Germanium(Latin Germanium), Ge, chemical element of group IV of the periodic system of Mendeleev; serial number 32, atomic mass 72.59; gray-white solid with a metallic sheen. Natural Germanium is a mixture of five stable isotopes with mass numbers 70, 72, 73, 74 and 76. The existence and properties of Germanium were predicted in 1871 by D.I. Mendeleev and named this still unknown element eca-silicon due to the similarity of its properties with silicon. In 1886, the German chemist K. Winkler discovered a new element in the mineral argyrodite, which he named Germanium in honor of his country; Germanium turned out to be quite identical to eca-silicon. Until the second half of the 20th century, the practical application of Germany remained very limited. Industrial production in Germany arose in connection with the development of semiconductor electronics.
The total content of germanium in the earth's crust is 7·10 -4% by mass, that is, more than, for example, antimony, silver, bismuth. However, Germany's own minerals are extremely rare. Almost all of them are sulfosalts: germanite Cu 2 (Cu, Fe, Ge, Zn) 2 (S, As) 4, argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6, confieldite Ag 8 (Sn, Ge) S 6 and others. The bulk of Germany is scattered in the earth's crust in a large number of rocks and minerals: in sulfide ores of non-ferrous metals, in iron ores, in some oxide minerals (chromite, magnetite, rutile and others), in granites, diabases and basalts. In addition, Germanium is present in almost all silicates, in some coal and oil deposits.
Physical properties Germany. Germanium crystallizes in a cubic diamond-type structure, the unit cell parameter a = 5.6575 Å. The density of solid germanium is 5.327 g/cm 3 (25°C); liquid 5.557 (1000°C); t pl 937.5°C; boiling point about 2700°C; thermal conductivity coefficient ~60 W/(m K), or 0.14 cal/(cm sec deg) at 25°C. Even very pure Germanium is brittle at ordinary temperatures, but above 550°C it is susceptible to plastic deformation. Hardness Germany on the mineralogical scale 6-6.5; compressibility coefficient (in the pressure range 0-120 H/m 2, or 0-12000 kgf/mm 2) 1.4·10 -7 m 2 /mn (1.4·10 -6 cm 2 /kgf); surface tension 0.6 n/m (600 dynes/cm). Germanium is a typical semiconductor with a band gap of 1.104·10 -19 J or 0.69 eV (25°C); electrical resistivity Germany high purity 0.60 ohm m (60 ohm cm) at 25°C; electron mobility 3900 and hole mobility 1900 cm 2 /v sec (25°C) (with an impurity content of less than 10 -8%). Transparent to infrared rays with a wavelength greater than 2 microns.
Chemical properties Germany. In chemical compounds, germanium usually exhibits valences of 2 and 4, with compounds of 4-valent germanium being more stable. At room temperature, Germanium is resistant to air, water, alkali solutions and dilute hydrochloric and sulfuric acids, but easily dissolves in aqua regia and in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. It is slowly oxidized by nitric acid. When heated in air to 500-700°C, germanium is oxidized to the oxides GeO and GeO 2. Germany (IV) oxide - white powder with melting temperature 1116°C; solubility in water 4.3 g/l (20°C). According to its chemical properties, it is amphoteric, soluble in alkalis and with difficulty in mineral acids. It is obtained by calcination of the hydrate precipitate (GeO 3 ·nH 2 O) released during the hydrolysis of GeCl 4 tetrachloride. By fusing GeO 2 with other oxides, derivatives of germanic acid can be obtained - metal germanates (Li 2 GeO 3, Na 2 GeO 3 and others) - solid substances with high melting points.
When germanium reacts with halogens, the corresponding tetrahalides are formed. The reaction proceeds most easily with fluorine and chlorine (already at room temperature), then with bromine (low heating) and with iodine (at 700-800°C in the presence of CO). One of the most important compounds Germany tetrachloride GeCl 4 is a colorless liquid; t pl -49.5°C; boiling point 83.1°C; density 1.84 g/cm 3 (20°C). It is strongly hydrolyzed with water, releasing a precipitate of hydrated oxide (IV). It is obtained by chlorinating metallic germanium or reacting GeO 2 with concentrated HCl. Also known are Germanium dihalides of the general formula GeX 2, GeCl monochloride, hexachlorodigermane Ge 2 Cl 6 and Germanium oxychlorides (for example, CeOCl 2).
Sulfur reacts vigorously with Germanium at 900-1000°C to form disulfide GeS 2 - a white solid, melting point 825°C. GeS monosulfide and similar compounds of Germany with selenium and tellurium, which are semiconductors, are also described. Hydrogen slightly reacts with Germanium at 1000-1100°C to form germine (GeH) X, an unstable and highly volatile compound. By reacting germanides with dilute hydrochloric acid, germanide hydrogens of the series Ge n H 2n+2 up to Ge 9 H 20 can be obtained. Germylene of the composition GeH 2 is also known. Germanium does not react directly with nitrogen, however, there is a nitride Ge 3 N 4, obtained by the action of ammonia on Germanium at 700-800°C. Germanium does not interact with carbon. Germanium forms compounds with many metals - germanides.
Numerous complex compounds of Germanium are known, which are becoming increasingly important both in the analytical chemistry of Germanium and in the processes of its preparation. Germanium forms complex compounds with organic hydroxyl-containing molecules (polyhydric alcohols, polybasic acids and others). Germany heteropolyacids were obtained. Just like other elements of group IV, germanium is characterized by the formation of organometallic compounds, an example of which is tetraethylgermane (C 2 H 5) 4 Ge 3.
Receipt Germany. In industrial practice, Germanium is obtained mainly from by-products of processing non-ferrous metal ores (zinc blende, zinc-copper-lead polymetallic concentrates) containing 0.001-0.1% Germanium. Ashes from coal combustion, dust from gas generators and waste from coke plants are also used as raw materials. Initially, germanium concentrate (2-10% Germany) is obtained from the listed sources in various ways, depending on the composition of the raw materials. Extraction of Germany from concentrate usually includes the following stages: 1) chlorination of the concentrate with hydrochloric acid, a mixture of it with chlorine in an aqueous medium or other chlorinating agents to obtain technical GeCl 4 . To purify GeCl 4, rectification and extraction of impurities with concentrated HCl are used. 2) Hydrolysis of GeCl 4 and calcination of hydrolysis products to obtain GeO 2. 3) Reduction of GeO 2 with hydrogen or ammonia to metal. To isolate very pure germanium, used in semiconductor devices, zone melting of the metal is carried out. Single-crystalline Germanium, required for the semiconductor industry, is usually obtained by zone melting or the Czochralski method.
Application Germany. Germanium is one of the most valuable materials in modern semiconductor technology. It is used to make diodes, triodes, crystal detectors and power rectifiers. Monocrystalline Germanium is also used in dosimetric instruments and instruments that measure the strength of constant and alternating magnetic fields. An important area of application in Germany is infrared technology, in particular the production of infrared radiation detectors operating in the region of 8-14 microns. Many alloys containing germanium, glasses based on GeO 2 and other germanium compounds are promising for practical use.
In 1870 D.I. Based on the periodic law, Mendeleev predicted a still undiscovered element of group IV, calling it eca-silicon, and described its main properties. In 1886, the German chemist Clemens Winkler discovered this chemical element during a chemical analysis of the mineral argyrodite. Initially, Winkler wanted to call the new element "neptunium", but this name had already been given to one of the proposed elements, so the element was named in honor of the scientist's homeland - Germany.
Being in nature, receiving:
Germanium is found in sulfide ores, iron ore, and is found in almost all silicates. The main minerals containing germanium are: argyrodite Ag 8 GeS 6 , confieldite Ag 8 (Sn,Ce)S 6 , stottite FeGe(OH) 6 , germanite Cu 3 (Ge,Fe,Ga)(S,As) 4 , renierite Cu 3 ( Fe,Ge,Zn)(S,As) 4 .
As a result of complex and labor-intensive operations for ore enrichment and concentration, germanium is isolated in the form of GeO 2 oxide, which is reduced with hydrogen at 600°C to a simple substance.
GeO 2 + 2H 2 =Ge + 2H 2 O
Germanium is purified using the zone melting method, which makes it one of the most chemically pure materials.
Physical properties:
Gray-white solid with a metallic sheen (mp 938°C, bp 2830°C)
Chemical properties:
Under normal conditions, germanium is resistant to air and water, alkalis and acids, and dissolves in aqua regia and in an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. Oxidation states of germanium in its compounds: 2, 4.
The most important connections:
Germanium(II) oxide, GeO, grey-black, slightly soluble. b-in, when heated it disproportionates: 2GeO = Ge + GeO 2
Germanium(II) hydroxide Ge(OH) 2, red-orange. christ.,
Germanium(II) iodide, GeI 2, yellow. cr., sol. in water, hydrol. bye.
Germanium(II) hydride, GeH 2, tv. white pores, easily oxidized. and decay.
Germanium(IV) oxide, GeO 2 , white crystal, amphoteric, obtained by hydrolysis of germanium chloride, sulfide, hydride, or the reaction of germanium with nitric acid.
Germanium(IV) hydroxide (germanic acid), H 2 GeO 3 , weak. undef. biaxial for example, germanate salts, for example. sodium germanate, Na 2 GeO 3 , white crystal, sol. in water; hygroscopic. There are also Na 2 hexahydroxogermanates (ortho-germanates), and polygermanates
Germanium(IV) sulfate, Ge(SO 4) 2, colorless. crystals, hydrolyzed by water to GeO 2, obtained by heating germanium(IV) chloride with sulfuric anhydride at 160°C: GeCl 4 + 4SO 3 = Ge(SO 4) 2 + 2SO 2 + 2Cl 2
Germanium(IV) halides, fluoride GeF 4 - bests. gas, crude hydrol., reacts with HF, forming H 2 - hydrofluoric acid: GeF 4 + 2HF = H 2,
chloride GeCl 4, colorless. liquid, hydr., bromide GeBr 4, gray cr. or colorless liquid, sol. in org. conn.,
iodide GeI 4, yellow-orange. cr., slow. hydr., sol. in org. conn.
Germanium(IV) sulfide, GeS 2, white cr., poorly soluble. in water, hydrol., reacts with alkalis:
3GeS 2 + 6NaOH = Na 2 GeO 3 + 2Na 2 GeS 3 + 3H 2 O, forming germanates and thiogermanates.
Germanium(IV) hydride, "germane", GeH 4, colorless. gas, organic derivatives tetramethylgermane Ge(CH 3) 4, tetraethylgermane Ge(C 2 H 5) 4 - colorless. liquids.
Application:
The most important semiconductor material, main areas of application: optics, radio electronics, nuclear physics.
Germanium compounds are slightly toxic. Germanium is a trace element that in the human body increases the efficiency of the body’s immune system, fights cancer, and reduces pain. It is also noted that germanium promotes the transfer of oxygen to body tissues and is a powerful antioxidant – a blocker of free radicals in the body.
The daily requirement of the human body is 0.4–1.5 mg.
The champion in germanium content among food products is garlic (750 mcg of germanium per 1 g of dry weight of garlic cloves).
The material was prepared by students of the Institute of Physics and Chemistry of Tyumen State University
Demchenko Yu.V., Bornovolokova A.A.
Sources:
Germanium//Wikipedia./ URL: http://ru.wikipedia.org/?oldid=63504262 (access date: 06/13/2014).
Germanium//Allmetals.ru/URL: http://www.allmetals.ru/metals/germanium/ (access date: 06/13/2014).
At the time of the creation of the periodic table, germanium had not yet been discovered, but Mendeleev predicted its existence. And 15 years after the report, an unknown mineral was discovered in one of the Freiberg mines, and in 1886 a new element was isolated from it. The credit goes to the German chemist Winkler, who gave the element the name of his homeland. Even with the many beneficial properties of germanium, among which there was a place for healing, it was only used at the beginning of the Second World War, and even then not very actively. Therefore, even now it cannot be said that the element has been well studied, but some of its abilities have already been proven and are being successfully used.
The healing properties of germanium
The element is not found in its pure form, its isolation is labor-intensive, so at the first opportunity it was replaced with cheaper components. At first it was used in diodes and transistors, but silicon turned out to be more convenient and accessible, so the study of the chemical properties of germanium continued. Now it is part of thermoelectric alloys and is used in microwave devices and infrared technology.
Medicine also became interested in the new element, but significant results were obtained only in the late 70s of the last century. Japanese specialists managed to discover the healing properties of germanium and outline ways of their use. After testing on animals and clinical observations of the effect on humans, it turned out that the element is capable of:
- stimulate;
- deliver oxygen to tissues;
- fight tumors;
- increase the conductivity of nerve impulses.
The difficulty of use lies in the toxicity of germanium in large doses, so a drug was required that could have a positive effect on certain processes in the body with minimal harm. The first was Germanium-132, which helps improve a person’s immune status and helps avoid oxygen deficiency in the event of a drop in hemoglobin levels. Experiments have also shown the effect of the element on the production of interferons, which resist rapidly dividing (tumor) cells. The benefit is observed only when administered orally; wearing jewelry with germanium will not give any effect.
A lack of germanium reduces the body's natural ability to withstand external influences, which leads to various disorders. The recommended daily dose is 0.8-1.5 mg. You can get the necessary element by regularly consuming milk, salmon, mushrooms, garlic and beans.
The roller projector of the massage bed, the five-ball projector, as well as the ceramics of the additional mat are made of tourmanium.
Now let's talk in more detail about the natural materials on which Turmanium is formed.
It is a mineral, a substance formed in the depths of the earth by the forces of inanimate nature. Several thousand minerals are known.
but only about 60 of them have the qualities of precious stones. This is exactly what tourmaline is.
Tourmalines are stones of incomparable color variety. Their name comes from the Sinhalese word “tura mali”, which means “stone with mixed colors”.
Of all the minerals existing on earth, only tourmaline carries a permanent electrical charge, which is why it is called a crystalline magnet. Among the endless variety of stones, tourmaline is considered the absolute champion in the number of colors and shades. The natural brilliance, transparency and hardness of this precious multi-colored mineral have earned it a well-deserved reputation as a jewelry stone.
Tourmaline contains: potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, iron, silicon, iodine, fluorine and other components. A total of 26 microelements from the periodic table.
When heated, tourmaline creates a low-frequency magnetic field and emits anions, which act as follows:
enhance cellular metabolism, improve metabolism;
improve local blood flow;
restore the functioning of the lymphatic system;
restore the endocrine and hormonal systems;
improve nutrition in organs and tissues;
strengthen the immune system;
contribute to the balance of the autonomic nervous system (this is a system of excitation and inhibition of the psyche);
provide the body with life-giving energy;
improve blood quality, stimulate blood circulation and thin the blood, so that blood flows into the finest capillaries, giving the body vitality.
Worth like gold - fragile like glass.
Germanium is a trace element that takes part in many processes in the human body. The lack of this element affects the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, fat metabolism and other processes, in particular, the development of atherosclerosis.
The benefits of germanium for human health were first discussed in Japan. In 1967, Dr. Katsuhiho Asai discovered that germanium has a wide range of biological effects.
Useful properties of germanium
Transporting oxygen to body tissues
.
Germanium, when entering the blood, behaves similarly to hemoglobin. The oxygen that it delivers to the tissues of the body guarantees the normal functioning of all vital systems and prevents the development of oxygen deficiency in the organs that are most sensitive to hypoxia.
Immune stimulation
.
Germanium in the form of organic compounds
promotes the production of gamma interferons, which suppress the proliferation of rapidly dividing microbial cells, activate macrophages and specific immune cells.
Antitumor effect
.
Germanium delays the development of malignant tumors and prevents the appearance of metastases, and has protective properties against radiation exposure. The mechanism of action is associated with the interaction of the germanium atom with negatively charged particles of tumor formations. Germanium frees the tumor cell from “extra” electrons and increases its electrical charge, which leads to the death of the tumor.
Biocidal action
(antifungal, antiviral, antibacterial).
Organic germanium compounds stimulate the production of interferon, a protective protein produced in response to the introduction of foreign microorganisms.
Analgesic effect
.
This trace element is present in such natural foods as garlic, ginseng, chlorella and a variety of mushrooms. It attracted keen interest from the medical community in the 1960s when Dr. Katsuhiho Asai discovered germanium in living organisms and showed that it increased oxygen supply to tissues and also helped treat:
Cancer;
arthritis, osteoporosis;
candidiasis (overgrowth of the yeast microorganism Candida albicans);
AIDS and other viral infections.
In addition, germanium can accelerate wound healing and reduce pain.
Translated from Celtic “white stone” (“el” - rock, “van” - stone).
- this is a porphyry granite, with quartz and orthoclase phenocrysts in a quartz-feldspathic groundmass with tourmaline, mica, and pinite.
Koreans believe that this mineral has healing properties. Elvan is good for skin health: it is added to cleansing creams. Helps with allergies.
This mineral softens water and purifies it of impurities, absorbing harmful substances and heavy elements.
Elvan is used in the interior. It is used to make floors, walls, beds, mats, sauna benches, stoves, and gas burners.
Widely used in making tableware. In some restaurants, elvan is used in grills so that it permeates the barbecue with its healing fumes. Eggs boiled with the addition of elvan are also very popular in Korea. The eggs acquire the taste and smell of smoked meat, and the color resembles our Easter eggs.
Elvan stone contains many trace elements and is a source of long-wave infrared rays.
These are rocks formed as a result of a volcanic eruption. Thanks to them, tourmanium ceramics acquires its hardness.
Volcanic rocks have a lot of valuable and beneficial properties for humans.
1. They retain the original magnetic field of the Earth, which greatly decreases on the surface.
2. Enriched with microelements. But the main property of volcanic rocks is that they retain organic heat for a long time. This makes it possible to get the maximum effect from warming up.
Volcanic rocks also have the ability to remove toxins from the body and have a cleansing effect on it.
This is a pure breed, not contaminated by civilization, which is actively used for medicinal purposes.
Named after Germany. A scientist from this country discovered it and had the right to call it whatever he wanted. So I got into it germanium.
However, it was not Mendeleev who was lucky, but Clemens Winkler. He was assigned to study argyrodite. A new mineral, consisting mainly of, was found at the Himmelfürst mine.
Winkler determined 93% of the rock's composition and was stumped with the remaining 7%. The conclusion was that they contained an unknown element.
A more thorough analysis bore fruit - there was germanium discovered. It's metal. How was it useful to humanity? We will talk about this and more further.
Properties of germanium
Germanium – element 32 of the periodic table. It turns out that the metal is included in the 4th group. The number corresponds to the valency of the elements.
That is, germanium tends to form 4 chemical bonds. This makes the element discovered by Winkler look like .
Hence Mendeleev’s desire to name the yet undiscovered element ecosilicon, designated Si. Dmitry Ivanovich calculated the properties of the 32nd metal in advance.
Germanium is similar in chemical properties to silicon. Reacts with acids only when heated. It “communicates” with alkalis in the presence of oxidizing agents.
Resistant to water vapor. Does not react with hydrogen, carbon, . Germanium ignites at a temperature of 700 degrees Celsius. The reaction is accompanied by the formation of germanium dioxide.
Element 32 easily interacts with halogens. These are salt-forming substances from group 17 of the table.
To avoid confusion, let us point out that we are focusing on the new standard. In the old one, this is the 7th group of the periodic table.
Whatever the table, the metals in it are located to the left of the stepped diagonal line. The 32nd element is an exception.
Another exception is . A reaction is also possible with her. Antimony is deposited on the substrate.
Active interaction is ensured with. Like most metals, germanium can burn in its vapors.
Externally germanium element, grayish-white, with a pronounced metallic sheen.
When considering the internal structure, the metal has a cubic structure. It reflects the arrangement of atoms in unit cells.
They are shaped like cubes. Eight atoms are located at the vertices. The structure is close to the grid.
Element 32 has 5 stable isotopes. Their presence is a property of all elements of the germanium subgroup.
They are even, which determines the presence of stable isotopes. For example, there are 10 of them.
The density of germanium is 5.3-5.5 grams per cubic centimeter. The first indicator is characteristic of the state, the second - for the liquid metal.
When softened, it is not only more dense, but also more flexible. A substance that is brittle at room temperature becomes brittle at 550 degrees. These are Features of Germany.
The hardness of the metal at room temperature is about 6 points.
In this state, element 32 is a typical semiconductor. But, the property becomes “brighter” as the temperature rises. It’s just that conductors, for comparison, lose their properties when heated.
Germanium conducts current not only in its standard form, but also in solutions.
In terms of semiconductor properties, the 32nd element is also close to silicon and is just as common.
However, the scope of application of the substances varies. Silicon is a semiconductor used in solar cells, including thin-film ones.
The element is also needed for photocells. Now, let's look at where germanium comes in handy.
Application of germanium
Germanium is used in gamma spectroscopy. Its instruments make it possible, for example, to study the composition of additives in mixed oxide catalysts.
In the past, germanium was added to diodes and transistors. In photocells, the properties of a semiconductor are also useful.
But, if silicon is added to standard models, then germanium is added to highly efficient, new generation ones.
The main thing is not to use germanium at temperatures close to absolute zero. Under such conditions, the metal loses its ability to transmit voltage.
For germanium to be a conductor, it must contain no more than 10% impurities. Ultrapure is ideal chemical element.
Germanium made using this method of zone melting. It is based on the different solubility of foreign elements in liquid and phases.
Germanium formula allows you to use it in practice. Here we are no longer talking about the semiconductor properties of the element, but about its ability to impart hardness.
For the same reason, germanium has found application in dental prosthetics. Although crowns are becoming obsolete, there is still a small demand for them.
If you add silicon and aluminum to germanium, you get solders.
Their melting point is always lower than that of the metals being joined. So, you can make complex, designer designs.
Even the Internet would not be possible without germanium. The 32nd element is present in the optical fiber. At its core is quartz with an admixture of hero.
And its dioxide increases the reflectivity of optical fiber. Considering the demand for it, electronics, industrialists need germanium in large quantities. We will study which ones exactly and how they are provided below.
Germany mining
Germanium is quite common. In the earth's crust, the 32nd element, for example, is more abundant than, antimony, or.
Explored reserves are about 1,000 tons. Almost half of them are hidden in the bowels of the United States. Another 410 tons are property.
So, other countries basically have to purchase raw materials. cooperates with the Celestial Empire. This is justified both from a political point of view and from an economic point of view.
Properties of the element germanium, associated with its geochemical affinity with widespread substances, do not allow the metal to form its own minerals.
Typically, metal is embedded into the lattice of existing structures. Naturally, the guest will not take up much space.
Therefore, germanium has to be extracted bit by bit. You can find several kilos per ton of rock.
Enargite contains no more than 5 kilograms of germanium per 1000 kilograms. In pyrargyrite there is 2 times more.
A ton of sulvanite of the 32nd element contains no more than 1 kilogram. Most often, germanium is extracted as a by-product from ores of other metals, for example, or non-ferrous, such as chromite, magnetite, rutite.
The annual production of germanium ranges from 100-120 tons, depending on demand.
Basically, the monocrystalline form of the substance is purchased. This is exactly what is needed for the production of spectrometers, optical fibers, and precious metals. Let's find out the prices.
Germany price
Monocrystalline germanium is mainly purchased in tons. This is beneficial for large productions.
1,000 kilograms of the 32nd element costs about 100,000 rubles. You can find offers for 75,000 – 85,000.
If you take polycrystalline, that is, with smaller aggregates and increased strength, you can pay 2.5 times more per kilo of raw material.
Standard length is no less than 28 centimeters. The blocks are protected with film, since they fade in air. Polycrystalline germanium is the “soil” for growing single crystals.
