Theoretical validation in sociological research: Methodology and methods
In the social sciences, there are a variety of types of research and, accordingly, opportunities for the researcher. Knowing about them will help you solve the most difficult problems.
0 Click if it was useful =ъ
Research Strategies
In the social sciences, it is customary to distinguish two most common research strategies - quantitative and qualitative.
The quantitative strategy involves the use of a deductive approach to test hypotheses or theories, draws on the positivist approach of the natural sciences, and is objectivist in nature. A qualitative strategy focuses on an inductive approach to developing theories, rejects positivism, focuses on the individual interpretation of social reality, and is constructivist in nature.
Each strategy involves the use of specific data collection and analysis methods. The quantitative strategy is based on the collection of numerical data (coding data from mass surveys, aggregated testing data, etc.) and the use of mathematical statistics methods for their analysis. In turn, the qualitative strategy is based on the collection of textual data (texts of individual interviews, participant observation data, etc.) and their further structuring using special analytical techniques.
Since the early 90s, a mixed strategy began to actively develop, which consists of integrating the principles, methods of collecting and analyzing data from qualitative and quantitative strategies in order to obtain more valid and reliable results.
Research designs
Once the purpose of the study has been determined, the appropriate type of design must be determined. Research design is the combination of requirements regarding the collection and analysis of data necessary to achieve the objectives of the study.
Main types of design:
A cross-sectional design involves collecting data from a relatively large number of observation units. Typically involves the use of a sampling method to represent the general population. Data is collected once and is quantitative in nature. Next, descriptive and correlation characteristics are calculated, and statistical conclusions are drawn.
A longitudinal design consists of repeated cross-sectional surveys to establish changes over time. It is divided into panel studies (repeated surveys involve the same people) and cohort studies (repeated surveys involve different groups of people who represent the same population).
Experimental design involves identifying the influence of an independent variable on a dependent variable by leveling threats that may affect the nature of change in the dependent variable.
Case study designs are designed to study one or a small number of cases in detail. The emphasis is not on the distribution of the results to the entire population, but on the quality of the theoretical analysis and explanation of the mechanism of functioning of a particular phenomenon.
Research objectives
Among the goals of social research are description, explanation, evaluation, comparison, analysis of relationships, and study of cause-and-effect relationships.
Descriptive tasks are solved by simply collecting data using one of the methods suitable for a given situation - questioning, observation, document analysis, etc. One of the main tasks is to record data in such a way that in the future it will allow their aggregation.
To solve explanatory problems, a number of research approaches (for example, historical studies, case studies, experiments) are used to deal with the analysis of complex data. Their goal is not only to simply collect facts, but also to identify the meanings of a large set of social, political, cultural elements associated with the problem.
The general purpose of evaluation studies is to examine programs or projects regarding awareness, effectiveness, achievement of goals, etc. The results obtained are usually used to improve them, and sometimes simply to better understand the functioning of the programs and projects concerned.
Comparative research is used to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under study by identifying its common and distinctive features in different social groups. The largest of them are carried out in cross-cultural and cross-national contexts.
Research to establish relationships between variables is also called correlation research. The result of such studies is the production of specific descriptive information (for example, see pairwise linkage analysis). This is fundamentally quantitative research.
Establishing cause-and-effect relationships involves conducting experimental studies. In the social and behavioral sciences, there are several types of this type of research: randomized experiments, true experiments (involve the creation of special experimental conditions that simulate the necessary conditions), sociometry (of course, as Ya. Moreno understood it), garfinkeling.
At first glance, design and psychology are not related to each other, except when building websites, when the individual wishes of the customer are taken into account. But the scope of application of the fundamentals of psychology can be much wider, incorporating the latest achievements in this field of science.
Architecture is sometimes poetically called frozen music. Indeed, the influence of the external appearance of a building, and especially its internal space, on the human psyche is comparable to the influence of melody. Sometimes even a minor nuance can plunge you into sadness or, conversely, cause a feeling of vivacity, a surge of strength and joy.
Fortunately, the times when interior design was guided solely by pragmatic considerations of expediency and utilitarian benefit have sunk into oblivion. The desire to fully follow in this often very dubious criteria of fashion and prestige also ceases to be the main thing, but the personal and psychological aspect of room design comes to the fore. An apartment or a private house is gradually becoming not just a space for living, but a unique expression of the inner world of the owners. The style of the home is focused, first of all, on creating a comfortable and harmonious psychological climate, and with careful selection of all design components it can serve as a kind of passive psychotherapist.
Psychological design explores the complex of interactions in the “person-environment” system. This is the psychological basis for design. Justification of its causality, its existence in general, its components in a broad sense and in each specific case.
Psi-design is based on data from general psychology, social psychology (design as a channel of media systems), ethnopsychology, ethnography, sociology (an approach from the point of view of globalization of design), philosophy, cultural studies, synergetics, information science and physics.
Psi-design assimilates data from all ways of understanding reality - science, art, religion, etc., as well as empirically accumulated knowledge of traditional teachings.
The structure of psi-design includes consideration of two-way connections between a person and the environment: video ecology, color and light psychology, psychology of form, psychology of materials science, psychology of composition, psychology of individual differences, etc.
In the applied aspect of psi-design there are three main sections:
– formation of the integrity of ideas about the environment of human existence (in other words, diagnostics of the environment as a point of application of the transformative influence of design),
– methods for studying specific situations and interactions in the “man-environment” system,
– design recipe for creating an environment.
Psi-design develops non-standard and independent thinking, creativity, a broad view of the world of things and Nature, and their connections. For those who master it, new bottomless sources for creativity, inspiration, and intuition open up. From this moment, life becomes clearer, more meaningful, brighter, more interesting, “tastier”, its quality increases many times over. And no witchcraft.
Psychology is interesting to everyone because it concerns everyone. Because it is about the secrets of the psyche, it deeply knows about us even what we do not know ourselves. Supposedly we don’t know. In fact, it’s not that deep, not everything is always correct. But he tries. Conducts research, collects statistics, analyzes. He often gets carried away with theorizing and thinks about science for science's sake. But the applied part of it works, although not one hundred percent. Still, the main developments were made a long time ago and, most importantly, in the West. The basis was European thinking. Both subjects and psychologists.
As a result, the methods do not fully fit the Russian mentality, and often are not at all suitable for understanding the “mysterious Russian soul.” Strictly speaking, just as you cannot compare the intelligence of representatives of different cultures, you cannot use techniques created in a different mentality to analyze a different mentality.
In recent years, increased attention has been paid to design. Firstly, this is a new phenomenon for us. Secondly, interesting. Finally, simply beautiful. And few people realize how influential it is. In the sense of influencing a person as an environmental factor. Nobody argues anymore about the importance of ecology as an environmental factor. Moreover, all the troubles are now placed in this area. But the subject environment has no less influence on a person. From this point of view, it is the responsibility of the designer to ensure that this influence is positive and not negative. This is a separate topic, but let’s say that violating the rules of video ecology can lead to illness, including causing mental disorders. And the sick person will never guess that the reason is poor design.
The second reason is that the designer often cannot take the position of the customer and design the environment for him. When executing an order, he expresses his worldview and is guided by his taste. It is not for nothing that almost everyone complains about psychological problems with the customer as the main ones. This has already become a commonplace. The designer is the same person with his own system of views, and even if he tries to adapt to the taste of the customer, he rarely hits the mark. Lack of objectivity.
In addition, designers often act dishonestly; they “take advantage of the customer” and impose their taste and preferences. Many people do this unintentionally. Partly due to the fact that the customer himself does not know what he wants. And even if he formulates his wishes, it is not at all a fact that, if implemented, they will not harm him in the future. After all, the customer’s desire can be dictated by mood, fashion, or someone’s advice.
To be honest in the profession, one must admit that a designer, even though he is an artist, is still a person from the service sector. That is, “whatever you want.” A designer is obliged (literally like a doctor) to love all his customers (patients), love all styles (diseases), all colors (syndromes) and textures and skillfully operate with them. But even this is not enough. There is not enough tool to objectify the design solution.
It turned out, however, that the creation of such a psychological method is real. Moreover, it has already been developed and tested. The beauty is that it helps to avoid subjectivity on both sides of the contract and determine with a greater degree of certainty what the customer actually wants. As a result, a unique “design recipe” is formulated for a given customer. Similar to individual tailoring in an atelier. Specific recommendations are given on style, form, space, texture of materials, light, in accordance with the mental make-up of the individual. If the customer is a family, then an average general recipe is issued without “harmful” factors for any of its members.
As a result, the designer manages to express the client’s worldview and self-perception through interior design. It is not easy to turn a client into a co-author (then the size of the fee will be unprofitable for the designer), but to “sew a suit to fit your figure.”
It is also very noteworthy that the technique provides a real opportunity to provide a therapeutic effect using interior means. Yes, physics, in particular, new sections - synergetics and eniology.
Of course, in fairness, it must be said that the psychological technique is not a device for which you need to know a few buttons. It is necessary to acquire a minimum of psychological knowledge to interpret the data obtained. But this is quite realistic for an ordinary person and does not require deep knowledge.
The psychological approach to interior design conventionally includes two main functions. The most common and well-known harmonizing function is when the decor of a single room or the entire house reflects a person’s temperament, his habits and worldview. The purpose of such a room is to create an atmosphere of harmony and peace. Bold and non-trivial decisions are hardly justified here. In fact, such a technique assumes the passivity of the interior in relation to its owner. Thanks to the optimal combination of shades and textures of finishing materials, as well as decorative elements and accessories, the interior adapts to a particular individual, being a continuation of his inner self.
The second, much more interesting function can be called stimulating. Design now plays an active role: it favorably accentuates certain features of the owner’s character and temperament, or, conversely, smoothes out and levels out undesirable features. For example, such an interior can balance an impulsive choleric person or inspire a melancholic person prone to depression. It is no secret that the popularity of Feng Shui today is largely due to the variety of methods for organizing stimulating space that this ancient teaching offers. However, followers of Feng Shui look even deeper, declaring that proper arrangement can mysteriously influence not only the psyche of the inhabitants of the house, but also events in their lives, business and personal success. Of course, the ideal would be a room design that combines both stimulating and harmonizing functions.
Interior design begins with the layout of the premises, with the creation of a certain structure of the internal space. From a psychological point of view, such structuring is of paramount importance. In fact, it sets the rhythm of life in the house and often dictates specific patterns of relationships between its inhabitants and each other and guests. Although there are countless spatial layout options, they can be boiled down to two main types: indoor and outdoor interiors. A closed-type interior implies a clear and fixed division of a single whole into several isolated rooms, each of which performs a specific function. For example, the living room cannot double as a dining room, and the bedroom cannot double as a study. From a psychological point of view, privacy, and even the intimacy of the lives of the owners of the premises, is of paramount importance here. An open interior, on the contrary, is a design embodiment of the concept of an accessible society, demonstrating a kind of life on display, an active, dynamic and sociable style of behavior and, perhaps, the priority of public and business interests over personal ones.
Design of medical clinical trials The concept of design translated from English (design) means plan, project, sketch, design. Methods of qualitative and quantitative research in evidence-based medicine. Clinical trials, definition, classification. Statistical analysis in evidence-based medicine. Levels of evidence and gradation of recommendations for clinical trial results
A clinical trial is any prospective study in which patients are enrolled in an intervention or comparison group to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between a medical intervention and a clinical outcome. This is the final stage of a clinical trial in which the truth of new theoretical knowledge is tested. CT design is a way of conducting scientific research in a clinic, i.e. its organization or architecture.
A CI design type is a set of classification characteristics that correspond to: 1) certain typical clinical tasks; 2) research methods; 3) methods of statistical processing of results.
Classification of studies by design Observational studies are those in which one or more groups of patients are described and observed for certain characteristics, and the investigator collects data by simply observing events in their natural course without actively interfering with them; Experimental studies - the results of an intervention (drug, procedure, treatment, etc.) are evaluated using one or more groups. The subject of the study is observed.
1. Observational ↓ Descriptive Analytical ↓ Case-control case reports Cohort 2. Experimental ↓ Clinical trials
The most important requirements for medical research are the correct organization (design) of the study and a mathematically sound method of randomization. Study inclusion and exclusion criteria are clearly defined and followed. Correct choice of disease outcome criteria under the influence of treatment and without it. Location of the study Duration of the study Correct use of statistical processing methods
General principles of classical scientific research. Clinical Trials Controlled - Compare a drug or procedure to other drugs or procedures -More common, more likely to detect treatment differences Uncontrolled - Experience with a drug or procedure, but not compared to another treatment option -Less common, less valid -Likelier to compare procedures more than for the comparison drug
Types of clinical questions that a doctor faces when caring for a patient The main categories of clinical questions are: prevalence of diseases, risk factors, diagnosis, prognosis and effectiveness of treatment. Deviation from the norm - Healthy or sick? Diagnosis - How accurate is the diagnosis? Frequency - How common is this disease? Risk - What factors are associated with an increased risk of disease?
Prognosis - What are the consequences of the disease? Treatment - How will the course of the disease change with treatment? Prevention - Are there methods to prevent disease in healthy people? Does the course of the disease improve with early recognition and treatment? Cause - What factors lead to the disease? Cost - How much does it cost to treat this disease?
Types of medical studies Systematic reviews, meta-analysis Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) Cohort studies Case-control studies Case series, single case study In vitro and animal studies
Systematic reviews (SR) are scientific work where the object of study is the results of a number of original studies on one problem, that is, the results of these studies are analyzed using approaches that reduce the possibility of systematic and random errors; are a generalization of the results of various studies on a given topic and are one of the most “readable” versions of scientific publications, because they allow you to quickly and most fully get acquainted with the problem of interest. The purpose of the SR is a balanced and impartial study of the results of previously conducted studies
A qualitative systematic review examines the results of original research on a single problem or system, but does not conduct statistical analysis.
Meta-analysis is the pinnacle of evidence and serious scientific research: a quantitative assessment of the total effect established on the basis of the results of all scientific studies (H. Davies, Crombie I. 1999); A quantitative systematic review of the literature or a quantitative synthesis of primary data to produce summary statistics.
Randomized controlled trials (studies) - RCTs RCTs - in modern medical science are the generally accepted standard of scientific research for assessing clinical effectiveness. Randomization is a method used to create a sequence of random assignment of trial participants to groups (rand - French - case). RCT - treatment evaluation criteria
Study structure in RCTs 1. Availability of a control group 2. Clear selection criteria (inclusion and exclusion) of patients 3. Inclusion of patients in the study before randomization into groups 4. Random method of allocating patients into groups (randomization) 5. “Blind” treatment 6. “ Blind assessment of treatment results
Structure of the study - presentation of results 7. Information about complications and side effects of treatment 8. Information about the number of patients who dropped out during the experiment 9. Adequate statistical analysis, there are links to the use of the article, program, etc. 10. Information about the size of the identified effect and statistical power of the study
RCT - comparison of the final results should be carried out in two groups of patients: Control group - no treatment is carried out or standard, traditional (usual) treatment is carried out or patients receive a placebo; Active treatment group – treatment is administered and its effectiveness is being studied.
A placebo is an indifferent substance (procedure) to compare its effects with the effects of a real drug or other intervention. In clinical trials, placebo is used in a blind manner so that participants do not know which treatment they are being assigned (V. Maltsev, et al., 2001). Placebo control technology is ethical in cases where the subject does not suffer significant harm without medication.
Active control - a drug is used that is effective relative to the indicator being studied (the “gold standard” drug is more often used - well studied, long ago and widely used in practice).
Homogeneity of compared groups - groups of patients must be comparable and homogeneous in terms of: Clinical features of the disease and comorbidities Age, gender, race
Representativeness of groups The number of patients in each group should be sufficient to obtain statistically reliable results. The distribution of patients into groups should be randomized, i.e., using a random sampling method, which eliminates all possible differences between the compared groups that could potentially affect the outcome of the study.
Blinding method - to minimize the conscious or unconscious possibility of influence on the results of the study on the part of its participants, i.e., to exclude the subjective factor, the blinding method is used in evidence-based medicine.
Types of “blinding” Simple “blind” (single-blind) - the patient does not know about belonging to a certain group, but the doctor knows; Double “blind” (doubl - blind) - the patient and the doctor do not know about belonging to a certain group; Triple-blind (triple - blind) - the patient, doctor and organizers do not know about belonging to a certain group (statistical processing) Open study (open - label) - all study participants are aware
The results of RCTs must be practically significant and informative: This can only be done with sufficiently long follow-up of patients and a low number of patient refusals to continue participating in the study (<10%).
True criteria for the effectiveness of treatment – Primary – main indicators associated with the patient’s life (death from any cause or the main disease under study, recovery from the disease under study) – Secondary – improvement in quality of life, reduction in the frequency of complications, relief of symptoms of the disease – Surrogate (indirect), tertiary - results of laboratory and instrumental studies that are supposed to be associated with true endpoints, i.e. primary and secondary.
Randomized clinical trials - objective endpoint criteria must be used: Mortality from a given disease Overall mortality Frequency of development of “major” complications Frequency of readmissions Assessment of quality of life
Cohort study (cohort group) A group of patients is selected for a similar trait that will be followed in the future Begins with the assumption of a risk factor Groups of patients: - exposed to a risk factor - not exposed to a risk factor Prospective over time (in the future) identification of the desired factors in exposed group Answers the question: “Will people get sick (in the future) if they are exposed to a risk factor? ". Mostly prospective, but there are also retrospective ones. Both groups are monitored in the same way. Outcome assessments Historical cohort - cohort selection based on medical records, and observation at the present time.
Case-control study A study designed to identify the relationship between a risk factor and a clinical outcome. Such a study compares the proportion of participants who experienced harm in two groups, one of which developed and one of which did not experience the clinical outcome of interest. The main and control groups belong to the same risk population The main and control groups should be equally exposed Classification of the disease at t = 0 Exposure is measured equally in both groups May be the foundation of new scientific research, theories
Case-control study (retrospective): - At the beginning of the study, the outcome is unknown - Cases: presence of a disease or outcome - Controls: absence of a disease or outcome - Answers the question: “What happened? » -This is a longitudinal or longitudinal study
Case series or descriptive study Case series - a study of the same intervention in individual consecutive patients without a control group For example, a vascular surgeon might describe the results of carotid revascularization in 100 patients with cerebral ischemia Describes a number of characteristics of interest in the small groups observed patients Relatively short study period Does not include any research hypotheses No control groups Predates other studies This type of study is limited to data on individual patients
Blind luck
The mythical idea of the designer as a lonely dreamer does not allow us to see the similarities between him and the film director. However, when the lights go down in the cinema, we look forward to being allowed to enter the world created by the latter's imagination. Many film fans were introduced to the chilling world created by director Adrian Lyne with his 1987 film Fatal Attraction ( Fatal Attraction) became the highest-grossing film of the year. In the climactic scene of the film, Glenn Close, who skillfully wielded a knife, passes into the other world in the arms of Michael Douglas, bleeding. Apparently, this Adrian Lyne has a very vivid and vindictive imagination. Although, perhaps, not at all from him...
In this particular case, such a cinematic vision emerged from suburban American moviegoers. During a test screening of the film, which ended with Glenn Close's suicide scene, an outraged audience loudly demanded blood, and on a much larger scale than could be gained from suicide. It was this reaction from the audience that convinced the film company Paramount spending over a million dollars more to film a different, more bloodthirsty ending.
Today, making a film that becomes a box office hit is no longer the blind luck it once was. The same is true when developing successful products or programs. Through methods such as focus groups, hall tests and a number of others, design receives information from consumers, learns their reaction to new concepts and prototypes of products. For example, at a Swedish plant Orrefors Glass An annual buyer and distributor conference is held to review new product ranges and make suggestions for adapting product designs to different national markets. IN Hilti Powertools Users work with designers to evaluate new product ideas. In company Microsoft Developers sign up to receive email newsletters containing user feedback on products, which allows them to address emerging issues in the next version of the program.
No matter what we create - a film, a glass, a mechanical instrument, or a word processor - we need adequate methods to determine whether the wants and needs of consumers are being met. And in product design, we also need to ensure competitiveness with existing products, to ensure that our work reflects the constantly changing trends and directions in design, technology and culture.
In this chapter, we'll explain why research is so vital and how it should be used in experience-first design. We will review the main research methodologies and analyze in more detail those that have been recently improved in response to the challenges of new consumer culture and technological capabilities.
Research and design process
Most designers claim that they are not researchers at all, although in reality they are often engaged in research. Let's use a comparison of two models that Niedjuis and Bersema put at our disposal - a model of the design development process and a model of the applied research process (Fig. 4.1).
The similarities are obvious: both design and research involve identifying a problem, taking a planned sequence of steps to study that problem, and finding the most appropriate solution. Each step involves research, which is the process of finding the information needed as the basis for each stage of the product creation process. So, for practicing designers, design research is a process of searching in three areas.
Search for understanding
To design effectively, a designer must have a deep understanding of the context* in which he will be working.
But these studies are not necessarily and not always carried out consciously. Many designers have an innate ability to be in tune with the environment, people and their needs, with color, shape and material; this unique immersion in the material world allows them to use their acquired knowledge in the design process. However, there is often also a need to collect information about markets and all parties interested in the emergence of a product (including customers, users, manufacturers), and for this there are special tools, techniques and disciplines.
Search for ideas
During design, the designer looks for ideas that can help him give the product a certain form, which includes the functions of the product, the materials from which it is to be made, and its aesthetics. Here again the designer uses primarily his intuitive knowledge, but often intuition usually needs the help of conscious research. It all depends on the creative talent of the designer and his ability to use existing knowledge to spur his imagination. Having decided on the context of the design task, the designer begins to search for ideas. To stimulate the creative process, some of the techniques for generating creative ideas are used (module 4.1). They are also called design methods.
Module 4.1. Methods for searching for creative ideas
Brainstorm
A technique for group participation in generating ideas to find a solution to a specific problem.
Goal tree
A technique that involves listing design goals and project subgoals and diagramming the hierarchical relationships between them.
Counter planning
This technique requires the analysis of the premises and justification of a problem, solution, plan or design through a process of proposal and consideration of opposing premises, resulting in a final, revised solution, plan or understanding.
Interaction Matrix
Investigate and chart the interactions between multiple elements within the problem being solved.
Interaction network
Converting an interaction matrix into a representation of spatial or other relationships between elements of a problem.
Forced connections
A method of generating innovation that consists in searching for probable connections that do not currently clearly exist between the components of a product or system.
New combinations
Search for new, previously non-existent combinations of alternative components.
Source: abbreviated from the Open University Design Methods Module ( Open University,OU).
Searching of decisions
Finally, in the process of directly working on the design concept and solutions, the designer conducts (formally or informally) research, which involves not only the use of various creative techniques, but also a methodical search for processes, materials, technologies and ideas. Often designers organize their own information repositories. Yes, to the design bureau PSD A trend and technology room has been specially created for its employees, where relevant information about them is stored.
It is quite obvious that these search categories are interdependent and mutually complement each other. Understanding context, searching for ideas, and testing concepts overlap (Figure 4.2).
Design process
The designer does not conduct this search sequentially: first - understanding, then - ideas and finally - solutions. The design process is more like a constant alternation of tides
and ebbs, which can be illustrated by the four main categories of the design process: formulation, development, transfer and reaction.
Formulation is concerned with identifying needs and planning the problem statement. This beginning of the design and development process for a new product is often referred to as a "fuzzy beginning": at this stage, the designer and other participants in the product development process try to understand the needs, requirements and desires of all stakeholders, and the result is the identification of incentives for the subsequent generation of ideas.
There are two parts to this process (Figure 4.3). One is environmental research, where the designer and other company functions, such as sales and marketing, study trends, collect general market information, observe users and consumers, and monitor product usage and feedback. Very often, the designer takes upon himself only the observation of trends and consumers, which is carried out formally or, which happens much more often, informally. He can go to exhibitions, visit retail outlets, watch TV and purposefully collect information about the market and users. The market research department and sales staff also collect such information, but at an official level. The designer's goal is to intuitively understand the world in which he intends to work in order to enable the generation of ideas and the creative process. In other words, he is in search of understanding and ideas.
Once a problem or concept is defined, the search becomes more focused and specific research techniques are used, often called the requirements statement process (Figure 4.4). In the procedure for collecting and transforming information to develop requirements, formalized techniques are used, usually borrowed from the field of market research, but with the advent of ethnographic techniques, the most important aspect has become the recording of research results and monitoring their use and value throughout the entire course of product development, that is, the requirements management process .
Development associated with the generation of ideas, concepts and detailed design development. At this stage, the designer searches for ideas, using existing knowledge, information and creative techniques to develop concepts; decides which technologies, materials and processes will help generate ideas and find solutions; Tests design concepts and revises developed designs based on context and user responses to the design.
Transfer covers the implementation of a design into production and the release of a product to the market or its delivery to the user or consumer. Here, the research is purely concerned with ensuring a smooth transition of the design into production - much of the research has already been carried out in previous planning stages. But even at this stage, the designer gains certain knowledge and experience in understanding the production and implementation process. The information obtained will be extremely useful for him when solving future design problems.
On the stage reactions the designer addresses the results of his work, evaluating them in terms of the reactions of users and other interested parties, and also evaluates the entire process and the knowledge gained. All this is part of the learning process for the designer himself and the organization as a whole. The resulting body of knowledge and information collected will help in the quest to understand the impression created by the design.
Thus, research, design searches and the design process itself are interconnected and intersect many times. It is a constant process of learning and knowledge management. Figure 4.5 shows the relationship between research activity (we will look at its types in more detail a little later) with the concept of search and the design process. The diagram clearly demonstrates that conducting research is primarily the domain of the designer, especially at the beginning of the design process. Now we have to answer the question why this is needed and what research methods are most effective.
Research to minimize risk
Any design is a risk. You can never say for sure in advance whether an idea will work or not. But, as statistics show, effective research helps minimize risk. According to Gillian and Bill Hollins, only 5% of all design ideas generated in industry result in a commercially successful product 4 . About 80% of ideas are discarded before design requirements are defined, yet many are a necessary part of the ideation process. But the further a design advances in the new product development process, the more expensive it becomes. Only one in three products launched into the market achieves commercial success, so to reduce the risk and cost of failure, it is necessary to proactively identify the factors that contribute to a product's success in the market.
Cooper and Kleinschmidt analyzed 203 new product launches, both successful and unsuccessful 5 . Their research identified nine factors that were directly related to the success of new products; three of them had the strongest impact.
Advantages of the product - the product provided the consumer with unique opportunities; it was high quality, innovative, worth the money, and solved a problem the consumer was having.
High level of pre-project preparation - with products that turned out to be successful, a number of preliminary actions were carried out: preliminary review, preliminary market assessment, detailed study of market conditions and financial analysis.
Clear definition of the product - even before the product development stage, a clear definition of the target market segment, consumer needs, wishes and preferences, concept and technical characteristics of the product was carried out.
In other words, product success is rooted in a deep understanding of the customer, the market, and the benefits of the new product concept relative to competitors. Obtaining all this information is often the prerogative of specialists in the field. Internal marketing departments, market research consultants, and other professionals help guide the design process toward success. However, designers still need to understand the nature of existing research tools and how they can be adapted to their own needs when working on smaller projects.
Studying competitors
If successful design is to provide a product with an advantage over competitive products, the first step is to carefully analyze and evaluate the competition. This will help either to discover those empty niches in the market that design will help fill by providing the desired price, functionality, style or any other characteristic of the product that is created with its help, or to identify the initial inexpediency of entering into competition.
Some companies literally take their competitors' products apart piece by piece to learn how they are designed and manufactured. In 1960 the company Ford
Motors undertook
such reverse engineering analysis BMC
Mini*. Having studied the machine down to the last weld and carefully determined the cost of its assembly, engineers Ford came to the conclusion that production was unprofitable BMC
Mini
and, therefore, the futility of competing with Mini by price. Designer James Pilditch, while on a business trip to Japan, discovered that all electronics companies were conducting this type of engineering analysis of their competitors' products.
Market research reports provide useful background information about competitors' market-leading products, but these studies rarely provide detailed and compelling information. Many designers resort to critical constructive analysis, obtaining information from other, various sources. These are trade fairs and exhibitions, industrial magazines, articles in Which?**, Compass(a directory of “who makes and sells what”, which can be found in most libraries) and careful examination of display cases. Once a designer is armed with sales brochures, price lists, reviews and other information, he begins to understand something about it.
Market research
Welsh shoppers pay 5% more attention to color when buying ceramics than Yorkshire shoppers. The durability of cookware does not matter for those over 65 and under 25. When choosing tableware, Manchester residents are more concerned about price than residents of other regions. Last year, 56% of men purchased at least one T-shirt. 96.5% of consumers expressed their disapproval when shown a particularly outstanding designer teapot...
Market research reports (MRs) consist of observations like those listed above regarding consumer preferences and behavior. Typically, the IT industry collects and collates information from manufacturers, retailers, and consumers through extensive research. Sometimes companies order research exclusively for themselves in order to compare their products with those of competitors.
Such formal market research is undoubtedly an important source of consumer knowledge, although not all companies
able to use them effectively. A study by the Design Innovation Group in the UK found that about 90% of successful non-UK companies, but less than half of UK firms, used formal R&D during product planning7. The results showed that successful companies drew information from a variety of sources during product planning and design development, complementing formal R&D with other methods. Figure 4.6, which is based on the results of the study, shows the sources of information that successful firms used. Less successful companies tended to use only the first three sources listed.
As we will see later, formal IR is often imprecise and general and is more reactive than proactive. Such research cannot help designers adapt existing products or come up with new concepts that can anticipate future needs. The term “creative marketing” is used to refer to inherently more qualitative IR techniques (providing more detailed information about consumer views and various alternative concepts). It involves teams of researchers, designers and consumers who repeatedly discuss product ideas, first before design specifications are defined, and then again after prototypes have been produced.
One of the methods used to find out consumer opinions is focus group: A group of typical consumers of six or eight people comes together to evaluate a product already on the market or some new concept. The facilitator* encourages group members to openly express their opinions and discuss suggestions in an informal, open manner. Focus group research, a method well-established in the development of new products, also helped Tony Blair when he was developing new principles and policies for New Labour. Leaving aside ethical concerns about whether policy decisions can be based on market research, let's consider the effectiveness of the focus group method and its inherent limitations.
A recent study at Loughborough University involved designers participating in focus groups to evaluate existing products. The benefits turned out to be obvious: designers begin not only to better feel and understand the end consumer, but also to more confidently develop designs for a wide variety of consumer groups; they receive information useful for their work, although the process itself takes a lot of time. However, according to Donald Norman, focus groups “show what matters now, but not what may matter in the future. It's incredibly difficult for users to imagine how they might use a new product in the future, and when it comes to completely new product categories, it's best to forget about focus groups." Norman goes even further, arguing that the behavior of focus group participants is dominated by a rational component, which does not always underlie people's actual behavior. In short, people can say one thing and do something completely different.
This especially applies to children. They are lying. And not at all because of innate deceit: children tend to say what they think adults want to hear from them, rather than answer sincerely - any parent will tell you this. Therefore, giving a child a prototype of a toy and asking what he thinks about it is far from the best research method. IN THE USA Fisher Price developed a research system known as Playlab (from English - “game laboratory”). The company carefully selects a group of children and invites them to play in a room full of new toys. Researchers observe children through translucent mirrors and find out which toys children play with most actively and which ones arouse their lasting interest.
Is this the whole secret of successful design - just gather a few customers, develop a design according to their requirements and wait for an avalanche of orders to come your way? Any research method requires a certain amount of caution in approaching it. The case we are considering is no exception: it is first necessary to ensure the degree of representativeness of the group members as consumers. In addition, the whole process will only benefit if the group includes more consumers who are interested in the future than consumers who are hostile to everything new.
In his book Liberation Management ( Liberation Management) Tom Peters tells how one company was able to solve this problem. Company Hilti, a manufacturer of professional mechanical tools, took advantage of a method developed by Professor Eric von Hippel of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology). User-leader market research involves first identifying users who are most open to new ideas and innovations, and then recruiting them to participate in product development workshops (where they, along with marketers and designers, help develop and evaluate design ideas). As part of the new product development process, the user-leader method has led to Hilti to reduce development costs by up to 50%.
Lifestyle Study
Rumor has it that the company's chief designer Sony Yasuo Kuroki once said: “I don’t believe in market research. They don't help us develop new products at all." According to Christopher Lorenz, the point of view Sony Deserves attention.
In 1960, the American electronics giant company General Electric abandoned plans to produce portable televisions after market research showed that consumers did not see a need for such a product. Same year Sony launched an 8‑inch TV that retailed at twice the retail price of 21‑inch TVs. The product was a huge success and provided a launching pad for Japanese companies that would eventually dominate the American television market.
And still success Sony was not about ignoring market research. Rather, it was the result of the use of new and more adequate methods. Instead of relying on the opinions of consumers, who are often skeptical or distrustful of change, Sony decided to analyze behavioral patterns and changes in culture. Almost every American family had a television set with multiple channels and was subject to a process of cultural fragmentation as younger generations chose to entertain themselves differently from their parents. Add up all these facts and you get the need for an extra television for children to watch and listen to Elvis, or for a housewife to have Lucille Ball help her cook dinner.
Lifestyle research has now become a core activity in many leading Japanese companies, with some design departments including trend research centers or lifestyle research centers, where sociologists, psychologists and anthropologists work alongside designers. In company Mazda The design research department's job is not limited to reading technical reports on carbon fibers. Magazines included in must-read lists Vogue And The Face, and designers are sent on business trips to observe people (which they do by visiting European bars and restaurants). These trends have led to the emergence of a more powerful form of ethnographic research, which we will explore later in this chapter.
Studying trends
Increasingly, design is linked to the satisfaction of humanitarian needs - lifestyle, fashion, changing tastes, cultural significance. Closely intertwined with design, trends are a collection of various events in the technological world that give rise to new applications of design and new needs. How can a designer understand these processes of change and predict their further development?
The shapes, colors and materials that are popular today influence the nature of the objects designed by designers. A number of factors determine the types of communication and environmental objects. But technology capabilities are critical, and that's clear. For example, plastic molding technology was a key factor in the dominant aesthetic of the 1950s and 1960s. Computer image manipulation set graphic design trends in the 1990s, and today new production technologies and materials are driving greater diversity in design.
It is clear that design trends are also influenced by the state of the political economy. Thus, James Laver, a specialist in the history of fashion, goes so far as to link the length of women's skirts with the state of the country's economy, believing that economic growth and women's skirts rise and fall in apparent harmony with each other 13.
In addition, of course, there are also social and cultural relations. Thus, over the past 30 years, our attitude towards the environment has undergone significant transformations. Instead of disposable furniture from the 1960s, we increasingly prefer items made from recycled materials. Such elusive substances as taste and fashion also influence style. What you need to be especially aware of is that fashion today is much more diverse than in the past. And the trends in design itself are far from uniform.
But rather than jumping blindly into existing diversity and giving in to the ever-increasing pace of change in fashion and design trends, we must find ways to unravel this tangle of tangled threads and understand what factors give rise to the changes that interest us. Perhaps this way we will be able to predict the direction of these changes in the future.
Technological changes such as the development of microelectronics, information technology, the emergence of new materials, advanced manufacturing technologies and the development of biotechnology will continue to influence all areas of design (Module 4.2). The need to keep up with these phenomena and plan for their future development is quite obvious. In textiles, for example, new design possibilities are offered by the use of metal styles developed for industrial applications, today used by fashion designers such as Helen Storey, who created fashion concepts for ICI(using insulating material for greenhouses). In the future, it is likely that design innovation will result from the merging of technologies, leading to hybrid products that combine functionality and technology.
Module 4.2. When clothes meet electronics
In 2000 Philips Design began production of its portable electronics ( Wearable Electronics), launching products combining electronic and textile technologies. Electronics, consumer and fashion product design experts collaborated to develop clothing with built-in electronics. According to Peter Sarangi, head of the research laboratories Philips In the UK, where the concept clothing was developed, “people are carrying more and more electronic products, such as mobile phones, PDAs, radios or iPods. And the trend is only getting stronger. So it makes sense to start incorporating these products directly INSIDE our clothing.”
Modern fabrics, in which the cable is embedded, become a wearable network to which various components are connected at will. Children's clothing can be equipped with mobile phones and tracking systems, allowing parents to never lose sight of their children, or equipped with gaming systems and diversifying children's entertainment. With the help of clothes made from interactive fabric, nightclub lovers will be able to choose the club's music and lighting. A Philips already offers beeper sneakers that light up when someone who shares your interests is nearby.
Source: press releases Philips, http:// www. research. philips. com/ pressmedia/ releases/990802. html(date of access - August 16, 2000).
As any historian will tell you, predicting the future is easier if you remember the past well. One method to help us better understand the nature and pace of change is the change chart; compiling it involves analyzing the evolution of design or products in general, or the products of a specific company. Such diagrams help to see the rate of change and can serve as a basis for further development and improvement. They can be made very detailed and include photographs, performance and feature details, prices, sales data, etc. Change charts allow the designer to see the pace and nature of stylistic and technological changes, suggest whether the time has come for a design change, indicate the presence of free niches in the market.
Since the 1960s, there have been over 50 trend forecasting agencies in the UK; they are in the business of predicting future changes in fashion in the areas of color, style and shape. At first, the services of these agencies were used exclusively by clothing manufacturers, but now among their clients you can find both sellers and manufacturers such as Ford. Forecasters make money doing what they say designers should be doing and what designers simply don't have time for. Agencies study cultural and social trends, the market, events in the world of fashion, media and music, and present all the data obtained in the form of so-called emotional maps.
A matter of taste
Several years ago, one of us, the authors of this book, took part in a discussion with the managing director of a ceramic tableware manufacturer (the conversation was broadcast live on the radio). The controversy centered on his industry's apparent reluctance to think seriously about embracing diverse, modern design. In defense of his century-old design preferences, the managing director said: “In the end, design is a matter of taste.” The company in question recently went into receivership.
To some extent, the director was right. Historically, design in the UK has seen its mission as improving the taste of the mass market, and the key task of the Design Council ( Design Council) was to define standards for good design. But the ardent desire to cultivate the middle class ran counter to the interests of industrialists and their supporters. In 1951, the UK Treasury declared in an internal report that it saw no future in good design and consequently recommended the abolition of the Design Council. The report said: “It turns out that the worse the design of an object, the better it sells on the foreign market. It’s obvious that porcelain dogs are especially popular abroad.”
If modernism saw its goal as smashing into pieces the porcelain dog and at the same time everything that stood behind it, then postmodernism prefers to see more dogs, of all kinds, and preferably plastic, made in China. Globalization, diversity and consumer choice have replaced dubious tenets of good taste, and the Design Council has long since abandoned its role as tastemaker. As discussed in Chapter 1, taste is a system of discrimination and individuation that literally makes us what we are, giving shape to our identity. Design is no longer about trying to impose modernist tastes on the mass market. Today, design is about understanding the tastes of individual consumer groups, giving products shapes and feelings that express the meaning behind those tastes. Form is no longer determined by function, form is determined by meaning.
Mirja Kalviainen from the Kuopio Design Academy ( Kuopio Academy of Design), Finland, believes that the design process should include an understanding of consumer taste: “The element of taste in designed objects should not be based on the preferences of the designer himself. Reflexivity, the ability to question one's own concept of taste, is at the core of design processes that take consumer taste into account." Kalviainen suggests three areas of research that can help designers understand consumer tastes.
Objective frames. This refers to the demographic characteristics of the consumer group, the context of use, and the history of the product in that context.
Creating meanings. Here the interest is focused on the sphere of symbolic meaning, from the perspective of which it is studied
the life story of consumers and how a product acquires its own meaning through the process of consumption.
System of interactions. The designer explores the social world in which the consumer lives, which includes social codes and rituals, rules of interaction and key sources of influence.
To summarize Kalviainen's reasoning, to gain significant insight into consumer tastes, a designer must conduct empirical research into the world in which those consumers live. And this way of knowing must be approached from the perspective of the social sciences (which try to explain the creation of meaning through consumption), supported by reflective introspection on the part of the designer himself. Some consulting firms already specialize in conducting this type of research. So, in the USA the company Image Engineering has developed a qualitative research method that is said to elicit consumers' emotional responses to brand visual symbols and product design, thereby providing a meaning-making framework 17 . Consumer research is of paramount importance for design that deliberately seeks to touch the consumer emotionally. Taste is an element of the social and humanitarian function of any product or service and, as McDonagh-Philp and Lebbon believe, “humanitarian functionality cannot be applied to a product like gloss. It should be internal to the design concept. And it will only increase the value of the product if it is culturally and emotionally close to the target audience.” Understanding taste and connecting emotionally with the material world is the job of an anthropologist.
Anthropology - active contact with context
In Palo Alto, California's high-tech hub, the number of job openings for anthropologists nearly outnumbers the number of job openings for computer programmers. In February 1999, an editorial in the newspaper's financial section USA Today published under the title "Hot Corporate Assets: A Degree in Anthropology" ( Hot asset in corporate: anthropology degrees). The article said: “No amount of research can tell engineers what women really want from a razor. Therefore, marketing consultants Hauser Design they send anthropologists into bathrooms to spy on women shaving their legs.” Anthropology is very cool.
Indiana Jones was probably the first anthropologist to demonstrate just how cool it is to be an anthropologist. Harrison Ford's character was an archaeologist who studied artifacts to understand people and their cultural systems. Archeology is a branch of knowledge within anthropology that deals with the study of historical cultures. Another branch of knowledge, applied anthropology, studies cultural systems and human behavior as applied to real-world problems, although that's probably what Indiana Jones did when trying to outsmart the Nazis.
Ethnography, which draws on the methods, techniques, and theory of anthropology and other social sciences such as psychology, sociology, and communication theories, is called “a methodology used to provide perspective on the everyday.” Judy Tso - anthropologist whose consulting firm Aha Solutions Unlimited (www.ahasolutions.org) uses ethnographic methods to address product development issues, offers this explanation:
Ethnography was once the province of those intrepid anthropologists who spent years conducting fieldwork at the ends of the world. Conducting field research required the anthropologist to live for a long time among the people he studied and carefully observe them. It is a specific approach to qualitative research that can take the form of an oral narrative or a literary work. The anthropologist observed local life, participated in it, and after two or three years of study, collected his observations, essays and stories into one document, which was called “ethnography.”
If you want to know something about water, never ask a fish about it. Traditional market research methodology relies on structured research methods. One of the main problems with this approach is the following: fundamental needs, aspirations, habits and values are so deeply ingrained in the culture of a particular group of consumers that people can no longer adequately express them in words or explain their reason. If we set ourselves the goal of understanding the context of life, then perhaps only observing the behavior and interactions of people and then analyzing what we see can help us in this. By studying the life of fish, we can actually learn a lot about water. Or about photocopiers.
One of the first ethnographic studies of high technology was conducted in 1979 by anthropologist Lucy Suchman, who carried out work for the Company Research Center Xerox in Palo Alto ( Palo Alto Research Center, PARC). Her video about office workers having difficulty coping with the work of making copies on the machine Xerox, helped the design team realize that ease of use is much more important than having a lot of extra features. As a result of finalizing the design, a large green button appeared on the photocopier, by clicking on which you get one very ordinary copy of the document. This button is still present on any, even the most multifunctional photocopier Xerox. Suchman's work was a breakthrough in product development and opened the door for anthropologists to join almost every high-tech company.
Not long ago the company Kodak conducted an ethnographic study as part of the Global Consumer Experience program ( Global User Experience, GLUE) to develop product design and user interface for Kodak in the markets of Japan, China and India. The study combined elements of ethnography, product and user interface prototype development, and design validation using focus groups in all three countries. Detailed report published in Design Management Journal, illustrates how ethnography can directly contribute to the product design process.
While Kodak is quite obviously engaged in the development of consumer products created taking into account the context of their use, Intel, at first glance, is simply a supplier of high-tech components. However, on Intel There is also a whole team of anthropologists researching a range of different contexts of use in which a device with Intel inside. According to Genevieve Bell, who is a member of this team and works for Intel Since 1998, ethnography “is based on an idea that can be summed up succinctly: you learn a culture best by being in it and being part of it. An old teacher of mine called this deep immersion. You have to actually be there, interact with people, take part in their daily lives.” Intel uses deep dive technology to identify new uses and new users of computer technology, thereby expanding the market for its microprocessors (more on this in module 4.3).
To embed its microprocessors inside even more digital products, the company Intel I decided to see what was outside. To conduct one of the latest studies Intel sent her anthropologists shopping. Ultimately, it was necessary to formulate technical specifications for web designers to create e-commerce sites and provide advice Intel what technologies will need to be developed in the future.
Genevieve Bell and her collaborators used surveys of shoppers, e-commerce enthusiasts, online sellers, and brick-and-mortar retailers as their research method. The actions taken also revealed the openness of the American market to new experiences in the shopping process.
The researchers joined a group of women from Seattle and filmed a day of their shopping trips. The video showed the importance of the tactile, social and playful aspects of the shopping process, which helped to see the essence of the problem facing e-commerce: “None of this happens on the Internet. All you can do is look at a photo of the item and find out its price. While working on the design e- commerce and m-commerce [ m-commerce - a type of commerce carried out using a mobile phone; very popular in Japan] we need to understand the expectations people have about the buying process.”
As a result, a model of four ecological niches of the purchasing process was created (the model is presented below). The purchase process as a service is like buying gasoline or renewing insurance. Consumption is associated with self-indulgence. Supplies relate to the household and family life. A pilgrimage is the process of going shopping in order to socialize and take part in some events. Each model imposes its own limitations on the design, but also provides new opportunities. The researchers also noticed national characteristics of shopping trips. Thus, in the USA, buying food is classified as a “supply” level, while in Italy it is more of a “pilgrimage”. Identifying and understanding the identified ecological niches has helped to develop suitable e-commerce models.
Some of the external studies Intel led to much more concrete results. One ethnographer, while visiting a salmon fishery in Alaska, noticed that the operator collecting the day's catch from the fishermen had his laptop taped to an outside wall because that was the easiest place to enter data. A subsequent study called Fish and Chips(from English - “fried fish and chips”) led to the company’s development Intel microprocessors capable of operating even at sub-zero temperatures.
Ethnography is called the process of creating a map of everyday life. Along with qualitative research methods, scientists use participant observation, interviews, reporting and, of course, deep immersion. Another method, behavioral flow chronicling, involves observing or filming people's behavior, which is especially suitable for studying interactions between people in the workplace. Next, researchers study the videotape and formulate questions or hypotheses regarding the characteristics of the activity, or use the technique of forced recall, when the subject comments on what is happening in the frame. Then, finally, categorization is carried out and an index of the activities on the film is compiled. Ethnographic interviews can be conducted using a range of methods and techniques, from walk-in interviews, in which the subject of the study is asked to give the researcher a tour of his or her workplace or home, to personal experiences interviews, which seek to explore specific examples of experiences. Conducting such research is a process consisting of an iterative cycle of observation, recording and analysis, resulting in a huge amount of written notes, video footage, audio recordings and entire collections of artifacts; a limitless process, fraught with a lot of discoveries and examining the object from both sides - from the inside and the outside. Essentially, “ethnography is based on a philosophical position that recognizes that people themselves know all the answers and understand better than others their lives, their problems and the circumstances in which they live and work.”
Conducting ethnographic research to develop a new product or brand has become serious business. California consulting firm Cheskin (www.cheskin.com), a consumer research company, has developed special ethnographic methods for its clients. Applied research aims to study consumer behavior in order to obtain results that can be used to take specific actions. Moreover, the emphasis is on studying the life context, which is necessary to identify the consumer’s understanding. Examples of this approach include the development of a new form of dealership activity for Mitsubishi, based on an ethnographic study of car buyers, as well as an analysis of the lifestyles of teenagers for the company Pepsi. With help Digital Ethno™ company Cheskin combines ethnography and the Internet (Figure 4.7).
While ethnographers have traditionally been physically immersed in specific situations and cultural formations, digital ethnographers are instead using wired and wireless technologies and expanding the scope of classical ethnographic methods beyond geographic and temporal boundaries...Consumers can access powerful tools and technologies to observe behind their own worlds and record their features, and then share these impressions with others through the Internet and other digital technologies 31 .
Meanwhile in Brand New Corporation a project was developed called Getting Closer™ , which uses what the company calls photographic ethnography; its goal is to “give participants the opportunity to explore their own lives and behavior through the use of a camera. It allows you to penetrate deeper into the motives of behavior, attitudes and intentions of participants and record them. Like qualitative research, this method is also applicable to a small number of participants, and in structure and internal sensations it resembles a focus group. But that’s where the similarities end.”
Consultants and corporate advisory groups demonstrate the great value of ethnographic research.
When in 1995 the company Canon released the first color printers for home use, sales were far from impressive. The company hired G.V.O., a Palo Alto-based consulting firm, to find out exactly what materials families are printing and what they are sharing. Conducted G.V.O. research on refrigerator doors and bedroom walls led to the development Canon Creative - The program that comes with your printer is designed to print posters, T-shirts, and greeting cards.
Kimberly- Clark Conducted an ethnographic study of children's potty training and identified, through the parents interviewed, issues, concerns, and fears that would not have been uncovered through traditional methods (e.g., focus groups). As a result, the company developed Huggies Pull- Ups - training disposable panties that can be used after diapers, which allowed the company to increase its share of the relevant market to $400 million.
Research conducted in China by the company Motorola, helped to discover that businessmen who were in rural areas where there was no telephone connection came up with an ingenious system for exchanging coded messages using pagers. The consequence of this was the development by the company Motorola pager with two-way communication support specifically for the Chinese market.
Ethnography is serious, cool and a very profitable branch of design consulting. Of course, objective assessment of the effectiveness of ethnographic methods in the process of developing new products is a matter for the future. Much of the existing literature, however meager it may be, is devoted to case studies, journalistic reports, and reports written by the ethnographic consultants themselves. Although, there is no doubt that Morrow's review of the literature on the application of anthropology to product development is a very useful source of information. Despite the paucity of existing documented examples in this area, some conclusions can be drawn and the benefits that anthropological research can bring to designers can be identified.
Design is meant to satisfy the needs of users, not designers. Marietta Baba, head of the department of anthropology at Wayne State University ( Wayne State University) in Michigan, says: “Once upon a time, it was like this: a group of middle-aged white men were sitting around, and everyone said: “This is what I like, and this is what my wife likes, so let’s do it that way.”37 . Relying on ethnography encourages the designer to draw from the life context, needs and preferences of the users.
Research may reveal an unexpected group of users or usage situations. Technologies often have different uses and contexts of use, which is only revealed through ethnographic research methods (as happened in the case of two-way pagers in China described above). This leads to larger markets and more product variations.
Emphasis on meaning and identity. Ethnography is concerned with the cultural meaning of objects, rituals, and other activities, as well as the social identities associated with them. In an age of consumer culture, where products become vehicles for expressing meaning and individual identity, this approach makes cultural experience the true foundation of the design process.
The last of these advantages is decisive. As cultural historian W. Bernard Carlson argues, “a successful product is much more than just a set of technical solutions. It is also a complex of cultural decisions. Unlike inventions, products succeed when they reflect an understanding of a culture's values, established customs, and economic concepts."
Moving to Design Experience Research
In our experience, consumers are likely to tell you that they want bigger buttons, fewer features, and a better price. But these are relatively superficial needs. When you dig deeper, consumers find it difficult to articulate or even imagine which products they won't be able to live without for several years to come.
Robert Logan is the head of user interface design at the company Thomson Consumer Electronics. The company has always considered its main task to be more consumer-oriented and to develop new consumer-needed products that would contribute to an unforgettable experience. To achieve the set goal in Thomson developed a new method and organizational focus for the company called "new research and design" ( new R& D) (from English. research and design- a counterweight research and development- Research and development).
Company Thomson relied on the experience of such companies as Apple Computer And Xerox, who take a similar approach to experience-driven design. According to “new research and design,” three groups of specialists work together to develop products, as shown in Figure 4.8. The “artists” group brought together industrial and graphic designers, artists, photographers and contemporary media designers. “Humanities” include ergonomic specialists, marketers, psychologists and anthropologists. "Technologists" are mechanical engineers, engineers CAD and computer technology specialists.
Although members of each group have their own specific research and design responsibilities, they actively participate in all types of research, allowing each element of the process to be seen from different perspectives. According to Logan, "The research objectives are intended to define today's consumer landscape, identify current trends, and provide a vision of future opportunities." Company approach Thomson, which combines subjective, non-factual types of research on the one hand, and highly objective methods on the other, is a combination of approximation and precision.
If the experience truly originates at the intersection of art, technology and the humanities, then Thomson has chosen the most appropriate approach. In the previous chapter, we explored the idea of designers metamizing technology—that is, creating design that goes beyond products and addresses the most meaningful consumer experiences. This is a variation on Pine and Gilmore's idea of making things come alive that we mentioned in the chapter. Thomson is just one example of how research and design processes can be organized to achieve the ultimate goal of creating an experience.
This reflects a general trend in design management in the 1990s and early 21st century to create more impactful research methods that not only seek to customize products and achieve competitive advantage, but also to enhance the customer experience.
As the examples in this chapter show, the consumer electronics and software sectors have largely led the way. They have had to go from relying on consumers - early adopters, for whom technology and innovation in themselves are already a value, to a more mature stage, when the company is counting on a more diverse market, in which technology as such no longer matters much, but a key role convenience, reliability and a positive impression play a role. This shift is described in the works of Donald Norman, a psychologist turned design major. His book “The Design of Common Things” ( The design of everyday things), published in 1988, is a seminal work on convenience and ease of use. The book makes a compelling case for designers and manufacturers to start designing and creating things that are easy to use, and provides a set of practical techniques to help achieve this. Using objects such as doors, gas stoves and telephones, Norman demonstrates the need for “user-centered design,” “with an emphasis on producing products that are user-friendly and understandable.”
Ten years later, in the book "The Invisible Computer" ( The invisible computer), Norman moved even further from the idea of usability and design to the broader concept of developing human-centered products. The author defines this concept as a process that unites many disciplines, the goal of which is “to create technology that serves the user when it is suitable for the task,” and “it is the task that is difficult, not the means of solving it.” Norman defines user experience as an essential key element in enabling products to meet the needs of today's markets: “When a technology reaches its maturity stage, customers begin to expect convenience, high quality, low cost and reliable performance. A successful product is backed by a solid business case and three pillars: technology, marketing and user experience.”
Donald Norman views user experience as an interdisciplinary activity within the product development process, involving six groups of specialists. These are:
- experts in anthropology and sociology conducting field trials;
- behavioral model designers with knowledge in the field of cognitive science and practical psychology;
- model and rapid prototype developers* specializing in programming, engineering and industrial design;
- user testers with skills in rapid user testing and, preferably, knowledge of experimental psychology;
- graphic and industrial designers, “who have a design skill that combines science and extensive experience with art and intuition”;
- technical writers "whose job should be to show technologists how to do things that don't require an instruction manual."
Donald Norman's user experience is very close to the company's new research and design Thomson. Both approaches place design in an interdisciplinary context that spans specific humanities and engineering disciplines. In both cases, the main goal is to enrich the consumer experience. Consequently, we must consider the organizational, disciplinary and research aspects of design more broadly than before. Until now, research and practice in design management have focused on the relationship between design and marketing. For example, many studies have sought to 1) explain how marketing can drive design, and 2) pinpoint the meaning of design for each element of the marketing mix: product, price, distribution location, and promotion. What has received virtually no attention in the literature is the intersection between design and experience and the resulting research challenges. To draw an analogy with the marketing mix, which consists of four R(from English product, price, place, promotion), we propose the concept of four WITH complex of impression - context, connection, consumption and completion (from English. context, connection, consumption, closure) (Table 4.1).
These stages roughly correspond to the stages of the experience design model developed by Rea and described in the previous chapter.
Each of the four stages of an experience—context, initial emotional connection with the consumer, continued consumption, and completion or rejection—can be examined using a number of different methods. This is to understand what customer experience requirements are and ensure that every design element meets those requirements. Brand, packaging, product, environmental and information design must be in harmony to provide a holistic experience when using a product or service.
Market research and forecasting techniques help to better define the context. Taste studies and other visual methods help clarify a product's connection to its intended consumer. For example, a design company Ashcraft Design developed a method called “interactive analysis of consumer audience”. This method involves an interdisciplinary team (composed of marketers, engineers, sales and designers) examining the entire product experience to see what values it contains that can be used to develop a brand image strategy. From the perspective of studying everyday consumption, focus groups, traditional usability testing, and other methods may be useful. Company TSDesign developed a technique for online designers called user experience analysis, which allows you to look at a website from the user's point of view: a team of designers, information architects and business strategists analyze the website based on its stated business goals.
The last two methods discussed in Table 4.1 deserve special attention because they provide significant advantages to designers. Although both originated in the design of organizational computer systems, their applications are expanding; They are increasingly being used in interactive media design and (to a lesser extent) industrial design.
Interview in context
Company Usability Study Group Microsoft (Microsoft Usability Group) uses interviews in context (IC) to identify the needs that new software systems must meet, while Hewlett-Packard applies the same method to identify new needs in the computer printer market. Thus, it appears that IR originally originated in the high-tech industry, but as a research methodology can be applied to other industries.
IR is a research methodology in applied anthropology that is most often used to explain the processes, actions, and needs of people in the workplace. The founders of this technique, Hugh Beyer and Karen Holtzblatt, give it the following definition:
A way to understand exactly what our customers are really like and how they operate day after day. The design team conducts one-on-one interviews with clients in the client's workplace to find out exactly what matters to their work. The interviewer observes users as they work and asks questions about their actions, step by step finding out their motivation and strategy. During the conversation, the interviewer and the user develop a common understanding of what the latter does at his job.
IC has two key characteristics that distinguish it from many traditional methods for identifying user needs. First, the researchers conduct field research using a craft apprenticeship model; Secondly, the research is carried out by designers, not anthropologists or any other user research specialists. Both of these characteristics add to the value of IR as a research methodology.
The effectiveness of this method is also ensured by the direct participation of the designers themselves: “it is the designers who are faced with the task of understanding the client in order to develop a product design... We believe that designers absorb information better if they conduct interviews themselves, and then analyze them together with specialists in other areas.” areas, rather than just getting ready-made results from someone else.”
We will not go into methodological detail, as that is beyond the scope of this book, but there are several very useful sources relevant to the issues at hand. IC has evolved into a more holistic approach to software design - contextual design, which is described in detail by the developers on their own website ( www.incontextenterprises.com).
Collaborative design
Participatory design (CD) originated in the Scandinavian democratic model, which was expressed in a commitment to industrial democracy - the participation of workers and trade union representatives in the management of industry. Since the late 1970s, the issue of introducing new technologies into the workplace has given rise to a variety of projects aimed at giving workers a say in decisions about the technologies and systems that would change their work. One of the first such projects to pave the way for collaborative design principles was Utopia ( UTOPIA). As part of this program, the researchers worked together with the Scandinavian Union of Graphic Designers ( Nordic Graphic Workers' Union). The goal of the collaboration was to “develop powerful support tools for graphic designers.” Thanks to the Utopia project, some progress has been made in the development of electronic newspaper layout systems. These systems were created based on the skills that graphic designers and printers already possessed and whose capabilities were simultaneously expanded.
In Great Britain, somewhere on the periphery of the trade union movement, similar initiatives also took place. The most famous of them was the attempt of the Joint Committee of Trade Union Representatives of the company Lucas Aerospace design and develop a range of socially beneficial products that could be produced in decaying defense factories Lucas Aerospace. However, the Scandinavian culture of shared decision-making that gave rise to Utopia contrasted sharply with the British policies of the 1980s aimed at weakening the influence of trade unions. Thatcherism appreciated the benefits of new technologies from the point of view of the effectiveness of their use as a political lever - to crush the trade unions.
The rise of technology may have given the right some short-term political advantage. However, 20 years after the bitter fighting at Wapping, when Murdoch ended once and for all any influence of the press unions, these events can be seen as part of a wider and more controversial position. With some exceptions, British industry tended to underestimate the knowledge and experience of workers and the needs and lifestyles of consumers. The fate of the British car industry is a good example of the consequences of failure to appreciate the quality of the working environment and customer experience. Poorly organized work and low-quality goods have no future.
Once again, we look to the American computer and multimedia industries as drivers of change that see collaborative design as a way to get closer to the consumer. According to experts Tec- Ed Inc. - a consulting firm that has introduced co-design to companies such as Sun Microsystems, Logitech, Cisco Systems and etc . , - the joint design looks like this:
A group of people with a stake in product design work together to come up with design options based on how the product will be used by consumers at work. Users play a central role in co-design meetings. They tell us about their work environment, the tasks they need to complete, which of the tools and tools at their disposal help them and which don't. This active user intervention leads to improved product design and shortens product development and testing cycles.
IN Digital Equipment Corporation The designers collaborated with a team of chemists to develop a portable torque feedback device using a five-step co-design process.
- Building relationships. Selecting a group of users to work with was initially done through electronic advertisements on the Internet, and then meetings were organized to familiarize users with the problems and technologies.
- Interview in context. CI principles and techniques were applied to understand the users' work context.
- Conducting a brainstorming session. Carried out among users to identify possible approaches to design solutions.
- Storyboard. Based on the most promising ideas generated through brainstorming, users and computer design specialists created illustrated scenarios on the theme “a day in the life of a user.”
- Iterative design*. The storyboards were used by engineers as design specifications: based on them, prototypes were created, tested with participating users, and then further developed. Design thus took the form of a cyclical process.
Based on this example, one could argue: “Collaborative design has pointed chemists and computer scientists in some new directions in design. This project demonstrates that participatory design can be used to develop new computer technologies in the same way that it is used for new computer application systems." 61
Collaborative design offers a number of benefits to the design team. First of all, it helps to identify the tacit knowledge of users and, therefore, discover possible design problems, as well as their solutions, that might have eluded a working group consisting of (including) users. As a result, the design is more tightly tied to the actual product requirements and user context, thereby improving the experience of using that product. And when designing for a specific user group or user environment, SD can give users a sense of importance and ownership of the new design.
Practice-oriented research
The final method we would like to analyze is less a method than a set of techniques that facilitate the integration of users' tacit knowledge and creative design into a research process guided by clearly defined goals and priorities. Practice-oriented research has contributed to the transition of design activity into the category of those areas of activity in which it is possible to obtain an academic degree 62 . The ongoing methodological debate about practice-oriented research will remain outside the scope of our discussion. We would like to dwell only on some of the issues that were first raised in these disputes or that arose in the few documented examples of such research in practice.
The relationship between theory and practice in design can be described as tense at best. In the 1960s and 1970s, the design methods movement was seen as an attempt to graft the "rational cricket bat" of method onto the "gentle, intuitive tomato plant" of practice. As a result, the movement raised some important questions, but it distanced itself so much from everyday design practice (and the real world of designers) that it remained isolated in academic teaching. As a result, the theoretical basis of design was largely undermined and vulnerable to anti-intellectualism. There was also this perhaps fair observation: “Very few practicing designers believe that their knowledge of design theory is of any relevance to what they do.”
Currently, practice-oriented research can be seen as a number of heterogeneous approaches, each of which in its own way seeks to connect practice with theory. According to one approach, practice is considered a kind of research, since the product of the designer's work embodies information and is therefore actually the result of research, and only minimal effort is needed to formulate its theoretical conclusions. Perhaps this model is based more on research in the visual arts. Other models are now emerging everywhere that seek to extract theoretical design knowledge from design practice, which in turn is a manifestation of theory. This latter model was a manifestation of a recent desire among designers to assert their own hidden creative methodologies, making them part of the general process of academic research, while recognizing the need to maintain connections with other disciplines and methodologies. Some of the proponents of this model refer to the historical contribution of craft and design practice to the accumulation of knowledge and, accordingly, to the theory created on the basis of this knowledge. Kevin McCullough argues that the goal of design should be the fusion of theory and practice - design practice: "practice based on theory and theory derived from practice."
Today, the designated concept is much more promising than during the design methods movement. There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, compared to the 1970s, design has become much more complex; it can no longer be imagined without appropriate research and theoretical development. If then design was nothing more than a cottage industry, today it can be compared with the international hotel business - global scale, use of modern technologies, close relationship with various functional divisions of the company. The methods described in this chapter are not theoretical constructs plucked out of thin air, but the result of the practical work of designers and design teams we observed at work in London, Seoul, Palo Alto and other places. Second, design departments in universities and art colleges today have a strong financial incentive to continue to find new ways to combine theory with practice.
Some design researchers argue that design should become a more scientific activity, but emphasize that this approach does not contradict the creative nature of design (Module 4.4). Ken Friedman and Anti Ainamo are the most ardent proponents of this approach.
Science and scientific methods do not necessarily lead to positivism. Modern science and scientific methods involve different types of connections between theory and practice, not just a positivist approach. But what really matters is our desire to consciously acquire knowledge about design, to understand what a thing is and how it works based on fundamental principles. The main difference between design as a science and design as an art is that design as a science begins not with visual or other sensations, but with determining the conditions of the problem. Visual, tactile and other sensations, intonations, feelings and shades appear at the solution stage, already when, based on the conditions of the task set before the designer, the basic requirements for its solution are determined. Thus, the scientific approach to design does not in any way contradict its artistic aspect 66 .
Module 4.4. DIY research
An example of practice-oriented research focusing on user experience is one of Sheffield Hallam University's research projects. In his exploration of prosthetic hand design, industrial designer Graham Whiteley applied creative design and practical techniques to problems once thought to be the domain of scientists and engineers.
As a result, physical models of the naturally articulated skeleton of the hand and the entire arm up to the shoulder were obtained, which, in terms of quality characteristics and functionality, completely replicate the anatomy (bones and joints) of the human hand. It was also possible to attach attachments to the models in the form of tendons, causing the actuator muscles to provide driving force to the automatic arm. This example is a simple and clear demonstration of the use of practice-oriented design research in an interdisciplinary context. Evidence of this is the ease with which the information obtained during the research process and embedded in the created models is quickly and fully read by a variety of specialists and user groups who were able to study and evaluate these models without any supporting texts and materials. Whiteley and his supervisor Chris Rust have published their reflections on the development of design research based on creative practice, and, importantly, they contribute to scientific debates in two areas: design and engineering of medical devices. The project itself clearly demonstrated the importance of design practice as a means of usability testing and as an area in which theoretical principles from a number of different disciplines are expressed and integrated into a coherent whole.
The emergence of the concept of practice-oriented design has led to a useful and long overdue re-evaluation of the relationship of design to theory, science and methodology in scientific, academic contexts. The diverse nature of design types means that sometimes artistic practice naturally leads to research, as in the case of applied art. And yet, practical design activity must be based on social sciences and culture - this is the main priority of modern industrial design. This is the only way we will achieve what we want: design will be driven by real needs and meaningful experiences.
Impression from the study
The development of design in the 21st century is entirely driven by research, which must be based on an understanding of culture and technology, combining the arts, sciences and humanities. This state of affairs places new demands on designers and forces them to take on new responsibilities. Perhaps one of the main requirements is to strike a balance between the need to conduct thorough preliminary research and the time pressure caused by competition in the development of new products. So we end this chapter with a ranking of the five best tips for the time-poor designer (Table 4.2).
We've come up with our five best tips for doing research in a hurry, based on the experiences of designers themselves. Perhaps design needs to be more science-based, and quite possibly informed by scientific knowledge and methods. However, according to Donald Norman, “applied science does not require the precision of traditional scientific methods. In industry, an approximately correct answer is quite sufficient. Speed is more important than accuracy."
Good design is the embodiment of knowledge and understanding, while bad design is an admission of ignorance. In this chapter we tried to prove: 1) research must be the basis of design; 2) only such an approach will guarantee that the subject environment will give users the most pleasant impressions and enrich their life experience. In particular, we showed how techniques drawn from market research, ethnography, and other fields are critical to the success or failure of design. We saw that the user can be not only a source of marketing information, but also an essential participant in the design development process. We have also learned that practical design can be the core of a well-defined research program that expands our knowledge and helps more effectively integrate the theory and practice of artistic design.
Clinical trial design
The design of a clinical trial is the plan for conducting it. The design of a particular clinical trial depends on the goals pursued by the study. Let's look at three common design options:
· clinical trial in one group (single group design)
· clinical trial in parallel groups (parallel group design)
· clinical trial in a “crossover group design”
Single-arm clinical trial
(single group design)
In a single-group study, all subjects receive the same experimental treatment. This study design aims to compare treatment outcomes with baseline conditions. Thus, subjects are not randomized to treatment groups.
The single-arm clinical trial model can be illustrated as follows:
Screening -- Inclusion -- Initial state -- Treatment -- Outcomes
The one-group model can be used in phase I studies. Single arm study designs are not typically used in phase III clinical trials.
The main disadvantage of the single-group study design is the lack of a comparison group. The effects of the experimental treatment cannot be differentiated from the effects of other variables.
Parallel group clinical trial
(parallel group design)
In parallel group clinical trials, subjects in two or more groups receive different treatments. To achieve statistical reliability (to eliminate systematic error), subjects are distributed into groups using the method of random distribution (randomization).
The parallel group clinical trial model can be illustrated as follows:
Treatment a -- Outcomes a
Treatment b -- Outcomes b
Where a, b are different drugs or different doses or placebo
Clinical trials using parallel group designs are expensive, time-consuming, and require large numbers of subjects (with low event rates). However, clinical studies in parallel groups are the most objective in determining the effectiveness of treatment and accurate in drawing conclusions. Most clinical trials are therefore conducted in a parallel group design.
Sometimes parallel group studies can be used in two ways: factorial and heterogeneous models.
Factorial design-- this is a design based on several (more than 2) parallel groups. Such studies are carried out when it is necessary to study a combination of different drugs (or different doses of the same drug).
The factorial design of a clinical trial can be illustrated as follows:
Screening -- Enrollment -- Preparatory period -- Baseline -- Randomization --
Treatment a -- Outcomes a
Treatment b -- Outcomes b
Treatment with -- Outcomes with
Treatment in -- Outcomes in
Where a, b, c, d are different drugs or different doses or placebo
The factorial model is useful in evaluating drug combinations.
The disadvantage of the factorial model is the need to attract a large number of subjects and, as a result, increased research costs.
Withdrawal (Discontinuation) Design
A heterogeneous design is a type of parallel group study in which all subjects initially receive an experimental treatment, then, to continue the experimental treatment, patients with appropriate responses are randomized into either double-blind or placebo groups. This model is typically used to evaluate the effectiveness of an experimental treatment by stopping the drug immediately after a response occurs and recording relapse or remission. In Fig. Figure 5 shows a diagram of a heterogeneous research model.
Screening - Enrollment - Experimental treatment - Treatment response - Randomization of responders - Treatment or Placebo
The heterogeneous trial design is particularly effective for evaluating drugs intended to treat difficult-to-treat diseases. In such studies, only a small percentage of subjects respond to treatment.
During the treatment period, responses are identified, and a heterogeneous randomization phase is used to demonstrate that the response is real and not a placebo response. In addition, heterogeneous models are used to study relapse.
The disadvantages of heterogeneous models are:
· a large number of subjects who are initially treated to detect responses
· significant duration of the study
The preparatory period should last long enough for the patient's condition to stabilize and the effect of the drug to be more clearly identified. It should be noted that the percentage of subjects excluded from these studies may be high.
Ethical standards require careful consideration of the use of this research model due to the fact that it may require the exclusion of drugs that provide relief to patients. Rigorous monitoring and clear definition of endpoint metrics is paramount.
"Cross" model
(Crossover Design)
Unlike parallel group study designs, crossover designs allow the effects of both the study drugs and the comparison treatments to be assessed on the same subjects. The subjects are randomized into groups that receive the same course of treatment, but with a different sequence. As a rule, a “wash-out” period is necessary between courses to ensure that patients’ indicators return to baseline, as well as to eliminate the undesirable influence of residual effects of previous treatment on the effects of subsequent treatment. A “washout” period is not necessary if the analyzes of the subject’s individual reactions are limited to their comparison at the end of each course, and the treatment period lasts long enough. Some "crossover" models use pre-crossover, meaning that patients who are excluded from studies at the treatment stage can be transferred to alternative treatment groups earlier than planned.
Screening - Preparatory period - Condition monitoring - Randomization - Treatment A in group 1 and Treatment B in group 2 - Washout period - Treatment B in group 1 and Treatment A in group 2
Crossover models are typically used to study pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics when the goal is to control for variability within a population of subjects. In addition, it is fair to assume that the effects of the first course do not affect the second course in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies with a sufficient washout period.
Crossover designs are more economical than parallel group designs because fewer subjects are required. However, sometimes difficulties arise in interpreting the results. The effects of one therapy may be confounded with the effects of a subsequent one. It can be difficult to distinguish the effects of sequential treatment from the effects of individual courses. When conducting clinical trials, the crossover design usually requires more time than parallel group studies due to the fact that each patient undergoes at least two treatment periods plus a washout period. This model also requires obtaining more characteristics for each patient.
If the clinical conditions are relatively constant throughout the study period, then the crossover design is effective and reliable.
The relatively low sample size requirements make crossover designs useful in early clinical development to facilitate decisions regarding larger parallel study designs. Because all subjects receive the drug being studied, crossover studies are also effective for assessing safety.
