Feel - the simplest mental process consisting of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the corresponding receptors

Receptors - These are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the influence of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then go to the brain, which decodes them. This process is accompanied by the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.

Some human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sense organs. A person has an organ of vision - the eye, an organ of hearing - the ear, an organ of balance - the vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - the nose, an organ of taste - the tongue. At the same time, some receptors are not united into one organ, but are scattered over the surface of the entire body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. A large number of receptors are located inside the body: pressure receptors, chemical senses, etc. For example, receptors sensitive to the content of glucose in the blood provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for subsequent processing.

All receptors can be divided into distant , which can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).

Analyzer - the material basis of sensations

Sensations are the product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, configures the receptor apparatus, transmits information to nerve centers, processes it and deciphers it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sense organ ,conductive path And cortical section . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five sections: receptor, conductor, tuning unit, filtering unit and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electrical cable that conducts electrical impulses, the most important role is played by the four sections of the analyzer. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the operation of the receptor section when external conditions change (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different impact forces).

Thresholds of sensations

In psychology, there are several concepts of sensitivity threshold

Lower absolute sensitivity threshold defined as the lowest strength of stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are very sensitive to an adequate stimulus. For example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory threshold is equal to 6 molecules of an odorous substance.

Stimuli with a strength less than the threshold do not cause sensations. They're called subliminal and are not realized, but can penetrate the subconscious, determining human behavior, as well as forming the basis for it dreams, intuition, unconscious desires. Research by psychologists shows that the human subconscious can react to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by consciousness.

Upper absolute sensitivity threshold changes the very nature of sensations (most often to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but pain. The same thing happens with strong sound and or pressure on the skin.

Relative threshold (discrimination threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensation is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of stimulation.

Bouguer-Weber law: “The discrimination threshold for each analyzer has

constant relative value":

DI/I = const, where I is the strength of the stimulus

Classification of sensations

1. Exteroceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations arise when excited chopsticks(“twilight, black and white vision”) and cones(“daytime, color vision”). Temperature sensations in humans occur during separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the impact on the surface of the body, and they arise when excited or sensitive touch receptors in the upper layer of the skin, or with stronger exposure to pressure receptors in the deep layers of the skin.

2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Painful sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs and are a unique manifestation of the body’s protective functions. The intensity of pain varies, reaching great strength in some cases, which can even lead to a state of shock.

3. Proprioceptive sensations (muscular-motor). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of muscular-motor sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, the relative position of all its parts, the movement of the body and its parts, the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscular-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous irritation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a unique quality: irritation of receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movements. Many authors include in this same group of sensations the sensations of balance and acceleration that arise as a result of stimulation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.

Properties of sensations

Sensations have certain properties:

· adaptation,

· contrast,

thresholds of sensations

· sensitization,

· sequential images.

Imagination is a process of creative transformation of ideas that reflect reality, and the creation on this basis of new ideas that were not previously available. In addition to this, there are other definitions of imagination. For example, it can be defined as the ability to imagine an absent (at the moment or generally in reality) object, hold it in consciousness and mentally manipulate it. Sometimes the term “fantasy” is used as a synonym, which denotes both the process of creating something new and the final product of this process. Therefore, in psychology the term “imagination” has been adopted, denoting only the procedural side of this phenomenon. Imagination differs from perception in two ways: - the source of emerging images is not the external world, but memory; - it corresponds less to reality, since it always contains an element of fantasy. Functions of imagination: 1 Representation of reality in images, which makes it possible to use them when performing operations with imaginary objects. 2 Formation of an internal action plan (creating an image of a goal and finding ways to achieve it) in conditions of uncertainty. 3 Participation in the voluntary regulation of cognitive processes (memory management). 4 Regulation of emotional states (in auto-training, visualization, neuro-linguistic programming, etc.). 5 The basis for creativity - both artistic (literature, painting, sculpture) and technical (invention) 6 Creation of images that correspond to the description of an object (when a person tries to imagine something he has heard or read about). 7 Producing images that do not program, but replace activity (pleasant dreams replacing boring reality). Types of imagination:
Depending on the principle underlying the classification, different types of imagination can be distinguished (Fig. 10.1): Characteristics of certain types of imagination Active imagination (intentional) - the creation by a person of his own free will of new images or ideas, accompanied by certain efforts (a poet is looking for a new artistic image to describe nature, an inventor sets a goal to create a new technical device, etc.). Passive imagination (unintentional) - in this case, a person does not set himself the goal of transforming reality, and images spontaneously arise on their own (this type of mental phenomena includes a wide range of phenomena, ranging from dreams to an idea that suddenly and unplannedly arose in the mind of the inventor). Productive (creative) imagination is the creation of fundamentally new ideas that do not have a direct model, when reality is creatively transformed in a new way, and not simply mechanically copied or recreated. Reproductive (recreating) imagination is the creation of an image of objects or phenomena according to their description, when reality is reproduced from memory as it is. Characteristics of certain types of imagination: Dreams can be classified as passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they can be either reproductive or productive. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov called dreams “an unprecedented combination of experienced impressions,” and modern science believes that they reflect the process of transferring information from operative to long-term memory. Another point of view is that in a person’s dreams many vital needs are expressed and satisfied, which, for a number of reasons, cannot be realized in real life.

Hallucination- passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they are most often productive. Hallucinations are fantastic visions that have no obvious connection with the reality around a person. Hallucinations are usually the result of some kind of mental disorder or the effect of drugs or drugs on the brain.

Dreams in contrast to hallucinations, they are a completely normal mental state, which is a fantasy associated with a desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. This is a passive and productive type of imagination.

Dream It differs from a dream in that it is more realistic and more feasible. Dreams are a type of active forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, dreams are most often productive. Features of a dream: - When dreaming, a person always creates an image of what he wants. - It is not directly included in human activity and does not immediately produce practical results. - A dream is aimed at the future, while some other forms of imagination work with the past. - The images that a person creates in his dreams are distinguished by emotional richness, bright character, and at the same time – a lack of understanding of specific ways to realize the dream. Dreams and daydreams occupy a fairly large part of a person's time, especially in youth. For most people, dreams are pleasant thoughts about the future. Some also experience disturbing visions that give rise to feelings of anxiety, guilt, and aggressiveness. Mechanisms for processing ideas into imaginary images.

The creation of imaginary images is carried out using several methods: Agglutination - “folding”, “gluing” various parts that are not connected in everyday life. An example is the classic character of fairy tales - the centaur, the Serpent-Gorynych, etc. Hyperbolization

2.- a significant increase or decrease in an object or its individual parts, which leads to qualitatively new properties. An example is the following fairy-tale and literary characters: the giant Homeric Cyclops, Gulliver, Little Thumb. Accenting

- highlighting a characteristic detail in the created image (friendly cartoon, caricature).

Perception

– a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. Perception is always a set of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from a particular object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new stage of sensory cognition.

Scheme of formation of mental images during perception: Physiological basis of perception , is the coordinated activity of several analyzers, occurring with the participation of associative parts of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

For example, the perception of an apple consists of the visual sensation of a green circle, the tactile sensation of a smooth, hard and cool surface, and the olfactory sensation of the characteristic apple smell. Added together, these three sensations will give us the opportunity to perceive a whole object - an apple.

Perception must be distinguished from submissions, that is, the mental creation of images of objects and phenomena that once influenced the body, but are absent at the moment.

In the process of forming an image, it is influenced attitudes, interests, needs, And motives personality. Thus, the image that appears at the sight of the same dog will be different for a random passer-by, an amateur dog breeder and a person who has recently been bitten by a dog. Their perceptions will differ in completeness and emotionality. A huge role in perception is played by a person’s desire to perceive this or that object, the activity of its perception.

Properties of perception

Human perceptions differ from sensations in a number of specific properties. The main properties of perception are:

· constancy,

· integrity.

· selectivity,

· objectivity,

· apperception,

· meaningfulness,

Types of perception

There are three main classifications of perception processes - according to the form of existence of matter, according to the leading modality and according to the degree of volitional control.

According to the first classification , there are three types of perception

Perception of space- this is the perception of the distance to objects or between them, their relative position, their volume, distance and direction in which they are located.

Motion perception- this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer himself in space.

Perception of time is the least studied area of ​​psychology. So far it is only known that the assessment of the duration of a time period depends on what events (from the point of view of a particular person) it was filled with. If time was filled with many interesting events, then time passes quickly, and if there were few significant events, then time passes slowly. When remembering, the opposite phenomenon occurs - a period of time filled with interesting things seems to us longer than an “empty” one. The material basis for human perception of time is the so-called “cellular clock” - the fixed duration of some biological processes at the levels of individual cells, by which the body checks the duration of large periods of time.

Second classification of perception (according to the leading modality) includes visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile perception, as well as the perception of one’s body in space.

In accordance with this classification in neuro-linguistic programming (one of the areas of modern psychology), all people are usually divided into visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners. For visual learners, the visual type of perception predominates, for auditory learners – auditory, and for kinesthetic learners – tactile, gustatory and temperature.

3. Memory - the ability (of a living system to record the fact of interaction with the environment, save the result of this interaction in the form of experience and use it in behavior.

memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes connected with each other. Memory is necessary for a person. It allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal life experience. Human memory is not just some single function. There are many different processes involved. There are three completely different types of memory: 1) as a “direct imprint” of sensory information; 2) short-term memory; 3) long-term memory.

Direct imprint of sensory information . This system maintains a fairly accurate and complete picture of the world perceived by the senses. The duration of saving the picture is very short - 0.1-0.5 s. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Watch how the clear, clear picture you see persists for a while and then slowly disappears.

Short-term memory holds a different type of material. In this case, the retained information is not a complete representation of events that occurred at the sensory level, but a direct interpretation of these events. For example, if someone says a phrase in front of you, you will remember not so much its constituent sounds as the words. Usually only 5-6 words are remembered. By making a conscious effort to repeat the material over and over again, you can retain it in your short-term memory for an indefinite period of time. Immediate imprints of sensory memory cannot be repeated; they are stored only for a few tenths of a second and there is no way to extend them.

Long-term memory . There is a clear and compelling difference between the memory of an event that just happened and events of the distant past. Long-term memory is the most important and most complex of memory systems. The capacity of the first named memory systems is very limited: the first consists of a few tenths of seconds, the second - several storage units. The capacity of long-term memory is practically limitless. Anything held for more than a few minutes must be in the long-term memory system. The main source of difficulties associated with long-term memory is the problem of retrieval of information.

IN memory There are three processes: memorization(entering information into memory), preservation(hold) and playback These processes are interconnected. Organization of memory influences retention. The quality of the save determines the playback.

The process of memorization can proceed as an instantaneous imprinting - imprinting. The state of imprinting in a person occurs at a moment of high emotional stress. Its connection with periods of sensitive development of mental functions is likely. When the same stimulus is repeated many times, it is imprinted without a conscious attitude towards it. The intention to retain material in memory characterizes voluntary memorization.

Organized repetition of material for the purpose of memorizing it is called memorization. A significant increase in learning ability falls between the ages of 8 and 10 years and especially increases from 11 to 13 years. From the age of 13, there is a relative decline in the rate of memory development. New growth begins at age 16. At the age of 20-25 years, the memory of a person engaged in mental work reaches its highest level.

According to the mechanism they are distinguished logical And mechanical memorization. According to the result - verbatim And semantic.

The focus on memorization alone does not give the desired effect. Its absence can be compensated for by high forms of intellectual activity, even if this activity itself was not aimed at memorization. And only the combination of these two components creates a solid foundation for the most successful memorization and makes memorization productive.

What is remembered best is what arises as an obstacle or difficulty in activity. Memorizing material given in ready-made form is carried out with less success than memorizing material found independently during active activity. What is remembered, even involuntarily, but in the process of active intellectual activity, is retained in memory more firmly than what was remembered voluntarily.

The result of memorization is higher when relying on visual, figurative material. However, memorization productivity when relying on words increases with age than when relying on pictures. Therefore, the difference in the use of these and other supports decreases with age. When you come up with your own, verbal supports become a more effective means of memorization than ready-made pictures.

In a broad sense, the support of memorization can be everything with which we associate what we remember or what itself “pops up” in us as associated with it. The semantic support is a certain point, i.e. something short, compressed, serving as a support for some broader content that replaces it. The most developed form of semantic support points are theses, as a brief expression of the main idea of ​​each section. More often, section titles serve as a reference point.

The material is remembered better and forgotten less in cases where key points were highlighted during the memorization process. The strength of a stronghold depends on how deeply and thoroughly we understand the content of the section thanks to it. The semantic reference point is the reference point of understanding. For us, the most important thing is not the supporting points, but the semantic activity that is necessary for highlighting.

4. Thinking - this is the highest form of human cognitive activity, a socially conditioned mental process of indirect and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering something essentially new.

The main features of the thinking process are:

Generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

Connection with practical activities.

Inextricable connection with speech.

The presence of a problematic situation and the absence of a ready answer.

Generalized reflection in reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to that common thing that unites a similar number of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean by this word tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, cabinets, etc.

Indirect reflection reality can be seen in the arithmetic problem of adding several apples or in determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples”, “trains” are just symbols, conventional images, behind which there should not be specific fruits or compounds.

Thinking arises from practical activities, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond its limits. In turn, the correctness of thinking is tested during practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with speech. Thinking operates with concepts, which in their form are words, but, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, verbal concepts can be clarified.

Thinking takes place only when there is problematic situation. If you can get by with the old ways of acting, then thinking is not required.

1.2 Qualitative characteristics of thinking

Thinking, like other human cognitive processes, has a number of specific qualities. These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people, and are important to varying degrees in solving different problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant when solving theoretical problems, while others are more significant when solving practical issues.

Examples of qualities (properties) of thinking:

Quick thinking - the ability to find the right solutions under time pressure

Flexibility of thinking - the ability to change the intended plan of action when the situation changes or the criteria for the right decision change

Depth of thinking - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the ability to identify significant logical connections between the components of the problem

1.3 Thinking and intelligence

Intelligence- the totality of a person’s mental abilities that ensure the success of his cognitive activity.

In a broad sense, this term is understood as the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual (perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in a narrow sense - his mental abilities.

In psychology there is a concept structures of intelligence However, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a particular psychologist. For example, the famous scientist R. Cattell identified two sides in the structure of intelligence: dynamic, or fluid ( "fluid"), and static or crystallized ( “crystallized”). According to his concept, fluid intelligence manifests itself in tasks whose solution requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It depends more on the person's genotype. Crystallized intelligence is more dependent on the social environment, and is manifested when solving problems that require relevant skills and experience.

You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:

·Ability to learn (quickly acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities);

·Ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;

·Ability to solve practical problems and problem situations.

·The amount of available long-term and RAM memory.

Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain area, tests that evaluate a person’s intellectual development in connection with his biological age, tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special intelligence tests, for example, abstract-logical or spatial thinking, verbal intelligence, etc. The most famous intelligence tests include:

Stanford-Binet test: assesses the child's intellectual development.

Wechsler test: assesses the verbal and nonverbal components of intelligence.

Raven's test: nonverbal intelligence.

Eysenck test (IQ)– determines the general level of intelligence development

When studying intelligence in psychology, there are two approaches: intellectual abilities are innate or intellectual abilities develop in the process of individual development, as well as their intermediate version.

Sensation is a reflection of specific, individual properties, qualities, aspects of objects and phenomena of material reality affecting the senses at a given moment.
The physiological basis of sensations is the complex activity of the sense organs.
An anatomical and physiological apparatus specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations is called an analyzer. Each analyzer consists of three parts:

1. Receptor is a sensory organ that converts the energy of external influence into nerve signals. Each receptor is adapted to receive only certain types of influence (light, sound), i.e. has a specific excitability to certain physical and chemical agents.
2. Nerve pathways - along them nerve signals are transmitted to the brain.
3. Brain center in the cerebral cortex.

Sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, they are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and individual characteristics.

The English physiologist I. Sherrington identified three main classes of sensations:
1. Exteroceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena in the external environment (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. Receptors are located on the surface of the body.
2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of the internal organs. These include sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Painful sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs and are a unique manifestation of the body’s protective functions.
3. Proprioceptive sensations (muscular-motor). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of muscle-motor sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, the relative position of all its parts, the movement of the body and its parts, the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc.
Group I - distant sensations:
1. Vision - electromagnetic vibrations, reflection of light from objects.
2. Hearing - sound vibrations.
3. Smell - odorous particles, chemical analysis.
Group II - contact sensations:
4. Tactile - sensations of touch and pressure. Even a slight decrease in tactile sensitivity negatively affects the psyche. Most sensitive:
a) tongue
b) lips,
c) fingertips.
5. Temperature - separate receptors for cold and heat. Body temperature is taken as 0.
6. Taste - receptors in the papillae of the tongue that respond to the chemical composition of food.
7. Vibration sensitivity - reaction to low-frequency environmental vibrations. The most ancient sensitivity. The progenitor of hearing and tactile sensations. There are no special receptors; all body tissues are involved in transmitting information.
8. Pain sensitivity - serves the instinct of self-preservation. People without pain sensitivity do not live past 10 years.
Group III - sensations related to the body itself:
Sensations about events inside the body.
9. Vestibular - determine how the body is positioned in relation to gravity. Needed to understand where is up and where is down. Receptors in the inner ear.
10. Muscular – kinesthetic, dynamic, musculoskeletal, proprioception. Special sensors in all muscles, tendon attachments and joints. React to tension and relaxation. Thanks to them, we can tell what our body is doing with our eyes closed. All types of skeletal movements are regulated by the psyche with the participation of muscle sensations.
11. Introceptive sensations - interoreception - the combined result of the work of several types of sensors inside the body (chemoreceptors - chemical events inside the body, baroreceptors - react to changes in pressure, pain, etc.). Often they do not reach the psyche, the realization. Controlled by subcortical structures. What comes to consciousness (Sechenov): “the dark gross feeling of the body” is poorly understood, undifferentiated. Events within the body influence types of sensory sensitivities externally.

Properties of sensations:
1. Adaptation is the adaptation of sensitivity to constantly acting stimuli.
2. Contrast - a change in the intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or accompanying stimulus.
3. Sensitization - increased sensitivity under the influence of the interaction of sensations and exercises.
4. Synesthesia manifests itself in the fact that sensations of one modality can be accompanied by sensations of another modality.
Not every stimulus that affects the receptor endings of one or another analyzer is capable of causing a sensation. To do this, it is necessary that the stimulus has a certain magnitude or strength.
The lower absolute threshold of sensation is the minimum magnitude, or strength, of a stimulus at which it is capable of causing nervous excitation in the analyzer sufficient for the occurrence of sensation.
The absolute sensitivity of one or another sense organ is characterized by the value of the lower threshold of sensation. The lower the value of this threshold, the higher the sensitivity of this analyzer. Most analyzers have very high sensitivity. For example, the absolute lower threshold of auditory sensation, measured in units of pressure of air sound waves on the eardrum, is on average 0.001 boron in humans. How great this sensitivity is can be judged by the fact that one boron is equal to one millionth of normal atmospheric pressure. The sensitivity of the visual analyzer is even higher. The absolute lower threshold for the sensation of light is 2.5-10" erg/sec. With such sensitivity, the human eye can detect light at a distance of one kilometer, the intensity of which is only a few thousandths of a normal candle.
The upper absolute threshold of sensation corresponds to the maximum value of the stimulus, above which this stimulus ceases to be felt. Thus, the absolute upper threshold of audibility of tones in humans is on average 20,000 vibrations of sound waves per second.

Any sensation is caused by one or another stimulus, which can be external - color, sound, smell, taste; from within - hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation; simultaneously from without and from within - pain.

According to the nature of the action of the stimulus on the receptors, sensations are divided into three groups: exteroceptive, interoreceptive and proprioceptive.

1 . Exteroceptive sensations. Reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment. These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. Visual sensations arise as a result of the action of electromagnetic waves on the human eye. With their help, people are able to distinguish up to 180 tones of color and more than 10,000 shades between them. Auditory Feel

represent a reflection in the human mind of the noise emitted by the objects around him. With their help, he perceives the speech of other people, controls many types of work, enjoys music, etc. Olfactory sensations are a reflection of the smells that are inherent in certain objects. They help a person to distinguish common volatile substances and odors in the air. Flavoring sensations reflect the taste properties of objects: sweet and bitter, salty and sour, etc. They determine the qualitative characteristics of the food a person takes and are highly dependent on the feeling of hunger. Temperature sensations are sensations of heat and cold. Tactile sensations reflect effects on the surface of the body, including external and internal mucous membranes. They, together with the musculo-motor sense, make up the sense of touch, with the help of which a person determines the qualitative characteristics of objects - their smoothness, roughness, density, as well as the touch of the object to the body, the location and size of the irritated area of ​​the skin.

2 . Interoreceptive sensations. Reflect the state of internal organs. These include sensations of pain, balance, acceleration, etc. Painful sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs and are a unique manifestation of the body’s protective functions. The intensity of pain varies, reaching great strength in some cases, which can even lead to a state of shock. Feel equilibrium provide a vertical position of the human body. They arise as a result of the functional activity of the vestibular analyzer. Feel acceleration- these are sensations that reflect centrifugal and centripetal forces developing during human movement.

3. Proprioceptive (muscular-motor) sensations . These are sensations that reflect the movement of our body. With the help of muscle-motor sensations, a person receives information: about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, etc. Muscle-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous stimulation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a unique quality: stimulation of receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movements.

Location: audience

Duration: 2 hours

Lesson objectives:

1. Introduce the basic concepts of the processes of sensation and perception.

2. Study the main types and properties of sensation and perception.

3. Show the differences between sensations and perceptions.

4. Analyze the clinical picture of sensations and perceptions.

The student must know:

1. Definitions of sensation and perception.
2. Origin of sensations.
3. Properties of sensations
4. Disturbance of sensations.

The student must be able to:

1. Investigate disturbances in the processes of sensation and perception in patients.
2. Determine the leading human sensory system using special techniques.

Topics of projects, abstracts:

1. Origin of sensations.
2. Types and classification of sensations.
3. Properties of sensations
4. The difference between perception and sensations.
5. Illusions of visual perception. Perception of space, time and motion.
6. The role of sensations in human life.
7. Mechanisms of perception of the shape of objects and their size, perception of time.
8. Classification of perception disorders (agnosia, illusions, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, psychosensory disorders).

Main literature:

1. Clinical psychology / Ed. P.I. Sidorova, A.V. Parnyakova. - GEOTAR-Media, 2008.

2. Clinical psychology / Ed. B.D. Karvasarsky. Peter, 2002.

3. Basics of psychology. Workshop, Stolyarenko L. D. - Rostov/on D., 2006.

4. Psychology. (Lectures for students of medical universities), Tvorogova N.D. - Moscow State Educational Institution VUNMC RF, 2002.

Additional literature:

1. Psychosomatic medicine, F. Alexander. - M., 2000.
2. Introduction to health psychology, Ananyev V. A. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
3. Practical pathopsychology: A guide for doctors and medical psychologists.
4. Bleikher V.M., Kruk I.V., Bokov S.N. - Rostov/on D., 1996.
5. Psychology in medicine, Abramova G.S., Yudchits Yu.A. - M.: Department-M, 1998.
6. Introduction to medical psychology. Lebedinsky M. S., Myasishchev V. N. - L., 1996.
7. Fundamentals of clinical and counseling psychology. Todd J., Bogard A.K. - St. Petersburg: Sova; M.: Eksmo-Press, 2001.
8. Psychological testing. Anastasi A. Trans. from English - M., 1982.
9. Workshop on general, experimental and applied psychology: Proc. allowance. Krylov A. A., Manichev S. A. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
10. Fundamentals of general psychology. Rubinstein S. L. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
11. Sidorov P.I., Parnyakov A.V. Clinical psychology: textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2008. - 880 pp.: ill.
12. Clinical psychology: Textbook / Ed. B.D. Karvasarsky. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
13. Mendelevich V.D. Clinical and medical psychology. - M.: MED-press, 1998.

Initial control of knowledge level:

1. What do you understand by the terms “sensation” and “perception”?
2. How does the process of sensation differ from the process of perception?
3. What do you think is the role of these psychological processes in human life?
4. Due to what factors can these mental processes be disrupted?

Main questions of the topic:

1. Definition of sensation and perception.
2. Origin of sensations.
3. Types of sensations and classification of sensations.
4. Properties of sensations
5. Measuring and changing sensations.
6. Disturbance of sensations.
7. The difference between perception and sensations.
8. The main properties of images of perception: objectivity, constancy, integrity, categoricalness.
9. Illusions of visual perception. Perception of space, time and motion.
10. Mechanisms of perception of the shape of objects and their size, perception of time.
11. Perceptual disorders in the clinic.
12. Classification of perception disorders (agnosia, illusions, hallucinations and pseudohallucinations, psychosensory disorders).

Final control of knowledge level:

1. Define sensations and indicate which components of the nervous system take part in the sensory information space?
2. List the main characteristics of sensations?
3. List the main groups of sensation disorders. What are the main mechanisms of their occurrence?
4. What are the main characteristics that distinguish perception from sensation?
5. How does the study of various illusions determine the understanding of the mechanisms of perception?
6. List the main groups of perceptual disorders. what are the main mechanisms of their occurrence?
7. How does a person process visual information and what are the mechanisms of visual agnosia?
8. How are sound stimuli translated into sensory signals and what are the mechanisms of auditory agnosia?
9. What is cutaneous-kinesthetic sensitivity and what are the mechanisms of tactile agnosia?
10. How is charm, taste and static sensitivity studied in humans?

Feel

Sensations and perceptions, which are sensory images, constitute the initial, initial moment in the process of human cognition of the world. Sensations and perceptions arise only when stimuli directly affect the sense organs. The primary link of cognition is sensations.

Sensations are of great importance in human life, since, firstly, they provide communication with the outside world and are a constant source of knowledge about the environment.

Secondly, sensations are associated with the internal environment of the body; thanks to interoreception, the normal state of the body is maintained. And finally, sensations are associated with the needs of the body and, thanks to this, perform a regulatory function.

Feeling- this is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties, objects and phenomena of the external world, as well as internal states of the body under the direct influence of stimuli on the corresponding receptors. The physiological mechanism of sensations is the analyzer mechanism, and feedback is of great importance.

Feeling- this is the mental process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the senses. Since the time of Aristotle, five types of sensations have traditionally been distinguished that inform a person about changes in the environment. These are touch, taste, smell, hearing and vision.

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to all of them. Such properties include quality, intensity, duration and spatial location.

Quality - this is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type of sensation (one modality). Auditory sensations, for example, differ in pitch, timbre, and volume, while visual sensations differ in saturation and color tone.

Intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined both by the strength of the stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Duration of sensation is also determined by the aftereffect, which consists in the fact that the sensation does not stop at the moment the stimulus ends, but continues for some time, which is manifested in the appearance of a sequential image. The duration of the inertia of sensation varies from 0.05 to 1 second.

Spatial localization sensations gives a person information about the localization of the stimulus in space, in the case of distant receptors (visual, auditory, etc.), or correlates the sensation with the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus, in the case of contact receptors (tactile).

Research shows that these characteristics are not immutable. Sensitivity changes under the influence of a number of factors.

Basic properties:

1.Modality - the main feature of this type of sensation, distinguishing it from other types. In the process of evolution, humans have formed the main eleven types of sensations that provide a holistic reflection of the world and optimal adaptation - these are visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, temperature, motor, or kinesthetic, vestibular, or balance, vibration, pain, organic, or interoceptive . Each modality reflects various qualities, for example, in the visual, qualities such as brightness, contrast, etc. are represented, in the auditory - pitch, timbre, volume of sound. The relationship between modality and quality of the main types of sensations is presented in Table. 1.

Table 1

Correlation between modality and quality of sensations (Bloom, Leiserson, Hofstadter)

2.Intensity sensations depend on the strength of the current stimulus, on the functional state of the analyzer, as well as on the individual characteristics of the person. The main characteristic of the analyzer is its sensitivity. It is determined by two quantities. The first of them is that segment of the continuum of stimuli, the impact of which causes the sensation of a given modality. In order for a sensation to arise, the intensity of the stimulus must reach a certain value. Subsequently, as the intensity of the stimulus increases, a moment comes when the analyzer stops working adequately. Any impact exceeding a certain limit causes pain and disrupts the activity of the analyzer. The interval from the minimum to the maximum adequately felt value determines the sensitivity range of the analyzer.

Basic characteristics of sensations

Sensitivity range. A stimulus is capable of causing a sensation only when it reaches a certain magnitude or strength.

The minimum amount of stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity (i 0). The lower threshold is used to judge the absolute sensitivity of the analyzer. The lower (i 0), the higher the sensitivity of the analyzer to the stimulus.

The lower absolute threshold determines the resolution of the senses; in humans it is relatively high. For the eye, 2-8 quanta of radiant energy are enough to cause a visual sensation, and if the auditory threshold is slightly lowered, then a person could hear the rustle made by molecules during Brownian motion.

Stimuli of lesser strength are called subliminal, and signals about them are not transmitted to the cerebral cortex.

The transition from a subthreshold sensation occurs abruptly: if the impact has almost reached the threshold value, then a barely noticeable increase in its strength is enough for the stimulus to immediately become completely felt. Subthreshold sensations are not indifferent to the body. This is confirmed by numerous facts when it is weak subthreshold stimuli. coming from the external or internal environment, create a dominant focus in the cerebral cortex and contribute to the emergence of “deceptions of the senses” of hallucinations.

The upper absolute threshold of sensation (i max) is the maximum value of the stimulus that the analyzer is capable of adequately perceiving. Impacts exceeding (i max), cease to be felt or cause pain (i max) is much more variable among different people and at different ages. Interval between (i 0) and (i max) - is called the sensitivity range.

Time threshold measured by the duration of exposure required for a sensation to occur. The spatial threshold is determined by the minimum size, position in the sensory field and the area affected by the stimulus of the barely perceptible stimulus, its distance from the receptor. The most elementary example of a spatial threshold is visual acuity. It is determined by the minimum distance between two points at which the minimum sensation of their separateness is possible. Typically, normal visual acuity is taken to be one whose threshold is equal to 1 arc. min.

Duration of sensation determined by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. The sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time, after the onset of the stimulus. The period from the onset of the stimulus to the onset of sensation is called latent period. The latent periods of a simple sensorimotor reaction when presented with stimuli of different modalities are different and are presented in Table. 2.

table 2

Latent period of a simple sensorimotor reaction (according to Lomov)

* Note: the minimum and maximum values ​​of average values ​​obtained by different authors are indicated.

One of the phenomena of changes in sensitivity is adaptation.

Adaptation sensory organs is a change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of an active stimulus. Adaptation may be accompanied by an increase in sensitivity or its decrease until complete disappearance. The most significant amount of adaptation is in the visual analyzer. The sensitivity of the eye can change approximately 2-10 times. The adaptation time is approximately 30-40 minutes, the adaptation time to light is about 10 minutes. Different analyzers have different adaptability. The fastest adaptation occurs in the tactile and olfactory analyzers. The slowest is in the visual. There is practically no human adaptation to the sensation of pain, which has important biological significance, since the sensation of pain is a signal of trouble in the body.

Classification of sensations

Over the past century, attempts have been made repeatedly to classify and organize the entire diversity of sensations. The most common one at present is Sherrington classification, which is based on the “principle of the receptor organ being related to the receptor field,” that is, the location of the receptor and the location of the source of irritation are taken into account. In accordance with this, all sensations are divided into 3 groups.

Exteroceptors - environmental receptors. The activity of these receptors is aimed at recognizing the influences of the external world, which is of paramount importance for reflecting objective reality in the human mind. This group includes vision, hearing, smell, taste, tactile, temperature, and pain sensations.

proprioceptors, include sensory organs that reflect the movement and position of the body in space, muscular-articular, or kinesthetic, vibration, vestibular (sensations of balance and acceleration).

Interoreceptors - located in internal organs. According to the nature of stimulation, all receptors of internal organs, regardless of their location, are divided into several types: chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors and mechanoreceptors, reflecting changes in pressure in the internal organs and bloodstream.

Thus, three main types of sensations are combined depending on what they reflect: the external world, the position and movement of the body in this external world, or the activity of internal organs. Of course, such a classification is relative, since many types of sensations are represented by receptors that are present both on the surface of the body and in the internal environment of the body, such as temperature and tactile. In addition, the nature of the sensitivity of almost all sense organs is significantly influenced by the internal state of the body.

An example of interaction between analyzers is somesthesia, synesthesia.

Somesthesia - comprehensive education that combines all types of skin reception, kinesthesia, interoreception and visual sensations and forms body diagram. The mechanisms of formation of the body diagram have not yet been sufficiently studied, but it is the body diagram that is the “sensory source of personality,” as Sechenov puts it. When studying such a psychological phenomenon as the human self and when determining its structure, the primary level - the core of the “I” - includes the feeling of the existence of the body, which includes a complex of sensations and emotions. Thus, the connection between the sensory sphere and the subjective side of a person’s life, with the formation and development of his self-awareness, is obvious.

The most important factor influencing the level of sensitivity is the interaction of the analyzers. All analyzers do not function in isolation; they represent a single complex system, all parts of which are closely interconnected. The impact of a stimulus on any analyzer not only causes its reaction, but also leads to certain changes in all other analyzers.

It is known, for example, that color sensitivity increases when a person is simultaneously exposed to sound: sensitivity to red-orange colors decreases, and to green-blue colors increases (Kravkov’s data). The weak effect of side irritants (for example, wiping the face, hands, back of the head with cold water or slowly chewing a sweet and sour tablet) increases the sensitivity of night vision (Kekcheev). Mild pain increases the sensitivity of almost all analyzers. Thus, by influencing some analyzers, you can purposefully change the sensitivity level of others. In this case, the general rule may be the following: strong influences on any analyzer reduce the level of sensitivity of others, weak ones - even subthreshold stimuli - increase them.

Synesthesia - this is the occurrence, under the influence of irritation of one analyzer, of sensations characteristic of another analyzer. This phenomenon is especially clearly manifested and used in the effect of color music. Such famous artists as Scriabin and Ciurlionis had a “color” ear. In modern research, this effect is studied as crossmodal interaction and its variety - crossmodal transfer.

A person’s practical and cognitive activities have a huge impact on changes in sensitivity. In particular, in the process of professional activity there occurs sensitization , that is, an increase in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of exercise. It is known that grinders have a sharp increase in visual acuity and they see gaps up to 0.0005 mm, while untrained people see only up to 0.1 mm. Professional dyers distinguish up to 40 shades of black, and steelmakers can determine the melting temperature by the shades of the color of hot metal. In the process and under the influence of activity, first of all, difference, differential sensitivity changes. Absolute sensitivity is less amenable to training.

Human sensory organization - this term was first proposed by Ananyev in 1960. According to the scientist, sensory organization refers to the most important manifestations of the historical nature of man and to the fundamental phenomena of life activity associated with the deep layers of the structure of human development and personality. In this light, the currently widespread idea that sensory-perceptual processes belong to the lower mental functions and, constituting the periphery of the subject, are not part of its basic structure and are indifferent to the personality, is outdated.

The structure of sensory organization includes a system of constant inter-analyzer connections, the general composition of sensory reflection. The determining factors for the formation of sensory organization are the environment, lifestyle and way of life. These factors determine the ratio of types of reception in a given sensory organization and determine its core, that is, groups of analyzers specific to a given habitat. In fish, for example, such a nucleus consists of the lateral line organ and chemoreception. In monkeys, kinesthesia, the rudiments of active touch and vision form the sensory axis. The identification of the leading sensory organs that make up the sensory axis in animals is determined by species. In humans - individual characteristics, primarily characteristics of sensitivity, as well as characteristics of activity. In this regard, it is necessary to highlight such a property of sensory organization as sensitivity - sensitivity level of analyzers.

The level of sensitivity and the leading analyzing systems determine the individual characteristics of a person. The structure of a person's sensory organization is a condition for successful socialization. The formation of such qualities as impressionability, empathy, and observation is significantly related to sensory organization. In addition, sensory organization underlies the formation of human abilities for various types of activities. Knowing and taking into account the leading analyzing system is very important when communicating between people and organizing training, since the discrepancy between the methods of presenting information and its reception significantly complicates people's interaction and understanding. It is known that most teachers, for example, prefer visual presentation of information. At the same time, children whose leading sensory system is auditory or kinesthetic may experience significant difficulties.

In this sense, a tactile analyzer is universal. Numerous experiments have shown that touch, a short and light touch of the hand, powerfully reduces discomfort, reduces or even removes the barrier between the therapist and the client, and increases the activity and self-disclosure of the latter. Currently, this effect is actively used in psychotherapeutic practice, for example, within the framework of the so-called body-oriented psychotherapy.

Sensation disorders

Sensory disturbances are very numerous. However, in most cases, all observed mental disorders of sensations can be classified into one of three main groups: hyperesthesia, hypoesthesia and paresthesia.

Hyperesthesia - increased sensitivity to real ordinary or even weak influences. In these cases, both external and intero- and proprioceptive stimuli cause an extremely intense reaction due to a sharp decrease in the lower absolute thresholds of sensations. For example, the sound of a typewriter deafens the patient, a burning candle blinds, and a shirt adjacent to the body irritates so much that it seems to be made “of barbed wire,” etc. Such mental hyperesthesia is observed in neuroses, intoxication with certain substances (opiates, hashish, cyclodol, etc.), the initial stages of clouding of consciousness, and acute psychoses.

Hypesthesia - decreased sensitivity to real stimuli, increased lower absolute thresholds of sensations. In this case, the patient almost does not react to an injection, to a fly crawling on his face, etc. Reduced sensitivity to temperature stimuli can lead to accidents - burns and frostbite. In extreme cases of hypoesthesia, the analyzer is completely unable to respond to stimulation, and this phenomenon is called anesthesia. Anesthesia usually occurs with a complete anatomical interruption of one of the peripheral nerve trunks or destruction of the central part of the analyzer. Loss of sensation usually extends to tactile, pain and temperature sensitivity (total anesthesia) or only to certain types of it (partial anesthesia). Neurologists distinguish between radicular anesthesia, in which sensitivity in the zone of innervation of a certain dorsal root of the spinal cord is completely disrupted, and segmental anesthesia, in which disturbances occur in the zone of innervation of a certain segment of the spinal cord. In the latter case, anesthesia can be either total or dissociated, in which the absence of pain and temperature sensitivity is combined with the preservation of proprioceptive sensitivity, or vice versa. In some diseases, such as leprosy (leprosy), specific damage to skin receptors occurs with a subsequent weakening and loss of temperature, then pain, and then tactile sensitivity (proprioceptive sensitivity is preserved for the longest time during leprosy anesthesia).

During mental hypoesthesia and anesthesia, the corresponding analyzer is anatomically and physiologically formally preserved. In particular, hypoesthesia and anesthesia can be instilled in a person in a hypnotic sleep. Mental amblyopia (blindness), mental anosmia (insensitivity to smells), mental ageusia (loss of the sense of taste), mental deafness, mental tactile and pain anesthesia are often found in hysterical neurotic disorders. Within the framework of hysterical anesthesia, disorders of pain sensitivity of the “stockings and gloves” type have been described, i.e. from the point of view of neurologists, patients develop areas of insensitivity to pain with clear boundaries that do not correspond to the zones of innervation of certain roots or nerves.

Paresthesia. If hypoesthesia and hyperesthesia can be qualified as quantitative disorders of sensitivity, then paresthesia is associated with qualitative changes (distortion) of information coming from the receptor to the cortical part of the analyzer. Probably everyone knows about the sensations that arise from prolonged compression of a nerve by an uncomfortable position - “I rested my arm”, “I spent my time on my leg”. When conduction along the nerve is disrupted, sensations of “crawling goosebumps”, skin tightening, tingling, burning appear (these are peculiar fluctuations in the modality of sensation). Paresthesia is often a sign of neurological or vascular damage.

They are close to paresthesia and senestopathy, but they occupy an intermediate position with visceral hallucinations, because even less associated with any real irritation of the peripheral part of the analyzer. Senestopathies are vague, often migrating, very unpleasant and painful sensations that are projected inside the body (inside the bodily “I”): squeezing and stretching, rolling and trembling, “suction”, “sticking”, etc. They never have a clear localization, and patients are sometimes unable to even describe them correctly. Senestopathies occur in many mental illnesses.

Perception

Perception - the mental process of reflecting an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the totality of its properties and parts, based on sensations arising from them, but at the same time possessing certain characteristics that cannot be reduced to individual sensations.

If sensation is monomodal, then perception is polymodal. It is formed on the basis of the joint activity of a number of analyzers combined into a functional system. In this case, one of the analyzers plays a leading role in image formation.

Properties of perception

1. Subjectivity and integrity - the ability to perceive a holistic image of an object. The perception of an object is possible only if the object is isolated from the environment (the background on which it is located). At the same time, the subject and background are dynamic, this is especially clearly seen in dual images, the content of the image in which changes depending on what is taken for the background (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Perception of an object depending on the background

The background is usually unbounded and undefined. The figure is limited, relief, it has objectivity. The contrast between the object and the background and the unusualness of the object help to distinguish an object from the background. For example, on an X-ray of the lungs, a round shadow stands out much better against the background of a normal pulmonary pattern than against the background of a disseminated process. As studies by Zinchenko, Yarbus and others have shown, in the process of isolating an object from the background, micromovements of the eyes are made, as if “outlining” it along the contour, which also helps to isolate the object from the background.

2. Constancy- ensuring consistency in shape, color, size and other parameters of the objects we perceive. Perception preserves the size of certain objects, regardless of the distance and angle from which we look at them.

3. Selectivity- clearly stands out in the phenomenon of isolating a figure from the background. What is in the foreground and is perceived as concrete is a figure, everything else is the background. Perceived reality is always divided into two layers: a figure - a holistic image of an object and a background - an image of the space surrounding the object. What was a figure can merge with the background, something from the background can become a figure of perception.

4. Meaningful- indicates the connection between perception and thinking, with an understanding of the essence of objects. Images of perceived objects always have certain, semantic meanings, and this shows not only a close connection with thinking, but also the activity of perception.

5. Apperception of perception- indicates the connection between perception and personality, all past experiences of a person with his “I”.

The influence of an attitude on a person’s perception is also manifested in the phenomenon demonstrated in a huge number of experiments, when the same person is perceived as evil and cruel if the subjects are told in advance that the person depicted in the photograph is a criminal; as kind and courageous, if it is known in advance that this is a person of a humane profession who has committed a courageous act to save people’s lives.

The emotional state of a person has a great influence on perception. It is known, for example, that in a state of excitement time seems to speed up, while in a state of melancholy and depression it slows down. Patients in a state of depression are always pessimistic and anticipate a catastrophe; they tend to perceive even joyful events in black tones.

Thus, perception is an active process, the nature of which is influenced not only by the activity of the perceptual system, but also by the internal characteristics of the subject.

Complex forms of perception include perception of space, time perception, motion perception.

In the perception of time, a distinction is made between the perception of temporal duration and the perception of temporal sequence. The direct experience of time is caused by organic sensations and is associated with rhythmic processes in the body: pulse rate, breathing, etc. The assessment of the duration of time periods depends on the content of the activity: a time period filled with interesting, meaningful activities is subjectively assessed as short, that is, underestimated; empty ones, not filled with interesting activities, are rated as longer, that is, overestimated. (Everyone knows how endlessly boring lessons drag on at school.) The perception of time also depends on the attitude: when expecting unpleasant events, time flies quickly; but how tediously time creeps by if we are waiting for some pleasant event (meeting a loved one, for example). In memory it’s the other way around: the more filled out a period of time is, the longer it appears in memory.

The most important characteristic of time is its irreversibility. The perception of an irreversible sequence of events in time involves the establishment of connections between different segments and events of life

Based on sensation and perception, a more complex form of sensory reflection arises - performance.

Performance- a secondary sensory image of an object that does not currently affect the senses, but acted in the past (Lomov). Representations acquire a special role with the development of remote control systems, when the operator must imagine with a high degree of accuracy the processes occurring in the controlled system.

Representations can be considered as a transitional link between a sensory image (sensation, perception) and abstract thinking. Depending on the level of wakefulness and characteristics of activity, ideas, on the one hand, are included in memory, imagination, thinking (its figurative forms), on the other hand, they create dream images. Ideas accompany a person throughout his life: the image of a familiar person appears in our minds even when this person is no longer there; the image of our native places vividly appears before our mental gaze. What is common to all ideas is that the object or phenomenon no longer exists, but their reflection continues to develop. The flow of ideas unfolds in the “internal space, and is never carried outside. This distinguishes the idea from hallucinations, “when the internal image is “brought out.”

Perceptual disorders

In some pathological conditions, especially mental and nervous diseases, perceptual processes may be impaired. However, there are also perception deviations that can be observed in completely healthy people (for example, illusions). Perception disorders can be divided into three main groups: illusions, hallucinations and sensory synthesis disorders (psychosensory disorders).

Illusions. An illusion is a distorted perception of a really existing object or phenomenon. Illusions are classified according to the senses - visual, auditory, tactile and others. Depending on the main reasons underlying the distortion of perception, all illusions can also be divided into physical, physiological and mental.

Physical illusions are explained by objective physical laws and do not depend on the person himself. An example of a physical illusion that is also captured by a camera is the perception of a spoon in a glass of water. The spoon appears broken due to the different light-refracting properties of water and air.

Physiological illusions find their explanation in the peculiarities of the structure and activity of our sense organs. For example, try to press on the side of the eyeball, and immediately the object we are looking at will split into two. The splitting of an object occurs due to an increase in the disparity of its image on the retina of the eyes. Another example of this type of illusion is found in Aristotle: cross two fingers and start rolling a small ball between them, and it will appear double. When an object first comes into contact with the index finger and then with the middle finger, both contacts occur at different points in space that are familiar to us. Touching the index finger appears higher, although the finger is actually lower; touching the middle one is lower, although the finger is actually higher. There are many illusions of this kind on the part of the vestibular apparatus - illusions of roll, counter-rotation, and others.

Mental illusions are associated both with various mental states of a person, and with some psychological characteristics of our perception.

In diseases, mental illusions are observed most often in states of upset consciousness, during excitement (exaltation, ecstasy) in manic patients or states of fear and anxiety in depression. Their illusions are almost impossible to correct, and the patient is inclined to consider these errors of perception to be reality. Verbal illusions, when the patient hears abuse, threats and insults addressed to him instead of neutral speech, often occur in the early stages of the development of auditory verbal (speech) hallucinations in some psychoses. They differ from the so-called functional auditory hallucinations in that during illusions the pathologically arisen image absorbs the image of a real object (the patient “hears instead of...”); during hallucinations, the pathological image does not merge with the real one (“hears together with...”). .

In healthy people, against the background of various mental states (expectation, anxiety or fear), mental illusions also often arise. For example, when entering a room, a child will be frightened by a figure at the window, but will then laugh because he will see that he was frightened by the coat and hat hanging on the hanger. And if in every tree standing by the road we see the person we are waiting for, then we are also talking about mental illusions.

In order for the process of interpreting sensory information to reach the level of consciousness, special techniques are needed, and some of them have already been discussed earlier (simplification of the image, principles of grouping, contrasts, and others). Illusions are often caused by ambiguity of perception, which arises due to a lack of essential information or an excess of unimportant information in the image. Ambiguity of perception also arises in cases where several significant images can be extracted from the same image. For example, in the famous painting by the artist Salvador Dali “Slave Market with the Vanishing Bust of Voltaire” there are alternative ways of interpreting the depicted scene. In the very center of the picture there are two little nuns standing next to each other. But with a different perceptual organization of the picture, the faces of the nuns turn into Voltaire’s eyes, and their touching figures turn into a nose and chin. To some extent, these two ways of organizing visual information are incompatible: it is difficult to perceive both images at the same time.

In the experiment, illusions are used to study various aspects of the organization of the properties of the analyzer system. Visual illusions have often been used to supply ambiguous sensory information to the input of the visual system in order to identify the errors that the system makes and thereby reveal some of its hidden properties. Numerous facts and conditions of errors in perception are described - the illusion of the “arrow”, railway tracks, overestimation of vertical lines, intersections, concentric circles, “impossible figures” and others.

Visual illusions have also been found in animals. In particular, it is on their basis that various methods of camouflage and mimicry are formed. All these phenomena convince us that there are some common factors that cause illusions, and for many of them there is still no convincing interpretation.

Hallucinations. Hallucinations are perception disorders when a person, due to mental disorders, sees, hears, feels something that does not exist in reality. This is a perception that is said to be not based on an external object, otherwise it is an “imaginary, false perception.”

We can observe hallucinations in mental illness, as well as in healthy people in experiments with sensory isolation or when using certain drugs (hallucinogens); hallucinations can also be instilled in a person in deep hypnotic sleep.

Hallucinations are usually classified according to the senses: visual, auditory, olfactory, and others. In psychiatric diagnosis, great importance is attached to the division of hallucinations into true and false (pseudohallucinations).

True hallucinations are characterized by sensory clarity, they unfold in the real space of one or another analyzer and “patients not only think that they see and hear, but actually see and hear” (E. Kraepelin, 1909). The behavior of patients usually corresponds to the content of hallucinatory experiences, and they are convinced that the people around them see and hear the same things as they do.

Pseudo-hallucinations differ from true hallucinations in that they do not have complete sensory-bodily clarity of images, and this brings them closer to ideas. Patients talk about what they see and hear, adding “as if,” although they insist on the reality of their hallucinations. The pseudohallucinatory image unfolds in the imagined, or rather, intrapsychic (subjective) space of one or another analyzer, so patients can report the ability to “see” beyond the horizon or through opaque barriers, and also report sounds and human voices arising “inside the head.” Since false hallucinations are perceived as something subjective and very different from real images, the behavior of patients is almost always dissociated with the content of hallucinations. Pseudohallucinations indicate a more unfavorable course of mental illness; they often become protracted and chronic, and are accompanied by disturbances in thinking.

Sometimes, from the group of pseudohallucinations, extracampal hallucinations are separately distinguished, which are projected beyond the reach of the corresponding analyzer. At the same time, patients “see” behind them, behind the wall, and “hear” many hundreds of kilometers away.

In healthy people, against a background of fatigue or exhaustion, sometimes when falling asleep, visual or auditory hallucinations briefly appear, similar to pseudohallucinations, which are called hypnagogic because of their proximity to dreams (hypnopompic - the same thing, but noted at the moment of awakening).

Visual and auditory hallucinations are often divided into simple (photopsia - perception of flashes of light, stars, sparks; acoasmas - perception of sounds, noise, crackling, whistling, crying) and complex (verbal - perception of articulate speech).

With reflex hallucinations, the perceived real image is immediately accompanied by the appearance of a hallucinatory image similar to it (the patient hears a phrase - and immediately a phrase similar to it begins to sound in his head).

Apperceptive hallucinations (auditory or visual) appear after a corresponding volitional effort by the patient who wants to experience them.

Charles Bonnet hallucinations (visual, less often auditory) are observed when the peripheral part of the analyzer is damaged (in the blind, deaf), as well as during sensory deprivation or isolation (in prison, in a foreign language environment) in the field of the damaged or information-limited analyzer. They should be distinguished from hemianaptic hallucinations in the field of hemianopsia when the cortical end of the analyzer is damaged (tumor, trauma, vascular lesion).

Hallucinations that arise as a result of mental trauma are called psychogenic. They are divided into the following varieties:

Dominant (auditory and visual) with psychologically understandable content, reflecting mental trauma, and emotionally rich;

Eidetic (usually auditory), which tend to repeat themselves in a cliché-like manner (for example, the constant hallucinatory playback of funeral music and sobs at a funeral);

Hallucinations of Dupre's imagination, where the plot stems from hysterical dreams and fantasies;

Induced hallucinations occur according to the type of mutual suggestion and self-suggestion against the background of emotional stress;

Suggested hallucinations are often found in alcoholic delirium during the “lucid window” (daytime clearing of consciousness): Reichardt’s symptom (suggested reading on a blank sheet of paper), Aschaffenburg’s symptom (suggested imaginary conversation on a switched off telephone), Lipman’s symptom (suggested visual hallucinations after ten seconds of pressure on the eyeballs), etc.

Sensory synthesis disorders. Perception is a complex process of integration, synthesis of the image of a perceived object from sensory signals received through the senses from the external environment and one’s own body. In some conditions and diseases, we encounter various disturbances in the process of synthesis and integration of sensory information during perception. Typically, psychosensory disorders include two groups of disorders: derealization and “body schema” disorders.

Derealization - violation of sensory synthesis of information that comes from the outside world. From the association of sensory signals that take part in the formation of the image of external reality, something can “fall out”, change, and ultimately the world around us loses its sensory reality - it is distorted.

A person may lose the perception of the depth of space, and then everything around him is seen in a flat, two-dimensional image. Distortions of perception can also concern certain characteristics of an object - shape (metamorphopsia), size (increase - macropsia, decrease - micropsia) or others. With porropsia, the assessment of distance is impaired - it seems to the person that objects are further away than they actually are; in dysmegalopsia, the disturbance of perception concerns elongation, widening, slanting or twisting around the axis of surrounding objects.

Close to derealization are disorders when an ordinary, familiar environment is perceived as completely new (the phenomenon of “never seen” - jamais vu), or, conversely, a new environment (terrain, street, house) is perceived as well-known and familiar (the phenomenon of “already seen” - deja vu). Patients are especially concerned about distortions of time - its slowing down (bradychrony) or acceleration (tachychrony), as well as the loss of emotional components of perception of the environment - “everything has frozen, glazed over,” and “the world has become like a set.” Patients almost always maintain a critical attitude towards these disorders; they are alien to the individual and subjectively extremely unpleasant.

“Body schema” disorders are characterized by various symptoms of disturbances in the perception of one’s own body, peculiar sensations of increasing or decreasing weight, the size of the entire body or its parts (arms, legs, head). Disorders of the body diagram also include disturbances in the perception of the relationship between parts of the body: patients talk about the incorrect position of the ears, “twisting” of the body. The patient feels these changes only with his eyes closed, since under the control of vision all misconceptions about his body disappear.

Practical part

Methodology: Definition of the leading human sensory system.

For practical work with people, it is very important to determine the leading sensory system of a person, since this indicates the preferred channel of information perception (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which is of great importance in determining individual methods and means of presenting information in the process of communication (including therapeutic ), training, joint activities, family interaction, etc.

To determine the leading sensory system, the “Leading Sense Organ” (LSO) technique, proposed by Polish psychologists, translated by Efremtseva, is proposed. The technique is given according to the book: Kuleshova L.N. Psychology of ancient sensations. - St. Petersburg, 1999.

Equipment. Test takers are offered a standard form with questions.

Instructions to subjects. Read the questions carefully and in the questionnaire circle the numbers of those with which you agree.

Data processing and interpretation. Calculate the results, awarding 1 point for matching the key in each section.

Key for processing results.

The section in which the subject scored the most points determines the leading sensory system.

Test

1. The direct impact of an object or phenomenon on receptors is a mandatory feature of such cognitive processes as:

1. feeling
2. perception
3. thinking
4. imagination
5. attention

2. The integral result of the direct impact on a person of any stimuli (color, sound, chemical, etc.) is called:

1. perception;
2. perception;
3. feeling

3. Reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world is:

1. perception;
2. emotion;
3. sensation;
4. attention.

4. The main properties of sensations are the following, except:

1. modalities;
2. constancy;
3. intensity;
4. duration.

5. The minimum difference between stimuli that causes a difference in sensations is:

1. absolute lower threshold of sensations;
2. differential threshold;
3. absolute upper threshold;
4. spatial threshold.

6. A change in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of an active stimulus is:

1. sensitization;
2. adaptation;
3. synesthesia;
4. apperception.

7. The properties of perception include the following, except:

1. integrity;
2. structure;
3. reminiscences;
4. apperception.

8. Incorrect, distorted perception of an object or phenomenon currently acting on the senses is:

1. hallucination;
2. illusion;
3. reminiscence;
4. adaptation

9. When a person wears hard contact lenses, they really bother him, but over time he stops noticing them. What causes this?

1. adaptation;
2. sensitization;
3. reminiscence;
4. illusion.

10. The minimum magnitude of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called:

1. the absolute upper threshold of sensations
2. absolutely lower threshold of sensations (threshold of sensitivity)
3. pain threshold
4. differential threshold of sensations
5. operational threshold of sensations

11. Sensations associated with signals arising from irritation of receptors located in muscles, tendons, and joints are called:

1. exteroceptive
2. interoceptive
3. proprioceptive
4. endoceptive

12. Disorders of various types of sensations are called:

1. agnosia
2. hallucinations
3. sensory disorders
4. illusions

13. Sensations that have receptors located in the internal organs and reflect the state of the internal environment of the body are called:

1. interoceptive
2. proprioceptive
3. contact
4. distant

14. Sensations that reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment and have receptors on the surface of the body are called:

1. interoceptive
2. contact
3. distant
4. proprioceptive

15. Restore the sequence. Formation of sensations:

1. stimulus
2. sense organs
3. nerve pathways
4. corresponding brain center
5. feeling

16. Sensations whose receptors are located in ligaments, joints, and provide information about the movement and position of the body in space are called:

1. exteroceptive
2. interoceptive
3. proprioceptive
4. contact

17. Reduced sensitivity to real stimuli and an increased lower absolute threshold are:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypoesthesia
3. anesthesia
4. paresthesia

18. An increased lower absolute threshold of sensations leads to:

1. increased sensitivity
2. complete loss of sensitivity
3. decreased sensitivity
4. qualitative changes in sensitivity

19. The phenomenon in which the analyzer is completely unable to respond to stimulation is called:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypoesthesia
3. anesthesia
4. paresthesia

20. Qualitative changes (distortions) of information coming from the receptor to the cerebral cortex are:

1. hyperesthesia
2. hypoesthesia
3. hallucinations
4. paresthesia

21. The mental process of reflecting an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the totality of its properties and parts, is called:

1. emotions
2. feeling
3. perception
4. thinking

22. The mental process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the senses is:

1. feeling
2. perception
3. thinking
4. installation

23. The phenomenon of identifying a “figure from the background” characterizes what property of attention?

1. integrity
2. selectivity
3. constancy
4. meaningfulness

24. Situation: the patient looks at a picture of glasses and thinks: “What is this? ...a circle and another circle...and a crossbar, it’s probably a bicycle.” What is disrupted in this patient’s perception?

1. integrity of perception
2. selectivity of perception
3. constancy of perception
4. apperception

25. The property of perception, which ensures relative constancy in shape, color, size and other parameters of the objects we perceive, is:

1. apperception
2. constancy
3. objectivity
4. meaningfulness

26. The connection between perception and a person, his past experience, is called

1. constancy
2. sensitivity
3. apperception
4. meaningfulness

27. A distorted perception of a really existing object or phenomenon is called

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

28. Disorders of perception, when a person sees, hears, feels something that does not exist in reality:

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

29. Violation of sensory synthesis of information that comes from the external world and leads to a distortion of perception is called:

1. hallucinations
2. derealization
3. illusions

30. The preferred channel of information perception (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which is of great importance in determining individual methods and means of presenting information in the process of communication, learning, joint activities, etc., is called:

1. apperception of perception
2. sensitivity range
3. rational form of knowledge
4. leading sensor system

They are closely related to each other. Both one and the other are the so-called sensory reflection of objective reality, existing independently of consciousness and due to its influence on the senses: this is their unity. But perception- awareness of a sensory given object or phenomenon; in perception, a world of people, things, and phenomena are usually spread out before us, filled with a certain meaning for us and involved in diverse relationships. These relationships create meaningful situations, of which we are witnesses and participants. Feeling same - a reflection of a separate sensory quality or undifferentiated and non-objectified impressions of the environment. In this last case, sensations and perceptions are distinguished as two different forms or two different relations of consciousness to objective reality. Sensations and perceptions are thus one and different. They make up: the sensory-perceptual level of mental reflection. At the sensory-perceptual level we are talking about those images that arise from the direct impact of objects and phenomena on the senses.

The concept of sensations

The main source of our knowledge about the external world and our own body is sensations. They constitute the main channels through which information about the phenomena of the external world and the states of the body reaches the brain, giving a person the opportunity to navigate the environment and his body. If these channels were closed and the senses did not bring the necessary information, no conscious life would be possible. There are known facts that indicate that a person deprived of a constant source of information falls into a sleepy state. Such cases: occur when a person suddenly loses sight, hearing, smell, and when his conscious sensations are limited by some pathological process. A result close to this is achieved when a person is placed for some time in a light and soundproof chamber, isolating him from external influences. This state first induces sleep and then becomes difficult for the subjects to bear.

Numerous observations have shown that disruption of the flow of information in early childhood, associated with deafness and blindness, causes sharp delays in mental development. If children born blind-deaf or deprived of hearing and vision at an early age are not taught special techniques that compensate for these defects through the sense of touch, their mental development will become impossible and they will not develop independently.

As will be described below, the high specialization of the various sense organs is based not only on the structural features of the peripheral part of the analyzer - the “receptors”, but also on the highest specialization of the neurons that make up the central nervous apparatus, which receive signals perceived by the peripheral sense organs.

Reflex nature of sensations

So, sensations are the initial source of all our knowledge about the world. Objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called stimuli, and the impact of stimuli on the senses is called irritation. Irritation, in turn, causes excitation in the nervous tissue. The sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex nature.

The physiological mechanism of sensations is the activity of special nervous apparatus called.

1. a peripheral section called the receptor (the receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
2. afferent or sensory nerves (centripetal), conducting excitation to the nerve centers (central section of the analyzer);
3. the cortical sections of the analyzer, in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs.

The cortical part of each analyzer includes an area that represents a projection of the periphery in the cerebral cortex, since certain cells of the periphery (receptors) correspond to certain areas of the cortical cells. For sensation to arise, the entire analyzer as a whole must work. The analyzer is not a passive receiver of energy. This is an organ that reflexively rearranges itself under the influence of stimuli.

Physiological studies show that sensation is not at all a passive process; it always includes motor components. Thus, observations using a microscope of an area of ​​skin carried out by the American psychologist D. Neff made it possible to verify that when it is irritated by a needle, the moment the sensation occurs is accompanied by reflexive motor reactions of this area of ​​the skin. Subsequently, numerous studies have established that each sensation includes movement, sometimes in the form of a vegetative reaction (vasoconstriction, galvanic skin reflex), sometimes in the form of muscle reactions (turning the eyes, tension in the neck muscles, motor reactions of the hand, etc. .). Thus, sensations are not passive processes at all - they are active. The reflex theory of sensations consists of indicating the active nature of all these processes.

Classification of sensations

It has long been customary to distinguish between five main types (modalities) of sensations: smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. A.R. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic And genetic(in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity or level of their construction, on the other).

Systematic classification of sensations

By identifying the largest and most significant groups of sensations, they can be divided into three main types; interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensations. The first combine signals reaching us from the internal environment of the body; the latter provide information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide regulation of our movements; finally, still others provide signals from the external world and create the basis for our conscious behavior. Let's consider the main types of sensations separately.

Interoceptive sensations, signaling the state of the internal processes of the body, bring to the brain irritations from the walls of the stomach and intestines, the heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. This is the most ancient and most elementary group of sensations. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensations and always retain their proximity to emotional states.

Proprioceptive sensations provide signals about the position of the body in space and constitute the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. Peripheral receptors of proprioceptive sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and have the form of special nerve bodies (Paccini bodies). The excitations that arise in these bodies reflect the sensations that occur when muscles are stretched and the position of joints changes. In modern physiology and psychophysiology, the role of proprioception as the afferent basis of movements in animals was studied in detail by A. A. Orbeli, P. K. Anokhin, and in humans - by N. A. Bernstein. The described group of sensations includes a specific type of sensitivity called the feeling of balance, or static sensation. Their peripheral receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.

The third and largest group of sensations are exteroreceptive sensations. They bring information from the outside world to a person and are the main group of sensations that connect a person with the external environment. The entire group of exteroceptive sensations is conventionally divided into two subgroups: contact and distant sensations.

Contact sensations are caused by an impact directly applied to the surface of the body and the corresponding perceived organ. Examples of contact sensation are taste and touch.

Distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the sense organs at some distance. These senses include smell and especially hearing and vision.

Genetic classification of sensations

1. protopathic(more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.);
2. epicritic(more subtly differentiating, objectified and rational), which includes the basic human senses.

Epicritic sensitivity is younger in genetic terms, and it controls protopathic sensitivity.

General properties of sensations

Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization.

Quality- this is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type of sensation. The qualitative diversity of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of matter movement.

Intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.

Duration sensations are its temporary characteristics. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity.

When a stimulus acts on a sense organ, the sensation does not arise immediately, but after some time - the so-called latent (hidden) period of sensation. The latent period of different types of sensations is not the same: for example, for tactile sensations it is 130 ms; for pain - 370, and for taste - only 50 ms.

Just as a sensation does not arise simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of its action. The presence of positive sequential images explains why we do not notice breaks between successive frames of a film: they are filled with traces of the frames that acted before - sequential images from them. The consistent image changes over time, the positive image is replaced by a negative one. With colored light sources, the sequential image turns into a complementary color.