceptable vocabulary in writing. Swearing and jargon have become fashionable, becoming one of the means of PR.

Among children and adolescents, the ability to swear subconsciously was and is considered one of the signs of adulthood. Once the younger generation mastered the basics of this knowledge, they felt an urgent need to demonstrate what they had achieved - hence the inscriptions on fences, the walls of public toilets, school desks - and now on the Internet.

It should be noted that the current freedom of expression does not negate the responsibility of the speaker and writer. Of course, it is hardly possible to prohibit a person from swearing if this is the only means of self-expression that is available to him. However, swearing in a normal situation inevitably violates the rights and humiliates the dignity of those people for whom the taboo remains valid (for moral, religious and other reasons).

The tabooing of obscene vocabulary is a relatively recent phenomenon: even in documents and correspondence of Peter’s time, it is found relatively freely. However, by the second half of the 18th century, its use in printed publications ceased to be possible. Throughout the 19th century, obscene vocabulary also remained the lot of the “unofficial” part of the creative heritage of poets and writers.

The first attempts to remove the taboo from obscene vocabulary were made in the 1920s. and were not of a mass nature; The interest in swear words among most authors at that time was not self-sufficient and was associated mainly with the desire to speak freely about the sexual sphere.

During the Soviet period, the public ban on obscene language acted very consistently, which did not prevent (and still does not prevent) the overwhelming majority of the population from willingly using this vocabulary in private life. Russian samizdat writers, starting with Yuz Aleshkovsky, set themselves the task of artistic mastery of obscene vocabulary.

Since the 1990s, when censorship restrictions disappeared, obscene vocabulary has penetrated more widely into literature, being used in various functions. The simplest of these functions is the realistic rendering of spoken language. Some authors' characters do not abuse obscene language (for example, in Viktor Pelevin's books it is almost always present, but in very small quantities), for others, the characters' speech is replete with strong expressions (for example, in the novels of Bayan Shiryanov, the heroes from the lives of drug addicts, in accordance with the principle of truth of life , do not mince words).

Active theoretical studies of Russian obscene vocabulary in the twentieth century were mainly carried out by foreign researchers. Since the late 1970s, a number of articles and monographs on this topic have been published in the West.

The assessment given here of the situation that has developed in the modern Russian language, in modern speech communication, convinces us that the problem of qualifying the use of words and expressions of an invective nature (these are words and expressions that contain intention (intention) in their semantics, expressive coloring and evaluative component of content speaker or writer to humiliate, insult, dishonor, disgrace the addressee of the speech or a third party, usually accompanied by the intention to do this in the most harsh and cynical form possible) as insults, on the one hand, is significantly complicated:

a) due to the increasing blurring of the boundaries and composition of the invective vocabulary itself due to:

Expansion of the sociocultural composition of the corresponding speech units, i.e. penetration into the sphere of ordinary communication of slang, colloquial, generally marginal, extra-literary words and expressions,

Instability, a certain uncertainty of the negative-evaluative connotations of such units in essentially new contexts of use for them in another (also new for them) functional sphere of use (from the oral informal sphere of jargon, urban vernacular, etc. they move into the official sphere of mass communication or public speeches),

A rapid, dramatic expansion of communication situations, a change in the nature of speech situations (from interpersonal to mass communication, to the direct transfer of everyday situations into the sphere of officialdom);

b) in connection with the processes of detabooization of obscene (invective) vocabulary observed in recent years in the press, in electronic media, and on the pages of fiction.

These processes were ultimately determined by the era of glasnost, the lifting of the ban on publishing erotic products (visual and verbal), on discussing the intimate lives of popular people (mainly singers, artists, “new Russians”, etc.), and also, and to a large extent, by the aggravation of the political struggle in post-Soviet Russia.

To identify the reasons for the use of profanity and attitudes towards it, a survey was conducted among young people in Kansk; The sample consisted of 100 boys and girls aged 16 to 18 years. Respondents were asked three questions:

1. Do you use profanity in your speech?

2.What are the reasons for your use of profanity?

3.What, in your opinion, is the solution to this problem?

The following results were obtained during the survey:

34% of respondents sometimes use profanity;

63% - constantly use this type of vocabulary.

59% of respondents say the reason for using profanity is release from negative emotions, 41% of young people do it out of habit.

11% of respondents do not see the use of this vocabulary as a particular problem and the need to combat this phenomenon;

25% of young people believe that it is necessary to exercise self-control;

5% believe that it is necessary to introduce administrative sanctions (a system of fines) more widely;

59% of respondents see the need for cultural and educational work to combat this phenomenon.

Based on the above, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. The literature analysis and survey confirmed the relevance of this problem and the need to solve it at the state level.

2. The wide expansion of non-standardized Russian speech, observed during the years of perestroika and in post-Soviet times, and even in the conditions of the actual monopolization of radio and television speech in the linguistic life of society, poses a serious danger to the stability of the literary language and undermines the existing system of literary norms.

Bibliography:

1. Bykov V. Russian Fenya. Dictionary of modern interjargon of asocial elements. - Munchen, 199 p.

2. Zhelvis V.I. Battlefield. Foul language as a social problem. - M.: Ladomir, 200 p.

3. Ilyasov F.N. Checkmate in three moves (experience of a sociological study of the phenomenon of obscene language) // Man. -1990.- No. 3, - p.198-204.

4. On obscene expressions of the Russian language // Russian Linguistics, 1986.-No. 10.- p. 61-72.