Physical and chemical properties of limestone. Calcium oxide

LIMESTONE IS THE BASIS FOR SOIL AND PLANT HEALTH

LIMESTONE (CaCO3) – NEW POWER OF MINERAL

Preface 3

General information about limestone 4

History of limestone use 4

Types of limestone 6

Limestone as fertilizer in agriculture 7

Impact of limestone 8 Thoughtful provision of limestone is the basis of any 10 fertilization of soil and plants Types of effects of limestone 11 Soil-physical 12 Soil-chemical 15 Plant-biological 19 Plant-physiological 20 Transpiration 22 Photosynthesis 24 Calcium 26 Qualitative signs of calcium 30 Current level of science and technology 31 Conclusion 36

Preface:

This brochure is primarily a reminder. When working on it for the purpose of information support for the use of PANAGRO on the soil of Ukraine, it was found that centuries of knowledge and experience about the action of limestone as a natural fertilizer among agronomists, scientists, large agricultural companies, as well as private farmers, undeservedly went into oblivion. More than 50 years of planned “fertilization” of the soil, a huge selection of alternative methods for “one-time improvement” of its quality, have only contributed to a shift away from the use of natural resources.

And despite the fact that the soil of Ukraine is considered one of the most fertile, productivity indicators are far from reaching their possible potential.

Most soils in Ukraine, as well as those in eastern Europe, indicate massive degradation (collapse of soil structures) due to compaction.

For decades, without regard to the consequences, the land was cultivated with heavy machinery, which led to its destruction. In addition, many agricultural enterprises, due to lack of funds and lack of necessary knowledge, almost universally used the wrong dosage of fertilizers. The result: soils are acidic, minimally structured and highly compacted.

With the help of ordinary natural rock - limestone, the situation can be significantly improved if we remember and apply our long-existing knowledge about this. We ourselves were surprised while working on this brochure how vital limestone is for the soil, plant health, and, ultimately, for excellent harvests and profits.

An optimal supply of limestone to the soil is the basis for successful farming, both from an economic and environmental point of view...

We have made an attempt to look at limestone fertilization from a modern perspective, and hope that this will provide support and a source of information for carrying out fertilization activities in accordance with each specific soil type. We tried to describe the variety of effects of limestone fertilizers, as well as their types, with the main advantages and recommendations for use, and, in fact, for carrying out the fertilization process. Thus, we invite you to consider the agronomic and economic aspects.

Jurgen and Natalya Brausewetter, PANAGRO LLC, Simferopol, Crimea, 2011.

CALCIUM:

For element No. 20 in the periodic table, and, accordingly, its compounds, two designation methods are used in writing: CALCIUM or KALZIUM.

The name comes from the Latin word “calx”, and from the Greek - “chalix”, for limestone rock,

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By heating stone limestone, burnt limestone is obtained. Limestone is the oldest building material. Excavations of ancient settlements are replete with finds of limestone mortars previously used for construction. Finds in Anatolia, for example, date back to 12,000 BC.

Many living things use calcium compounds to build their skeletons.

The bones of the human skeleton consist of 40% of the calcium compound hydroxylapatite, even up to 95% of the dental bone, and, due to this, it is the hardest material in our body. In general, the human body contains between 1 and 1.1 kg of calcium.

Calcium is a vital component of all living matter, participating in the growth of foliage, bones, teeth and muscles. Along with K+, Na+ - Ca2+ plays a critical role in the transmission of impulses at nerve endings. Also, in other cells, calcium ions perform the most important task of transporting signals.

History of limestone use

Limestone and marble have been mined and processed since ancient times. The Pyramid of Cheops, whose height reaches 137 m, is built from 2 million massive stone blocks, namely from stone limestone. Even the Bible contains references to “lime mortar” and “lime white.” The Greek philosopher Theoprastus (c. 327 BC) reported on the burning of limestone to produce building stone and on the preparation of lime mortars. The Latin word "calx" is found as early as the reign of Gaius Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD). The Romans, who used limestone as a building material in Germany, brought the kiln technique to a large industrial standard.

Limestone was previously the most important raw material for making mortars. Slaked limestone is used as a fertilizer, for making wall paints, or as a frost protection agent for fruit trees.

Lime milk (an aqueous solution of slaked limestone) served to combat harmful insects. If you filter lime milk, you get a clear solution of lime water, which in laboratories is used to determine the presence of carbon dioxide in solutions, at which point the solution again takes on a whitish color.

As a result of the multifaceted existence of limestone forms, its basic substance was discovered much later. Erasmus Bartholinus undertook physical experiments on lime spar in 1669, and only in 1804 did Buchholz carry out a correct chemical analysis. Today, chemists call this basic substance calcium carbonate, mineralologists call it calcite or, in case of a change in structure, aragonite. Geologists designate stones consisting of a basic substance as lithic limestone or marble.

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Almost one third of the production of the entire limestone industry is sent to Germany for the metal processing industry, where it is used for high-quality processing of iron ore, raw iron and rolled metal products.

New applications are constantly emerging.

The modern demand for limestone can be roughly divided into the following groups:

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LIMESTONE IS DIVIDED INTO TYPES

CALCIUM CARBONATE

Calcium carbonate is a carbonate consisting of carbon dioxide salts and, in a solid state, from a network of Ca2+ ions and CO32 ions in a 1:1 ratio.

LIME STONE

CALCITE

CALCIUM OXIDE

CALCIUM HYDROXIDE

BUILDING LIMESTONE

LIMESTONE AS A FERTILIZER IN AGRICULTURE

Fertilizer is a collective concept for materials and their mixtures, which in agriculture serve to ensure that plants receive as many nutrients as possible. In most cases, after fertilization measures, high yields are obtained in a shorter period of time. The basic principles of fertilization correspond to Liebig's law of minimization and the law of reduction in growth.

Fertilizers are divided into:

Mineral

Organic

Mineral-organic Mineral fertilizers are offered as mono or multi nutrients.

Fertilizers that contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are called complete fertilizers (NPK). Also, such fertilizers may contain sulfur, calcium, magnesium and trace elements. They are often called fertilizers with dispersed elements.

There are regular and leaf fertilizers.

The sometimes used expression: "artificial fertilizer" is used erroneously.

We are talking about synthetic fertilizers made from organic and/or chemical substances. However, this concept is often incorrectly applied to mineral fertilizers in general, probably due to the misconception that only mineral fertilizers are synthesized.

The purpose of fertilizer is to provide the plant with nutrients and promote its growth.

And what happens to the soil? What is the general condition of the soil?

Often, fertilized soil without the use of limestone is characterized by the following parameters:

Increased acidity (pH level is not optimal)

High compaction (the volume of the useful layer is too small)

Reduced humus content, etc.

As a result:

Plants suffer from watery, swollen cells

Metabolic disease

Small stature

Increased number of pests, etc.

Reduced yield by up to 30%, increased water consumption and soil cultivation costs. In general, there is a load on the environment (soil, water and air), the number of beneficial organisms decreases, and the entire ecosystem suffers:

Atrophied plant supply (lack of nutrients, e.g. nitrogen and phosphate)

Presence of pesticides in soil and groundwater

Soil compaction (due to the use of heavy equipment) and disruption of its microfauna

Increased soil erosion (due to compaction)

Increased need for humus (due to a shortening of the fruit ripening period)

Accumulation of harmful substances also outside the agricultural food chain (wild flora and fauna)

Increase in the number of diseases and pests in cultivated plants

Increasing the resistance of pathogens to antibiotics and the resistance of pests to pesticides

Declining species diversity, not only in cultivated plants and domestic animals, but also in the wild

Saturation of products of plant and animal origin with low-value and dangerous substances (eg: pesticides, nitrates, antibiotics, hormones, sedatives)

Reduction in the content of nutrients (eg: increase in water content due to the use of artificial fertilizers, decrease in the amount of minerals, vitamins and aromatic substances)

Reducing the shelf life of agricultural products

Poisoning of people involved in agriculture with pesticides (according to the WTO, there were more than 20,000 deaths worldwide in the late 1980s)

Increased energy and fuel consumption, and as a result - increased CO2 emissions

IMPACT OF LIMESTONE

Direct fertilization with limestone or limestone fertilizers refers to an activity aimed at increasing (regulating) the pH level of the soil due to the distribution of lime flour or slaked limestone in it. Fertilizing the soil with limestone serves to reduce the acidity of the soil and to maintain and increase its fertility, as well as to ensure the supply of useful substances to plants (limestone loosens the soil).

Due to the increasing intensity of acid precipitation (acid rain), limestone fertilization is gaining increasing importance and benefit.

The importance of limestone fertilization for agricultural soil has been identified for a long time. Limestone has a physical and chemical effect on the soil and successful farming without it is unthinkable. Humus, thanks to limestone, decomposes in such a way that nitrogen first turns into ammonia, which, in turn, turns into nitric acid. Limestone retains minerals in the soil, which has a positive effect on the growth and development of plants. Thanks to limestone, the acidity of the soil decreases and its temperature increases, toxic iron is processed, and heavy and dense soil is loosened. The increased calcium content in plants, necessary for their growth, is beneficial for animals and people who consume such plants and feed.

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To understand why limestone is generally a fertilizer and is able to withstand all negative phenomena for plants, it is necessary to consider its influence and classification of effects:

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TYPES OF IMPACT OF LIMESTONE

A) Physical impact on the soil Thanks to the accumulation of calcium ions in particles of clay and humus, the soil structure is stabilized, which contributes to a better supply of moisture and air to the soil (fermentation). This in turn reduces the risk of hardening or silting and prevents erosion. Plant roots can grow more easily in the soil and the plants thereby receive more nutrients. An increase in soil volume per unit area leads to more space for moisture saturation and vital activity of vital microorganisms.

B) Chemical effects on soil The availability of nutrients in the soil is highly dependent on the pH level. Due to low or too high pH levels, nutrients in the soil may be unavailable to plants. Limestone regulates soil pH levels by neutralizing acids.

C) Biological effects on soil The life process in soil occurs at a slightly acidic or neutral pH level. This leads to the fact that improving the structure of the soil contributes to the normalization of its vital processes. Remains from past harvests are processed faster, i.e.

turn into valuable humus. The level of phosphate in plants increases and the release of nitrogen from organic fertilizers improves, which directly contributes to an increase in the biological activity of plants.

D) Physiological effect on plants Better solubility of nutrients. The chemical effect of limestone is to neutralize the acids that arise and exist in the soil. If the acids are not neutralized, the pH level will drop. Since plants can only absorb nutrients in a dissolved state, and most nutrients are dissolved at a pH level between 5.5 and 7.0, at very low pH levels the availability of essential nutrients will be limited or impossible.

Let's look at these types of impacts in more detail:

A) Physical impact - limestone and soil structure The presence of a soil layer is one of the most important features of soil fertility.

This determines the presence and location of hollow spaces and solid particles of earth. The structure of the soil is characterized primarily by the size and shape of the mineral and organic components of the soil. The concept of soil structure is often replaced and is limited to considering the soil as an arable layer of soil. The presence of moisture, air and heat, as well as its mechanical characteristics, depend on the presence of the soil layer. The structure of the soil has the greatest influence on the development of plants, especially during the period of origin and the first stage of their growing season. However, the ability of the soil to be processed and machinery to move along it is also interconnected with the future harvest.

Without sufficient calcium saturation of the soil exchanger (60 - 80%), the clay particles first form an edge-to-edge profile in such a way that they can then transform into a coherent bond. In this form of occurrence, clay particles “stick together” and form a dense surface structure in such a way that moisture and gas exchange are greatly inhibited.

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Edge-edge (volume but unstable structure) Thanks to limestone, not only the clay particles are secured, but the structures are also secured to each other. Calcium ions also accumulate on humus particles. Thus, limestone forms a bridge between particles of clay and humus, resulting in the so-called clay-humus complex.

Image 4: Scheme of limestone-clay-humus bridge

Limestone creates stable porous systems, improves the exchange of moisture and air. Through loosening and bridging, aggregate bundles are stabilized and larger aggregates are built. Thus, the number of air-conducting coarse pores increases, and the construction of an entire pore system, consisting of coarse pores, medium and small pores filled with moisture, is determined. This helps improve the exchange of moisture and air, reduces the fluidity of surface water, thereby reducing the risk of siltation and soil erosion. In the presence of heavy rainfall, the carrying capacity of soil fertilized with limestone is much higher than that of soil untreated with limestone.

Bleeding time from 50mm WS per minute

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Thanks to the stable structure of the soil, its load-carrying capacity increases and compaction decreases. At the same time, a good exchange of air and heat in the soil leads to the fact that it dries out and warms up faster. A field fertilized with limestone can be worked with machinery earlier in the spring. The time intervals for tillage and sowing can be better varied, the work stages can be optimally planned. You can also influence the growth phase, thereby planning its most important areas for the most favorable weather conditions.

Improved soil structure thanks to limestone promotes earlier drying.

In longer droughts, the stabilizing effect of limestone causes multiple small aggregates to form as they dry out. Soil provided with limestone dries out less, and fewer cracks and large splits occur. The mechanical stress on the plant roots is thus reduced and the soil remains relaxed. Soil well fertilized with limestone is easier to cultivate, with less use of machinery and fuel. On particularly large sites, savings on fuel and equipment operation alone can amount to up to 100,000 EUR.

Reduced need for force on fertilized limestone fields

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Limestone regulates pH levels and neutralizes harmful acids. If the acids in the soil are not neutralized, the pH level decreases to a greater or lesser extent. This leads to structural and acidic damage, which is primarily visible due to the excess presence of aluminum and manganese in the clay (pH level of 4.3). Limestone neutralizes destructive acids and prevents a widespread phenomenon after winter,

Soil oxidation.

Limestone improves nutrient levels. Plant roots can only absorb beneficial (and harmful) nutrients in a soluble state. For optimal plant nutrition, not only the quantity, but also the actual solubility of nutrients in the soil is decisive.

Access to nutrients from cultivated crops Strongly acidic – acidic – slightly acidic – pH-neutral – slightly alkaline – alkaline – strongly alkaline soils Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Sulfur Magnesium Iron Manganese Thief Copper and zinc Molybdenum Slow oxidation of the soil initially has no effect on the development and growth of plants. However, the lack of nutrients is very pronounced, which has been repeatedly proven by many experiments.

Most nutrients are optimally soluble at a soil pH of 5.5 to 7.0. As the pH level increases, the availability of nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and molybdenum (Mo) also increases. The solubility of micronutrients such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) is reduced such that at a pH level of 7.0 some of them will be deficient.

In particular, the presence of phosphate reacts very clearly to lower pH levels.

The best solubility of soil phosphates is between pH 6 and pH 7. Below pH 5.5, solubility decreases significantly. In repeated field tests, it was found that only through timely fertilization with limestone can the solubility of phosphates be increased by 100%.

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The influence of pH level on the content of UPV (useful nutrients) in arable soil.

Thanks to the optimal supply of calcium to plants, the available substances in the soil are better used by plants, which reduces additional costs for fertilizing with these substances. The effectiveness of beneficial substances increases.

Taking into account the environmental demands placed on farmers by society, a high degree of efficiency from the use of nitrogen and phosphorus is essential. An example is the instructions for the use of artificial fertilizers, which reduce nitrogen consumption (60 kg/ha).

Farms whose soils do not contain optimal pH levels cannot meet these requirements.

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Carbonated limestone - burnt limestone The effect of limestone fertilizer on the yield on the example of sugar beets and wheat Consequences of soil oxidation Soil oxidation worsens, first of all, plants' access to nutrients and inhibits the development of the root system and, thereby, worsens the hydroponics of the soil.

Effect of soil oxidation:

inhibition of soil activity, such as the life of worms, and the formation of humus; significant deterioration in crumbling stability, structural damage, siltation; decreased ability to exchange cations, and, based on this, greater leaching of absorbent cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium; decreased availability of beneficial nutrients substances, primarily molybdenum and phosphorus, as well as weak absorption of potassium and magnesium from the soil.

increased formation of phosphates and the release of aluminum, magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, chromium and boron.

poor growth of clover due to low activity of tuber bacteria; decreased soil nitration; decreased growth of the root system, and thus moisture retention; increased moisture and, as a result, compaction of especially heavy soil; on soils with high acidity and leaching of cations (especially calcium) there is a danger of soil compaction to a much greater extent than on permanently planted soils with a very dense root system. Therefore, the effect of free (not bound by carbonate) calcium, aimed at restoring soil structure, is very important for the condition of the soil.

C) The biological impact of limestone is life-creating. Microorganisms, such as bacteria, mites, centipedes and, above all, earthworms, are the most important component of the soil, which has a direct impact on the entire diversity of the processing process. The process of reproduction and vital activity of microorganisms is carried out optimally in soil with a neutral pH level. Only in well-fertilized soil with limestone do these important “helpers” find optimal conditions for their life activity. There they can quickly multiply and recycle soil organic matter, constantly producing humus.

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Optimal pH level for various soil organisms In acidic soils, the life of microorganisms is inhibited. This may result in slower processing of straw and organic fertilizers.

The course of the rotting process with a large amount of straw depends on the standard typical pH level (pH class C), since there is a danger of new seeds not germinating due to undecomposed straw.

Earthworms are responsible for the formation of clumps and tunnels in the soil, which are essential for the development of the pore system. The vital activity of microbes increases in the presence of limestone, and soil formation processes are accelerated.

Increased microbial activity leads to the saturation of the soil with micromolecular organic compounds, which in turn leads to branching and gluing of soil colloids, and thus has a positive effect on the increase and stability of soil aggregates. As the soil condition approaches pH class C, mineralization, i.e. the processing of organic substances and the supply of beneficial nutrients to plants (eg nitrogen and sulfur) is at its optimum.

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D) Physiological effects on plants Plants are constantly exposed to weather conditions, grow on saline soils and soils overloaded with heavy substances, and repel attacks by pests and diseases: plants also suffer from stress. To withstand all the complexities of life, nature has endowed plants with the smallest micromolecular building blocks to create an anti-stress program. For example, there are molecules that work like doors, elegantly removing destructive elements from cells.

Another example is a protein, which, like a crab, takes poisonous substances into its “claws” and thereby prevents harm. The prerequisite for all this is perfectly functioning transpiration.

Plants have no blood circulation. And until now, the ability of plants to isolate hormones that do not correspond to the system has not been identified. There is also no central nervous system.

The central, but only, process occurring in plants is photosynthesis. An important role is played by the processes of growth, reactions of various organs to changes in the environment and intracellular transport of substances.

Plants cannot “escape” from heat, frost, drought and flood. They cannot “hide” from pests, viruses, bacteria or fungi. Plants have no choice but to “defend themselves” by standing still. To do this, they developed special strategies. The most important key element of the defense strategy is embedded in their development: the incredible ability to regenerate. If the plant is damaged, it begins to produce protective material to “heal the wound”, and soon the growth process resumes. All plant organs, as genetically embedded in them, can be reproduced in a new, identical modular form. An increasing number of seeds with their “thoughtful”

a form that guarantees the successful settlement of new living spaces, carry with them all the abilities to survive. Plants were able to overcome such a feature as sedentism by being able to adapt to local conditions.

Over the entire period of its development, each plant has developed a number of “constitutive” defense mechanisms. In addition to this, there are many more "inductive" functions, i.e. protective factors against stress agents.

For humans, plant defense strategies are especially important when it comes to cultivated plants. Modern agriculture mainly creates high-productivity varieties that guarantee maximum yields. In the process of breeding highly productive varieties, unfortunately, plants often “forget the old” protective mechanisms.

Old agricultural varieties very often show high resistance to various pests, but are less productive. From the point of view of modern biotechnology, plants are bioreactors powered by solar energy. The product of these "bioreactors" can become a natural source of materials such as oil from seeds, sugar from sugar beets, or starch from potatoes and various grain varieties.

For a plant “bioreactor” to work well, two factors must be present: optimal performance with minimal interference.

bs = binding boundary xy = xylem ph = phloem sp = slit opening (graminium type) At first glance, two features are noticeable that distinguish plants from most animals: a mechanically strong cell wall and a large honeycomb space (space of cell sap) surrounded by a membrane (tonoplast). or vacuole), which, although located outside the “living” plasma, are still of central importance for the work of each individual cell and for the metabolism of the plant as a whole.

Cellular centers for the accumulation and processing of poisons

From the leaves that produce carbon hydrate to the places where beneficial nutrients are consumed - such as roots or inflorescences - salts and nutrients are constantly moving. Here two types of “pipelines” cooperate. One type is responsible for transporting organic substances, it is called phloem.

Another type moves ions and water and is called xylem. In practice, both systems have assigned specific tasks to each other, but it is often difficult to distinguish between them. The decisive thing is that despite all the built-in regulatory processes for the movement of substances, cells need their own storage spaces in order to protect against possible fluctuations in the supply of nutrients. An important task is performed by vacuoles. They accumulate nutrients, such as sugar and amino acids. Toxic compounds also accumulate in vacuoles, which can be the plant’s own protective agent against rodents and pests, such as alkaloids. There are also certain ions that harm the metabolic process in the cytosol.

The variety of cellular tasks of the plant vacuole is obvious: the reaction to stress, for example, the accumulation of sodium ions at a high load of salts on the soil, cannot be separated from other important functions, such as the accumulation of nutrients and potassium and calcium ions, which are very important for plant growth. The vacuole of each cell must meet both of these requirements.

Despite everything, the plant continues to grow and develop, passing various types of nutrients through the cells and communicating between them. For this purpose, accordingly, there are regulatory molecules - effectors. There are at least six classes of molecules.

Transpiration Transpiration means, on the one hand, the evaporation of water through the openings of the mouths in the leaves of plants, on the other hand, it is the release of perspiration through the openings - excess evaporation, also called hyperhidrosis.

The volume of fluid transpired is determined by the types of transpiration. In botany, two types of transpiration are distinguished: stoma and cuticle.

The plant controls the openings of the stomata through the action of calcium.

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Since the surface of the leaves is dense, water, for example, simply flows off the protective layer. But still, the plant must exchange gases with the environment, such as releasing steam or receiving carbon dioxide from the air. For this purpose, holes are usually used on the back of the leaves. They establish a connection between the outside air and the air systems inside the leaf.

Holes are not just holes in fabric, but complexly constructed structures, the opening and closing of which depends on factors such as light, temperature and humidity. There are from 100 to 1000 holes per square millimeter. During normal opening, about one to two percent of the surface is involved, but thanks to this, the most important work of gas exchange with the environment occurs.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

At first, the scientific concept of photosynthesis was limited to the production of organic substances using light energy. This definition appears directly in its name. From Greek "photo" means

Light, and “synthesis” – connection.

Plant photosynthesis All plants have the ability to photosynthesize, including almost all algae and some bacteria. However, knowledge about photosynthesis is of interest not only to science. A person can use it very specifically for economic purposes, for example in greenhouses. In a simplified way, we can formulate that as part of the process of photosynthesis, light energy is absorbed under the influence of certain dyes (light-absorbing chlorophyll) and, as a result, is processed into chemical energy, which is necessary for certain organisms to live.

The course of photosynthesis Upon closer examination, photosynthesis occurs in three stages, separate from each other.

At the first stage, a living organism, let’s take a green plant for simplicity, with the help of an appropriate dye, absorbs the electromagnetic energy contained in the light. The coloring substance responsible for this is chlorophyll. This green dye gave the flora its green color. It can be roughly said that every green plant engages in photosynthesis. This collection of energy occurs through the leaves, which is why all plants stretch their leaves towards the sun.

At the second stage, solar energy is converted into chemical energy using a complex chemical conversion process. This process is also called phototrophy, i.e. direct use of solar energy as a source of energy by certain living organisms. Initially, the chemical and organic energy thus released firstly ensures the growth of plants, and secondly is transformed within the framework of metabolism within the plant. The interesting thing is that this process occurs with the help of carbon dioxide (CO2). It is converted into oxygen during the process of photosynthesis, which further increases the importance of photosynthesis for human life.

The CO2 present in the plant is very important and essential for calcium.

CO2 in the plant and the transition of CaCO3 to CaO and CO2 Calcium carbonate (CaCo3) can, as already mentioned, be broken down by acid. It cannot be soluble in water, otherwise limestone mountains would never have arisen. In nature, carbon dioxide is very important. Oxonium ions arising in the hydrogen-carbonate equation can react with carbonate ions. Ca2+ ions fall out of the crystalline network.

Intracellular CO2 found in soil and plants breaks down calcium carbonate CaCo3 into CaO and CO2. This independent breakdown and production of CO2 supports and increases the process of photosynthesis so much that the plant does not need to search for energy, but can concentrate on what is essential: growth. The more CO2 there is, the more advanced the calcium equilibrium calculation is.

However, this effect occurs only when fertilizing the upper above-ground part of the plant - and only if calcium penetrates into the leaf thanks to the smallest fraction of CaCO3 (from 0.1 to 96 µm).

It is impossible to store calcium in reserve.

Since photosynthesis accelerates in bright light, the plant's need for CO2 also increases. This is usually done through a hole in the stomata (stomata), since only CO2 can enter the leaf. If there is enough CO2, fewer stomata open, which again causes the plant to lose less moisture.

Photosynthesis occurs in most plants in the presence of CO2 in the air at a rate of 0.03% only suboptimally. The maximum result is achieved with a dosage 13 times higher, i.e. at a content of 0.4% Vol CO2.

Thanks to the spraying of PANAGRO, the intensity of photosynthesis increases. This is precisely the difference between our product and others. PANAGRO is proof that the simplest is the best.

Until now, CO2 has been a limiting factor and limited the process of photosynthesis in nature, and thereby the growth of plants. According to this minimalist principle, providing plants with CO2 was the key to success.

Since photosynthesis accelerates in bright light, the plants' need for CO2 also increases. Usually this process is regulated by slits in the stomata.

When there is enough CO2 inside the plants, fewer stomata open, which leads to the plant holding less moisture... Stomata on a tomato leaf Broken calcium plays many roles, even in activating enzymes, regulating the movement of water at the intracellular level of the plant, and at the same time has crucial in the formation of new cells - for plant growth.

Calcium (Ca) The calcium content of the plant is usually between 10 and 30 mg Ca per gram of dry matter.

Calcium transport in the plant occurs predominantly in the direction of transpiration flows, i.e. from the roots to the above-ground tops of plants. Reverse transport, for example, as in the case of potassium from the top of the plant to the roots, practically does not occur. Calcium ions entering through the leaf apertures penetrate into the leaf tissues, but are transported upward to the top of the plant. Calcium is an effective growth element for the plant.

Calcium is important for cell division, both for the division of their nucleus and for the construction of the middle lamellae. The positive effect of calcium on the development of the root system is always noticed.

An essential nutrient – ​​calcium – performs tasks in the physiological process of a plant’s life that go far beyond simple actions, and is of great importance. First of all, the tendency of calcium ions to enter organometallic compounds is important.

2+ During plant metabolism, calcium (Ca) performs various functions: it participates in the construction of cell walls, stabilizes cell membranes and is involved in hormonal reactions.

Calcium is absorbed by the roots exclusively in the form of Ca2+, depending on the calcium content of the soil and its pH level, and reaches the upper parts of the plant through water transpiration. It is not possible to transfer old calcium reserves to new shoots or plant roots.

The intensity of transpiration has a significant influence on the storage of calcium from roots to young shoots.

Interruptions in the water supply are usually the main cause of calcium deficiency in plants. In stressful situations, such as long droughts, sudden frosts, calcium is a guarantor of plant endurance and vitality.

If there is a sufficiently long supply of calcium and carbon dioxide, then carbon dioxide regulates the opening and closing of stomata, thereby preventing the plant from losing moisture. As soon as the internal saturation of the cells with carbon dioxide occurs, the mouths automatically close, which reduces the evaporation of moisture.

Calcium is also important for the nitrogen metabolism process, as it accelerates the absorption of ammonia. Nitrogen is the main element in the combination of amino acids that form the core of protein. Calcium helps the plant bind nitrogen ions, which come from the soil in the form of ammonia ions. Since the plant is not able to bind nitrogen ions from the atmosphere, the supply of nitrogen from the soil through the calcium system is very important. The role of calcium is great, especially for binding ammonia ions, activating the process of photosynthesis and secondary metabolism.

Deficiency symptoms occur due to low calcium movement in the plant, especially at the tips, inflorescences and fruits. (The interesting thing is that the surface area inside the leaf is 30 times larger than outside, and that on the outside we see only part of the symptoms of the internal “disease”.

Outwardly invisible symptoms are: increased leakage of the cell membrane, destruction of the structure of the cell nucleus, decreased stability of chromosomes, which leads to disruption of nuclear and cell division.

Calcium also helps to change the placement of wax on the epidermis of the leaf.

On an untreated plant, water collects on the leaf in the form of small drops, so that only a small part of the leaf surface is covered with moisture, but on treated plants, the wax layer is structured in such a way that water can be distributed in one direction over the entire surface of the leaf. Thus, calcium influences hydrogenation.

Calcium ions increase the viscosity of the cytoplasm. The osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid in plants may be different compared to the pressure inside the cells. If the extracellular osmotic pressure is identical to the intracellular one (approx. 300 mOsm), then it is called isotonic, and hypertonic if it is lower, and hypotonic if higher.

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The finer the limestone fraction, the better its effect.

The current state of science and technology in the production of fertilizer from limestone, its quality, impact on productivity and agricultural economics Based on the multifaceted use of limestone and the requirements of industry, the needs that science strives to satisfy have also increased. Although limestone alone is not a panacea for agriculture. Limestone is a well-researched topic, and for each area there are optimal solutions and scientific experiments carried out. However, despite this, science is constantly watching him, and is discovering more and more of his secrets. New qualitative characteristics, analysis of their impact, additional scientific capabilities, discoveries that are tested by technology become the basis for versatile application.

Experiments with limestone were mentioned already in 1954 (Hartmann and Wegener). The smaller the fraction, the larger the surface of each individual particle. Then, only by computation, the proven reaction with limestone demonstrated not only a huge, but also a completely new effect. At that time, obtaining the smallest fractions was not available at the technical level.

More by accident than on purpose, the experience of tribomechanical grinding that appeared in 1990 demonstrated that durable materials can be crushed to particle sizes of 1/1000 mm (my area).

Although this principle is not so new. Davinci also described the principle of tribomechanics.

In 1990 Only the technology itself was new. At 40,000 rpm, every ten-thousandth of a second, at triple the speed of sound, particles of matter collide with each other, which splits it to the minimum perceptible and measurable size. In the end, an electrostatically highly charged spherical powder appears, the particle size of which is 1 millionth of a millimeter.

Experiments with various materials eventually led to the focus on limestone.

Thus, scientific experiments have shown how much the effect of a material (in this case calcium) can be optimized by grinding it into tiny particles. Scientists Alberti and Fiedler described this experience in 1996 as the reverse of growth.

Regular calcium has a closed, smooth surface. During the process of tribomechanical activation, the resulting surface damage means the opening of network structures and, thereby, a significant increase in the ability to ion exchange and adsorption of harmful substances. On the one hand, the experience gained led to the fact that the specific surface of calcium increased significantly - three times. On the other hand, as a result of tribomechanical processing of limestone, much smaller particles appeared. The resulting microparticles, due to their small size, shape and specific surface, can better attach metabolic products to themselves.

CaCO3 Particle size under an electron microscope 1 – 25 my Conventional grinding methods stop at a size of more than 1 mm, and there can be no question of economic feasibility.

Experiments at universities in Austria, Switzerland, Spain, Australia, etc. soon showed that calcium in this micronized form not only increases the effect, but also serves as an antioxidant.

Micronized calcium (due to the grinding process and the resulting friction), which has an electrostatic charge and its high ion exchange power, is currently the most effective antioxidant. He “directs himself” to the places of greatest electrical polarity and “discharges them himself.” As a carrier substance, calcium can deliver magnesium, copper and other substances directly into cells, which are naturally related and contained in the limestone itself.

New areas of application have emerged based on new physical capabilities, for example for the treatment of cancer and AIDS.

Calcium is already widely used as a neutralizer of so-called free radicals. A six-month study with 120 patients at an Austrian private clinic in Villach showed that the material used intensively supported the immune system.

Thus, the total level of protection in the blood (TAS) increased by an average of 27% after just three weeks of taking pulverized limestone.

Patients shared their impressions that when they swallowed the powder, it seemed to them that light penetrated into every cell. The experiments are still ongoing.

The question of using limestone in agriculture was not even raised; it was a given. Limestone has already been used as fertilizer for many decades. The agricultural industry took up the development of “new and old” limestone with great interest.

Thanks to the optimization of the method, it is possible to produce and supply large quantities of fertilizer, guaranteeing equally excellent quality.

The new grinding method initially showed excellent, even incredible, results. Such results immediately activated scientists and skeptics, as well as those who, frankly speaking, decided to produce an “analog”, which can only be considered an ineffective fake.

Scientists have found that to successfully grind calcium to micro-sizes for use in agriculture, two important factors must be present.

The first factor is the presence of electrostatic charge (arises due to the high friction of particles when they hit each other during the grinding process).

These results are also confirmed by medical studies (using pulmonary application of powder).

The force of Colomb and Van der Wal, known in scientific circles, increases the ability of powder to flow in water (0.5% aqueous solution), as well as the water itself.

The larger the powder particles, the worse it moves in water. For example, medical research demonstrates convincing results of such behavior. Water, with its conductive ability, reacts to the smallest particles and becomes more fluid. Having become even more fluid, the calcium solution is activated in such a way that the liquid gains the ability to penetrate into spaces hitherto impossible.

Another feature of electrostatically charged particles has also appeared.

Swiss scientists have found that electrostatically charged powder particles attract microorganisms. In the immediate vicinity of the particles there is such a high concentration of ions that an antimicrobial effect occurs. Osmotic pressure becomes so high that it can bring microorganisms out of a state of stagnation and encourage them to move.

These two characteristic properties of the high concentration of CaCO3 in the product lead to plants demonstrating impressive self-reproduction, i.e. multiple increase in yield. The ripening speed is also reduced, quality is improved, and the shelf life of the crop is extended. Also important is the reduced need for water by plants, which no fertilizer has been able to guarantee so far, not to mention the environmental aspect of this 100% natural fertilizer.

Within a few days you can visually observe success. Plants become richly green, which indicates vitality and health.

Long-term experiments show the feasibility and necessity of using such fertilizer.

The spontaneity and power of nature reveals itself believably and in full swing in that intensive growth occurs immediately after application.

An increase in the number of chloroplasts and chlorophyll nuclei in the leaf awakened the processes of secondary metabolism, as well as the construction and strengthening of cells, cell nuclei and cell membranes, and at the same time began to control the introduction of calcium into the most important life processes of the plant.

Experiments in greenhouses and open ground, conducted under the constant supervision of scientists, confirm this, and CaCO3 in micronized form has been approved in Europe since 2003, and since 2011 in Ukraine, as a foliar fertilizer.

Finding a definition for PANAGRO was and remains a difficult task. It is not just a plant growth accelerator. It is difficult to classify it only as organic or mineral fertilizers. It also does not meet the normal function of a conventional fertilizer. It has everything from everyone!

This is a completely new approach. By fertilizing, not only the usual fertilization of the soil occurs, but something completely different - ideal conditions are created for the soil, which actually has everything the plant needs.

Thanks to the micronized form, the effect on the entire plant occurs through the leaf.

PANAGRO is a natural mineral - calcite (in its nano- and microfractions), which has all the natural known trace elements (Si, Al, Mg,...), and also has an electrostatic charge (arising as a result of grinding in a patented tribomechanical installation), increasing the effectiveness of the effect by 600% in comparison with conventional fractions, the result of which, according to the Redox potential, serves as an antioxidant for the plant.

Only such biological fertilizer can meet all economic requirements.

Economic aspect:

Based on the data provided by the Austrian manufacturer: apply 9 kg/ha (depending on the crop), dividing the process into 3-5 applications (spraying occurs three times at 3-5 kg/ha per application) - it became clear that conventional calcium fertilizers cost would be at least twice as expensive.

Regular set of fertilizers:

Microfertilizers with dispersed elements,

Spraying (pesticides, herbicides, etc.) Of course, they affect the preservation and increase of the yield, but in comparison with what?

Financially, weak investments will bring weak harvests.

In this case, the soil and plants will be subject to heavy loads, compaction and, frankly speaking, left to their own devices.

But purely biological measures to improve the quality of the soil, and accordingly aimed at the growth of a biologically pure crop with correspondingly high quality and in large quantities, have still remained a utopia.

With serious financial investments, you can accurately calculate that excess profits will be above 40%, and profitability will increase many times over.

Thus, as a result of studies in Europe, the USA, Asia, as well as in Ukraine, as part of product certification experiments, it was proven that the use of Panagro fertilizer convincingly demonstrates the following qualitative and quantitative indicators: (only a few are listed below):

Increase in sugar content of sugar beets from 15 to 18%

Increasing the oil content of winter rapeseed from 39 to 53%

Increase in potato yield up to 42%

Increase in sunflower oil content from 45 to 48%

Increase in protein content in soybeans from 39.5 to 43.5%

Increase in fiber in tomatoes (94% H2O) up to 25% and yield itself up to 80%

Increasing the yield of winter wheat by up to 60%, with an increase in protein and gluten... In repeated field trials of PANAGRO, it was proven that the most important factor was the savings on C/W. With a financial burden of 1000 Euro/ha (saline-vegetable growing), a saving of 50% was applied on C\W, which amounted to 500 Euro, subtract the cost of PANAGRO, and get plus 280 Euro/ha. We have not yet included the profits from the excess harvest and the dramatic difference in product quality.

In wheat (with similar C/W savings) it was proven that only 600 kg/ha more yield was needed to justify the investment. The actual increase in the yield was almost 60% with an average yield of 28 c/ha, not to mention a significant change for the better in quality indicators.

Conclusion In parallel, practical control tests have proven the occurrence of the following effects, which are understandable from a scientific point of view:

Increase in total yield up to 30-100% (depending on the crop)

Biologically pure harvest (mineral product - calcite)

Reduce water requirements by up to 70%

Reduction of the growing season by up to 30%

Savings on NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium) up to 50 – 100%

Excellent effect preventing the occurrence of fungi, damage caused by insects and other pests, which allows you to save up to 50% of costs

Significant increase in green mass

High vitality and disease resistance

Increased fiber mass in fruits and improved fruit quality

Improved taste and aroma

Longer shelf life of crops during storage

Increasing the Brix level (a liquid density measurement level mainly used in fruit production as an indicator of quality) in fruits and berries...

Thus, from a scientific point of view we have: a CaCO3 product, which is a 100% natural material, crushed using nanotechnology, suitable for use on all soils, providing a significant increase in yield in a short time and with a high level of quality.

Limestone is a new mineral power.

As we worked on this brochure, it became clear to us that much knowledge regarding the effects of calcium had simply been forgotten. The more we found material, read doctoral papers, and became acquainted with the practical results of experiments, the more we realized that we had chosen the name of this brochure correctly.

Today we are convinced that you, as an agronomist, farmer, amateur gardener or gardener, will be able, just like us, to rediscover the importance of calcium in literally all life processes of the nature around us.

Whatever you do or plan to do with the soil, no matter how you fertilize it

– she needs only one thing – the correct calcium ratio. Calcium, based on its chemical, physical and biological properties, changes the soil for the better, makes it truly fertile, the growth process of cultivated crops - natural and healthy, and any agriculture - economically profitable.

We wish you a successful and healthy harvest!

PANAGRO. Jurgen and Natalya Brausewetter, Simferopol, Crimea, January 2011.

Calcium oxide is a white crystalline compound. Other names for this substance are quicklime, calcium oxide, “kirabit”, “kipelka”. Calcium oxide, whose formula is CaO, and its product of interaction with (H2O) water - Ca(OH)2 (“fluff” or slaked lime) are widely used in construction.

How is calcium oxide obtained?

1. The industrial method of obtaining this substance is the thermal (under the influence of temperature) decomposition of limestone:

CaCO3 (limestone) = CaO (calcium oxide) + CO2 (carbon dioxide)

2. Calcium oxide can also be obtained through the interaction of simple substances:

2Ca (calcium) + O2 (oxygen) = 2CaO (calcium oxide)

3. The third method of calcium is the thermal decomposition of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and calcium salts of several oxygen-containing acids:

2Ca(NO3)2 = 2CaO (resulting substance) + 4NO2 + O2 (oxygen)

calcium oxide

1. Appearance: White crystalline compound. It crystallizes like sodium chloride (NaCl) in a face-centered cubic crystal lattice.

2. The molar mass is 55.07 grams/mol.

3. Density is 3.3 grams/centimeter³.

Thermal properties of calcium oxide

1. Melting point is 2570 degrees

2. Boiling point is 2850 degrees

3. Molar heat capacity (under standard conditions) is 42.06 J/(mol K)

4. Enthalpy of formation (under standard conditions) is -635 kJ/mol

Chemical properties of calcium oxide

Calcium oxide (formula CaO) is a basic oxide. Therefore he can:

Dissolve in water (H2O) releasing energy. This produces calcium hydroxide. This reaction looks like this:

CaO (calcium oxide) + H2O (water) = Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) + 63.7 kJ/mol;

React with acids and acid oxides. In this case, salts are formed. Here are examples of reactions:

CaO (calcium oxide) + SO2 (sulfur dioxide) = CaSO3 (calcium sulfite)

CaO (calcium oxide) + 2HCl (hydrochloric acid) = CaCl2 (calcium chloride) + H2O (water).

Applications of calcium oxide:

1. The main volumes of the substance we are considering are used in the production of sand-lime bricks in construction. Previously, quicklime was used as lime cement. It was obtained by mixing it with water (H2O). As a result, calcium oxide turned into hydroxide, which then, absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere, strongly hardened, turning into calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Despite the cheapness of this method, at present lime cement is practically not used in construction, since it has the ability to absorb and accumulate liquid well.

2. As a refractory material, calcium oxide is suitable as an inexpensive and readily available material. Fused calcium oxide is resistant to water (H2O), which makes it possible to use it as a refractory where the use of expensive materials is impractical.

3. In laboratories, calcium is used to dry substances that do not react with it.

4. In the food industry, this substance is registered as a food additive under the designation E 529. It is used as an emulsifier to create a homogeneous mixture of immiscible substances - water, oil and fat.

5. In industry, calcium oxide is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2) from flue gases. As a rule, a 15% water solution is used. As a result of the reaction in which sulfur dioxide reacts, gypsum CaCO4 and CaCO3 are obtained. During experiments, scientists achieved 98% removal of sulfur dioxide from smoke.

6. Used in special “self-heating” dishes. A container with a small amount of calcium oxide is located between the two walls of the vessel. When the capsule is pierced in water, a reaction begins and a certain amount of heat is released.

DEFINITION

Limestone– a rock of sedimentary origin, predominantly consisting of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite.

The chemical composition is expressed by the formula – CaCO 3. Molar mass – 100 g/mol.

Chemical properties of the main component of limestone - calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate is a compound insoluble in water. When heated, it decomposes into its constituent oxides:

CaCO 3 = CaO + CO 2.

It dissolves in dilute acid solutions, resulting in the formation of unstable carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3), which instantly decomposes into carbon dioxide and water:

CaCO 3 + 2HCl dilute = CaCl 2 + CO 2 + H 2 O.

Calcium carbonate reacts with complex substances - acid oxides, salts, ammonia, etc.:

CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O ↔ Ca(HCO 3) 2;

CaCO 3 + SiO 2 = CaSiO 3 + CO 2 (t);

CaCO 3 + 2NH 3 = CaCN 2 + 3H 2 O (t);

CaCO 3 + 2NH 4 Cl conc = CaCl 2 + 2NH 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O (boiling);

CaCO 3 + H 2 S = CaS + H 2 O + CO 2 (t).

Among the reactions of calcium carbonate with simple substances, the most important is the reaction with carbon:

CaCO 3 + C = CaO + 2CO.

Physical properties of the main component of limestone - calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate is white solid crystals, practically insoluble in water. Melting point – 1242C. Calcite, the mineral from which limestone is composed, has a trigonal crystalline structure.

Obtaining limestone

Limestone is a widespread sedimentary rock formed with the participation of living organisms in sea basins. The name of a variety of limestone reflects the presence in it of remains of rock-forming organisms, area of ​​distribution, structure (for example, oolitic limestones), impurities (ferruginous), nature of occurrence (limestone), geological age (Triassic).

Application of limestone

Limestone is widely used as a building material, and fine-grained varieties are used to create sculptures.

Examples of problem solving

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

Goal of the work: determine lime activity, slaking speed and temperature.

Basic Concepts

Construction pneumatic lime is a product obtained by burning calcium-magnesium rocks until the carbon dioxide is released as completely as possible. Lime is used in a mixture with various additives to produce various binders: lime-quartz, lime-slag, lime-clay, etc. Sand-lime bricks, silicate blocks, reinforced large-sized silicate parts and various other construction products are made from it.

The main process in the production of air lime is calcination, in which the limestone is decarbonized and converted and converted into lime by the following reaction:

CaCO 3 + 178.58 kJ →CaO + CO 2

In laboratory conditions, the dissociation of calcium carbonate occurs at approximately 900 °C; in production, the firing temperature is 1000-1200 °C.

Quicklime comes in lump and ground forms. It is obtained in the form of pieces of light yellow or gray color. It intensively absorbs moisture and therefore it is recommended to store it in a hermetically sealed state. If the raw material contains more than 6% clay impurities, then the calcined product exhibits hydraulic properties and is called hydraulic lime.

The quality of the resulting lime is assessed by activity, which shows the total content of free calcium and magnesium oxides in an active state. In addition to them, lime may contain oxides MgO and CaO in an inactive state; these are undecomposed carbonate and coarse-crystalline inclusions (burnout).

Depending on the content of active CaO and MgO, lime is produced in three grades (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1

Classification of lime by grade

Air lime can be used in slaked form.

Slaked lime comes in the form of fluff, dough or milk. The moisture content in the fluff does not exceed 5%, in the dough less than 45%. The quenching process proceeds according to the following scheme:

CaO + H 2 O ↔ Ca(OH) 2 +65.1 kJ

and is accompanied by the release of heat, which causes a rise in temperature that can ignite the tree. Hydration of calcium oxide is a reversible reaction, its direction depends on the temperature and pressure of water vapor in the environment. The elasticity of the dissociation of Ca(OH) 2 into CaO and H 2 O reaches atmospheric pressure at 547 ° C; at higher temperatures, calcium hydroxide can partially decompose. In order for the process to go in the right direction, it is necessary to strive to increase the elasticity of water vapor over Ca(OH) 2 and not allow the temperature to be too high. At the same time, overcooling of slaking lime should be avoided, as this greatly slows down slaking. More than half of its grains have a size not exceeding 0.01 mm. Vaporization protects the material from excessive temperature rise.

The volume of fluff when slaking lime is 2-3 times greater than the volume of the original quicklime due to an increase in the volume of voids (pores) between the individual grains of the resulting material. The density of quicklime is on average 3200, and that of slaked lime is 2200 kg/m3.

To slak the lime, theoretically it is necessary to add 32.13% water by weight. Practically, depending on the composition of the lime, the degree of its burning and the slaking method, they take approximately two and sometimes three times more water, since under the influence of the heat released during slaking, vaporization occurs and part of the water is removed.

Depending on the temperature developed during quenching, a distinction is made between highly exothermic (t extinguishing >50 °C) and low exothermic (t extinguishing.<50 °C) известь, а по скорости гашения: быстрогасящуюся (не более 8 мин.), среднегасящуюся (8-25 мин.) и медленногасящуюся (более 25 мин.) известь.

To speed up the process of slaking lime, additives CaCl 2, NaCl, NaOH are used, which interact with calcium oxide to form more soluble compounds compared to Ca(OH) 2, and to slow it down, additives of surfactants, salts of sulfuric, phosphoric, oxalic, and carbonic acids are used.

Limestones (in the broad sense) have extremely diverse applications. They are used in the form of lump limestone, crushed stone, crushed sand, mineral powder, mineral wool, limestone flour. The main consumers are the cement industry (limestone, chalk and marl), construction (production of building lime, concrete, plaster, mortars; masonry of walls and foundations, metallurgy (limestone and dolomite - fluxes and refractories, processing of nepheline ores into alumina, cement and soda ), agriculture (limestone flour in agricultural technology and livestock farming), food (especially sugar). In the Yantikovsky region, limestone is mined in quarries in the village of Yantikovo, Mozharki.

The area is known for its abundance of limestones; lime burning has been carried out here since time immemorial. In 1982, a lime quarry was opened on the left side of the Straw River. This is used to fertilize the soil of collective and state farms in our and other neighboring regions of the republic. The quarry produces 45 thousand tons of lime annually.

According to geologists, limestone deposits in the Mozharsky quarry are about 15 million tons, and in the Yantikovsky quarry - 5 million tons.

The program for the socio-economic development of the Yantikovsky district for 2007-2010 indicates the main tasks to increase the efficiency of use of the district's natural resources. The expected results of the implementation of the program are also given: budgetary security per capita will increase, the level of average monthly wages of workers in sectors of the economy will increase, additional jobs will appear to ensure effective employment of the population, and the volume of industrial output will increase.

Yantikovsky district is part of a zone where the average living standard of the population is considered below the norm; 66.7% of the district's population is unemployed. The main problem in finding employment for unemployed and unemployed citizens in the region is the lack of jobs in enterprises and organizations in the region. In this regard, we propose to pay attention to the development of industrial production, in particular the production of crushed stone, cement, and sugar. And for the production of cement and sugar, natural raw materials must be of high quality. Therefore, the purpose of our work is: 1 To study the qualitative and quantitative composition of limestone from 2 quarries in the Yantikovsky district.

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed predominantly of calcium carbonate - calcite. Due to its widespread occurrence, ease of processing and chemical properties, limestone is quarried and used to a greater extent than other rocks, second only to sand and gravel deposits. Limestones come in a variety of colors, including black, but the most common types are white, gray, or have a brownish tint. Bulk density 2.2–2.7. This is a soft breed that can be easily scratched by a knife blade. Limestones boil violently when interacting with dilute acid. In accordance with their sedimentary origin, they have a layered structure. Pure limestone consists only of calcite (rarely with a small amount of another form of calcium carbonate, aragonite). There are also impurities. The double carbonate of calcium and magnesium - dolomite - is usually found in variable quantities, and all transitions between limestone, dolomitic limestone and the dolomite rock are possible.

Although limestones can form in any freshwater or marine basin, the vast majority of these rocks are of marine origin. Sometimes they are deposited, like salt and gypsum, from the water of evaporating lakes and sea lagoons, but, apparently, most of the limestones were deposited in seas that did not experience intense drying. In all likelihood, the formation of most limestones began with the extraction of calcium carbonate from seawater by living organisms (to build shells and skeletons). These remains of dead organisms accumulate in abundance on the seabed. The most striking example of calcium carbonate accumulation is coral reefs. In some cases, individual shells are visible and recognizable in the limestone. As a result of wave activity and under the influence of sea currents, reefs are destroyed. Added to the limestone debris on the seabed is calcium carbonate, which precipitates from calcium-saturated water. Calcite, coming from destroyed older limestones, also participates in the formation of younger limestones.

Limestones are found on almost all continents, with the exception of Australia. In Russia, limestones are common in the central regions of the European part, and are also common in the Caucasus, the Urals and Siberia.

1. 2 Cement

Cement is a binding powdery material that forms a plastic mass that can gradually harden into stone. It consists mainly of tricalcium silicate 3 CaO SiO2.

The composition of cement may contain various additives; the mass ratio of oxides determines the technical suitability of the cement. Silica, which is part of it, binds calcium and aluminum oxides; in this case, the following silicate compounds are formed - 3CaO SiO2 nH2O, 2CaO SiO2 nH2O; hydroaluminates - 3CaO X AI2 O3 6H2O; aluminoferrites - 4CaO AI2 O3 Fe2O3.

The most common type of cement is Portland cement. It has great mechanical strength, stability in the air and under water, and frost resistance. The main raw materials for the production of Portland cement are limestone and clay containing silicon (IV) oxide.

Limestone and clay are thoroughly mixed and their mixture is fired in inclined cylindrical kilns, the length of which reaches more than 200 m, and in diameter - about 5 m. During the firing process, the kiln rotates slowly and the starting materials gradually move to its lower part to meet the hot gases - products combustion of incoming gaseous or solid pulverized fuel.

At elevated temperatures, complex chemical reactions occur between clay and limestone. The simplest of these are dehydration of kaolinite, decomposition of limestone and the formation of calcium silicates and aluminates:

Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O → Al2O3 2SiO2 + 2H2O

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

The substances formed as a result of the reactions are sintered in the form of separate pieces. Once cooled, they are ground to a fine powder.

The hardening process of cement paste is explained by the fact that various silicates and aluminates that make up cement react with water to form a rocky mass. Depending on the composition, different types of cement are produced.

1. 3 Slaked lime. Calcium hydroxide is used to make sugar

Sugar beets are supplied to the plant by a hydraulic conveyor and, using pumps, are fed into the beet washing machine. The washed beets are lifted by an elevator 15-17 m and fed into a beet cutter, where they are crushed and turned into thin chips. Beet chips enter diffusion devices. The primary task of production is to more fully isolate sugar from beets. For this purpose, hot water is passed through diffusers to meet moving chips (beet pulp); the mass fraction of sucrose does not exceed 0.5%. Diffusion juice is an opaque dark liquid. The dark color is given by pigments that belong to nesasars.

And the task of another stage of production is to free the sucrose solution from impurities. To free the sucrose solution from impurities from above, lime milk is poured into it at the rate of 20-30 kg of calcium hydroxide Cu(OH)2 per 1 kg of beets. Under the influence of calcium hydroxide, the diffusion juice is neutralized.

Chapter 2. Experimental part of the work

2. 1 Determination of CaCO3 in limestone.

The simplest way to determine CaCO3 in limestone is to treat a certain portion of an average sample of limestone with an excess of a titrated solution of hydrochloric acid and the excess HCl that has not reacted with CaCO3 is subjected to back titration with a caustic alkali solution. Based on the amount of HCl used to decompose limestone, the CaCO3 content in limestone is calculated.

For analysis, a sample of the average sample of limestone (200 g) was ground in a mortar, passed through a 0.5 mm sieve, from which a new average sample of 40 g was taken. Then a sample of about 2 g was taken from this average sample, placed in a volumetric flask with a capacity of 500 ml, moistened with 5 milliliters of distilled water and carefully added 50 ml of 1.0-normal hydrochloric acid solution. After the release of carbon dioxide, 300 ml of distilled water and the contents of the flask were poured into the flask for 15 minutes. boiled (until CO2 emissions completely stopped). At the end of boiling, the solution was allowed to cool, distilled water was added to the flask to the mark, mixed and the precipitate was allowed to settle to the bottom of the flask. After this, 100 ml of a transparent solution was pipetted from here, transferred to a 250 ml conical flask and titrated with a 0.1 normal solution of caustic alkali in the presence of 2 - 3 drops of methyl orange until a slightly yellow color of the solution appeared.

(a KHCl – bKш) 0.005*500*100

Where a is the number of milliliters of solution taken for titration; in this case a = 100 ml; b – the number of millimeters of 0.1-normal caustic alkali solution used for titration of excess HCl;

KHCl and Ksh - corrections for the normality of acid (KHCl) and alkalinity (Ksh);

0.005 – number of grams of CaCO3 corresponding to 1 ml of 1.0 – normal acid solution;

P – sample of limestone.

CaCO3+2HCl → CaCl2+CO2+H2O

2. 2 Characteristic and specific reactions of magnesium cations

There are currently no publicly available specific reactions to magnesium cations. Of the general analytical reactions, the most typical for them are: interaction with acidic sodium phosphate.

Formation of double magnesium phosphate - ammonium salt.

NH4OH is added to water containing magnesium salts until the formation of magnesium oxide hydrate precipitate stops:

MgCl2 + 2NH4OH = ↓Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl2

Then a solution of ammonium chloride is added here until the resulting magnesium oxide hydrate is completely dissolved:

Mg(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl = MgCl2 + 2NH4OH

A diluted solution of Na2HPO4 is carefully added dropwise to the resulting ammonium solution of magnesium salt. In this case, small white crystals of MgNH4PO4 fall out of the solution, some of which, in the form of a barely noticeable film, seem to “creep” up the walls of the test tube. If an amorphous precipitate is formed under the action of Na2HPO4, a few drops of HCl are added to dissolve it, after which a Na2OH solution is added and MgNH4PO4 is precipitated again. The maximum concentration of cations discovered by this reaction is 1.2 mg/l.

Since the formation of white MgNH4PO4 crystals was not observed, this means the concentration of magnesium cations

2.3 Determination of pH

To characterize aqueous solutions of electrolytes, it is conventional to use the concentration of H+ ions. At the same time, for convenience, the value of this concentration is expressed through the so-called hydrogen index - pH.

The hydrogen index is the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution: pH = -1g

In pure water, obviously, pH = 7. If the pH is 7, then the solution is alkaline.

The pH of aqueous solutions was determined with a universal indicator. The table shows the pH values ​​of aqueous solutions of limestone.

Results of the study of two quarries

Quarry deposit CaCO3 content MgCO3 content pH

S. Yantikovo 87% >9% 8.0-8.5

S. Mozharki 94.81%

1. Research shows that limestone from the Mozhar lime quarry contains 94.81% CaCO3 and 5.19% impurities.

2. The percentage of CaCO3 in limestone from the Mozharsky quarry turned out to be higher than in limestone from Yantikovsky.

3. Since the limestone from the Mozharsky quarry is better in quality and composition, it meets the technological standards for cement production.

4. In the future, it is possible to build a sugar production plant in the Yantikovsky district.

Expected results

Budgetary security per capita will increase, the level of average monthly wages of workers in sectors of the economy will increase, additional jobs will appear to ensure effective employment of the population, and the volume of industrial output will increase.