TELENGET KHANATE. In ancient Chinese sources, in particular in the Sui dynastic chronicle, it is said “The ancestors of the body were the descendants of the Xiongnu.” Another Chinese source in the Wei Chronicle, which tells about the origin of the ancestors of the Gaogyu people from the Huns, states that

In the 16th - 1st half of the 18th centuries. In the Khanate of Khiva there was a constant internecine struggle, continuous wars were waged with Bukhara, Iran, and with the nomadic Turkmens, and there was acute national discord between the Uzbeks and Turkmens within the country. In 1700, 1703, 1714 Ambassadors of Khan Shah Niyaz negotiated with Peter I about accepting the Khanate of Khiva into Russian citizenship. However, the expedition to Khiva by A. Bekovich-Cherkassky in 1717 was destroyed by the Khivans. In 1740, the Khanate of Khiva was conquered by the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, but after his death in 1747 it again became independent.

During the internecine struggle in 1763, Muhammad Amin, the head of the Kungrat tribe, emerged, laying the foundation for a new Khiva dynasty - the Kungrat dynasty. The most significant representative of this dynasty was Khan Muhammad Rahim (1806-1825), who completed the unification of the Khiva Khanate, established a supreme council, carried out tax reform, and subjugated neighboring small estates (Aral, Karakalpaks, etc.). This was a period of strengthening of central power and internal stabilization.

As a result of the Khiva campaign of 1873, according to the Gendemian Peace Treaty of 1873, the Khiva Khanate renounced the lands on the right bank of the Amu Darya and became a vassal of Russia while maintaining internal autonomy. The population of the Khiva Khanate, consisting of Uzbeks, Turkmens, Karakalpaks and Kazakhs, was engaged in agriculture based on artificial irrigation and cattle breeding. Feudal orders were closely intertwined with patriarchal clan and slaveholding ones. With the exception of a few cotton gins, there was no industry. Exports included cotton, dried fruits, hides, and wool. Khan enjoyed unlimited power. Arbitrariness and violence reigned in the country. The reactionary Muslim clergy played a major role.

After the October Revolution of 1917, an intense political struggle began in the Khiva Khanate. On February 2, 1920, a popular uprising, supported by units of the Red Army, overthrew the khan's power. On April 26, 1920, the 1st All-Khorezm People's Kurultai proclaimed the formation of the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic.

Formation of the Khiva Khanate

On the eve of Sheybani Khan's invasion, Khorezm was ruled by the Chin of Sufis from the dynasty of Sufis, who came from the Kungrat dynasty. Officially, he was considered the governor of Hussein Baykara. In 1505, Khorezm was captured by Sheybani Khan, and in 1510 by the Iranian Shah Ismail. But his reign did not last long. In 1511, Khorezm again gained independence.

About 20 Uzbek tribes lived on the territory of Khorezm. Among them, the tribes of the Kungrats, Mangyts, Naimans, Kipchaks and Kiyats were considered the most numerous and powerful.

The freedom-loving Khorezm tribes and their leaders led the people's struggle against the Iranian invaders. When the Iranian troops were expelled from the borders of Khorezm, influential persons of the country placed Elbarskhan (1511-1516), the son of Berki Sultan, a descendant of Sheybani Khan, on the throne, despite their family relations, they were in hostile relations. The reason for this was the murder of Berki Sultan (1431-1436) by Abulkhairkhan, when the latter was fighting for the creation of a unified state. Elbarskhan managed to drive the Iranian invaders out of the country. So in 1511 Khorezm regained independence. The state began to be called the Khiva Khanate, the founders of which were representatives of the Sheibanid dynasty. The Khiva sheybanids ruled the country until 1770.

Under Elbarskhan, the capital of the country was moved from Vazir to the city of Urgench. After the liberation of Wazir from the Iranians, Elbarskhan and his sons received the nickname Ghazis. The word "ghazi" means "fighter for the faith."

The Sheibanid dynasty died out by the end of the 17th century; by this time the power of the tribal leaders had grown greatly and they began to invite the Genghisids from the Kazakh steppes to the khan’s throne. Real power was concentrated in the hands of Uzbek tribal leaders with the titles Atalik and Inak. The two main Uzbek tribes, Kongrat and Mangit, fought for power in the Khanate and their struggle was accompanied by the separation of the northern part of Khorezm, the Aral (Amu Darya delta). The Uzbeks of the Aral, mostly nomads, proclaimed their Genghisids, who were also puppets.

For most of the 18th century, chaos reigned in Khorezm, and in 1740 the country was captured by Nadir Shah from Iran, but Iranian power was nominal and ended with the death of Nadir Shah in 1747. In the subsequent struggle between the Kongrats and the Mangits, the Kongrats won. However, long wars between Khiva and the Aral and between various Uzbek tribes, in which the Turkmens took an active part, brought Khorezm to the brink of total anarchy, especially after the capture of Khiva in 1767 by the Turkmen tribe of Yomuds. In 1770, Muhammad Amin Inak, the leader of the Kongrats, defeated the Yomuds and established his power in the khanate. He became the founder of the new Kongrat dynasty in Khiva.

However, even after this, it took the Kongrat Inaki tens of years to suppress the resistance of the tribal leaders and the Genghisids puppets were still on the throne.

In 1804, the grandson of Muhammad Amin, Iltuzer Inak was proclaimed khan and Genghisids' puppets were no longer needed. His younger brother, Muhammad Rahim Khan (ruled 1806-1825), unified the country by defeating the Aral people in 1811, conquered the Kara Kolpakov (in the northwest of the Amu Darya delta) and tried, with some success, to subjugate the Turkmens in the south and the Kazakhs in the north. His heirs followed the same policy. Iltuzar and Muhammad Rahim finally broke the opposition of the tribal nobility with the help of the Sarts and curbed the military power of the Turkmens, whom they either convinced to live in Khorezm by distributing irrigated lands for military service, or forced them to do so by force. They created a relatively centralized state in which provincial governors had limited power.

In the first half of the 19th century, the Congrats significantly expanded the irrigation system; Thus, the Uzbeks became a settled nation, as a result of which new cities began to appear. Under Muhammad Rahim Khan, the khanate began producing its own coins. But despite all this, the Khanate lacked both human and financial resources, and Khiva raids into the Bukhara Khanate and Khorasan, as well as against the Kazakhs and independent Turkmen tribes, became annual.

At the same time, the Kongrath period was also marked by cultural achievements; It was at this time that Khorezm became the main center for the development of Turkic literature in Central Asia. In 1855, the army of the Khanate suffered a crushing defeat from the Turkmen Teke pad Serakhsom, in Khorasan, and Khan Muhammad Amin was killed in the battle. This caused an uprising of the Turkmens in Khorezm, which lasted intermittently until 1867. The Khanate weakened politically and economically, and most of the lands developed in the first half of the century were abandoned; the Khanate also lost control over the southern Turkmens. On top of that, it was heading towards a fatal confrontation with Russia. The first attempt to penetrate Khorezm was made by Peter I, who sent a small expedition under the command of Bekovich-Cherkassky in 1717. The expedition was unsuccessful and almost all of its members died.

In the 19th century, tensions grew between the Russian Empire and Khiva as a result of Russian expansion in Central Asia, their rivalry for influence in the Kazakh steppes, and the plunder of Russian trade caravans by the Khivans. The military offensive against Khiva began in the spring of 1873 from several directions under the leadership of the Governor-General of Turkestan von Kaufmann. Khiva was taken on May 29 and Khan Said Muhammad Rahim II surrendered. The peace treaty signed on August 12, 1873 determined the status of the Khanate as a Russian protectorate. The Khan declared himself a “humble servant” of the Russian Emperor and all the lands of the Khanate on the right bank of the Amu Darya went to Russia.

The loss of independence had almost no effect on the internal life of the Khanate, in which Russia intervened only to suppress several Turkmen revolts. An attempt at liberal reforms after the February Revolution of 1917 failed, mainly due to Uzbek-Turkmen enmity. In the spring of 1918, the leader of the Turkmens, Yomudov, Junaid Khan seized power in Khiva and only in January 1920 was overthrown by the invading Red Army with the support of the Uzbeks and Turkmens opposed to Junaid Khan. On February 2, 1920, the last Kongrat Khan, Said Abd Allah, abdicated and on April 27, 1920, instead of the Khanate, the People's Republic of Khorezm was proclaimed.

Socio-economic and political life in the Khiva Khanate

In the 16th century, the Khiva Khanate was not yet a centralized state; the influence of the tribal system was still strong; the head of the dominant tribe was declared khan.

Like the Sheibanids in Transoxiana, the Khiva Khanate was divided into small possessions. The vilayets were ruled by members of the khan's family. They did not want to submit to the central government. This circumstance was the cause of internal strife.

The population of the Khanate was divided into three groups, differing in their ethnic, cultural and linguistic characteristics:

Direct descendants of ancient Khorezmians who assimilated with various ethnic groups;
Turkmen tribes;
tribes that migrated from Dashti-Kipchak to Khorezm.

Before the establishment of the dynasty from the Kungrat tribe, the heads of large Uzbek tribes became independent rulers of their domains and began to exert a decisive influence on the socio-political situation in the Khanate.

In the second half of the 16th century. an economic crisis broke out in the Khiva Khanate, one of the main reasons for which was a change in the course of the Amu Darya; starting in 1573, it stopped flowing into the Caspian Sea and for 15 years rushed towards the Aral Sea. The land along the old bed turned into a waterless steppe, and the population was forced to move to other, irrigated regions.

In addition, in the 16th century. The Khanate of Khiva was conquered twice by the Khanate of Bukhara. Internal strife, heavy taxes and duties caused the ruin of the country's population, which, in turn, negatively affected trade.

In the 17th century In the political life of the Khiva Khanate, two features were observed: a decrease in the authority of the ruling dynasty and an increase in the influence of tribal heads. True, officially the beks and biys still submitted to the central government. In fact, within the limits of their bekstvos they had absolute power. It got to the point that they began to dictate their will to the supreme ruler. Khan could not decide state affairs on his own, without their participation, on the contrary, they would decide the fate of the khan in the elections. Political fragmentation in the state was especially pronounced under Arab Mukhammadkhan (1602-1621). Due to changes in the course of the Amu Darya, he moved his capital from Urgench to Khiva.

The economic crisis greatly affected the political situation in the state. Under Arab-Muhammadkhan, the Yaik Cossacks, led by Ataman Nechai, guarding the Russian border, carried out a robbery attack on Urgench, capturing 1000 young men and women. But on the way back they were overtaken by the khan and his army. The Cossacks were defeated. Some time later, Ataman Shamai and his detachment attacked Urgench, but they also did not achieve success and were captured by the khan.

Discord became more frequent in the Khanate. In 1616, the sons of Arab Muhamadkhan Habash Sultan and Elbars Sultan, with the support of the heads of the Naiman and Uighur tribes, rebelled against their father. Khan gave in to his sons. He added the city of Wazir to the lands that belonged to them. But in 1621 they rebelled again. This time, his other sons, Asfakdiyarkhan and Abulgazi Sultan, acted on the side of Arab Muhammadkhan. The troops of Habash Sultan and Elbars Sultan won the battle. By order of his sons, the father, who was captured by them, was blinded with a red-hot rod and thrown into the zindan. Some time later, the khan was killed. Abulgazi Sultan found refuge in the palace of the Bukhara Khan Imamkuli. Asfandiyarkhan: hid in Khazarasp. Later, his victorious brothers allowed him to go on Hajj. But Asfandiyarkhan went to the Iranian Shah Abbas I and, with his help, took the Khiva throne in 1623. Having learned about this, Abulgazi Sultan hurried to Khiva. Asfandiyarkhan (1623-1642) appointed him ruler of Urgench. But soon their relationship deteriorated, and Abulgazi fled to the ruler of Turkestan, Eshimkhan. After the death of the latter in 1629, Abulgazi moved to Tashkent to its ruler Tursunkhan, then to the Bukhara Khan Imamkuli. The Turkmens, dissatisfied with Asfandiyarkhan's policies, asked Abulgazi to come to Khiva. His brother was forced to give up the Khiva throne to him. But six months later, Abulgazi was accused of attacking Iranian-owned Niso and Darun (settlements between Ashgabat and Kiyl-Arvat), captured and, accompanied by his detachment, sent to the Iranian Shah Safi 1 (1629-1642). Abulgazi Sultan had to live in captivity for 10 years (1630-1639). In 1639 he managed to escape, and in 1642 he arrived among the Uzbeks of the Aral Sea region. After the death of Asfandiyarkhan at the same time, Abulgazi (1643-1663) took the Khiva throne. The 20-year period of his reign was spent in military campaigns. He had to fight with the Bukhara Khanate several times. Abulgazi, having raised the authority of the heads of the tribes, intended to get rid of their attacks on the central government. He divided all the tribes living on the territory of the Khanate into four groups: Kiyat-Kungrat, Uighur-Naiman, Kanki-Kipchak, Nukuz-Mangyt. At the same time, their customs, way of life, and family relationships between tribes were taken into account. 14 more small tribes and clans were added to these groups. Elders - inaki - were appointed in each gpynne. Through them, the khan solved the problems of the tribes. The Inaki, as close advisers to the khan, lived in the palace. Abudgazi Bakhadyrkhan already had 32 heads of tribes - inaki - among his entourage.

Abulgazi intervened in the discord between the brothers Abdulaziz and Subkhankulikhan, the latter was married to Abulgazi's niece. An agreement was concluded with Abdulazizkhan. Despite this, in 1663 Abulgazi carried out predatory raids on the Bukhara Khanate seven times, plundering the tumens of Karakul, Charlzhuy, and Vardanyan.

At the same time, Abulgazikhan was an enlightened ruler. He wrote historical works in the Uzbek language “Shazharai Turk” (Family tree of the Turks) and “Shazhara-i tarokima” (Genealogy of the Turkmen)

After the death of Abulgazikhan, the throne was taken by his son Anushakhan (1663-I687). Under him, relations with the Bukhara Khanate worsened even more. He undertook military campaigns against him several times, reached Bukhara, and captured Samarkand. In the end, the Bukhara Khan Subkhankuli organized a conspiracy against him, and Anushahap was blinded.

Subkhankulikhan formed a conspiracy in Khiva from his supporters. In 1688, they sent a representative to Bukhara with a request to accept the Khiva Khanate as citizenship. Taking advantage of this circumstance, Subkhankulikhan appointed Inak Shakhniyaz Khan of Khiva. But Shazniyaz did not have the ability to govern the state. Feeling helpless, he betrayed Subhankulikan and began looking for a stronger trustee. Russia could become this. With the help of the Russian Tsar Peter 1, he wanted to maintain his position. In secret from Subkhankulikhan, in 1710 he sent his ambassador to Peter 1 and asked to accept the Khanate of Khiva into Russian citizenship. Having long dreamed of taking possession of the gold and raw materials reserves of Central Asia, Peter 1 considered this an opportunity and on June 30, 1710, issued a decree satisfying Shakhniyaz’s request. The appeal of the Khiva ruler to Russia was assessed by his contemporaries as a betrayal of the interests of the Turkic-speaking peoples. This appeal opened the way for Russian colonialists. After these events, political life in the Khiva Khanate became even more complicated.

The social situation in the Khanate of Khiva, as in other states of Central Asia, was characterized by stagnation; this was due to the lag of the Khanate from the process of world development. Political fragmentation, the dominance of subsistence farming, ongoing internal strife, and attacks by foreigners led to the fact that the country's economy was in decline and social life was monotonous. The rulers thought more about their well-being than about the benefit for the state and the people.

As is known, by the time the Russian conquest of Central Asia began, its territory was divided between three feudal states - the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva Khanates. The Bukhara Emirate occupied the southern and southeastern part of Central Asia - the territory of modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and partly Turkmenistan. The Kokand Khanate was located on the lands of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, part of Southern Kazakhstan and the modern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. The Khanate of Khiva occupied part of the territory of modern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.

Kokand Khanate and its army

In the 16th century, the territory of the Fergana Valley formally remained under the rule of Bukhara, which constantly competed with the Khanate of Khiva. As the power of the Bukhara emir weakened, caused by the protracted confrontation with Khiva, the biy of the city of Akhsy Ilik-Sultan intensified in Fergana. He established control over the Fergana Valley and became the de facto independent ruler of the region. The descendants of Ilik-Sultan continued to rule Fergana. The city of Kokand arose on the site of the small villages of Kalvak, Aktepe, Eski Kurgan and Khokand. In 1709, Shahrukh Bai II united the Fergana Valley under his rule and became the ruler of an independent state - the Khanate of Kokand. As in the Bukhara and Khiva states, Uzbek tribes were in power in Kokand, and Uzbeks made up the bulk of the khanate’s population. In addition to the Uzbeks, Tajiks, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, and Uighurs lived in the Kokand Khanate. As for the armed forces of the Kokand Khanate, until the beginning of the 19th century there was no regular army in the state. In the event of the outbreak of hostilities, the Kokand Khan assembled tribal militias, which represented a “disorderly horde”, devoid of strict military discipline and formal hierarchy. Such a militia was an extremely unreliable army, not only due to the lack of developed military training and weak weapons, but also due to the fact that the mood in it was determined by the beks of the tribes, who did not always agree with the position of the khan.

Kokand archer

Alimkhan ((1774 - 1809)), who ruled the Kokand Khanate in 1798-1809, acted as a reformer of the Kokand army. Young Alimkhan, who came from the Uzbek Ming dynasty that ruled Kokand, began decisive reforms in the state. In particular, Alimkhan annexed the valleys of the Chirchik and Akhangaran rivers, the entire Tashkent Bekdom, as well as the cities of Chimkent, Turkestan and Sairam to the Kokand Khanate. But in the context of this article, attention should be paid to another important merit of Alimkhan for the Kokand Khanate - the creation of regular armed forces. If previously Kokand, like Bukhara and Khiva, did not have a regular army, then Alimkhan, trying to limit the power of tribal beks and increase the combat effectiveness of the Kokand army, began to create a regular army, for which mountain Tajiks were recruited. Alimkhan believed that the Tajik sarbaz would be more reliable warriors than the tribal militia of the Uzbek tribes, which were highly dependent on the positions of their begs. Relying on the Tajik sarbaz, Alimkhan carried out his conquests, entering the Kokand Khanate as one of its most significant rulers. In addition to the Tajik foot sarbaz, the Kokand khan was subordinate to the mounted Kyrgyz and Uzbek tribal militias, as well as police officers (kurbashi), subordinate to the beks and hakims - the rulers of the administrative-territorial units of the khanate. Tashkent was governed by beklar-begi - "bek bekov", to whom the police - kurbashi and mukhtasib - overseers of compliance with Sharia law were subordinate. The armament of the Kokand army was weak. Suffice it to say that in 1865, during the capture of Tashkent, two thousand sarbaz were dressed in armor and armor. Most of the Kokand sarbaz and cavalry of tribal militias were armed with cold steel, primarily with sabers, pikes and spears, and bows and arrows. Firearms were outdated and represented mainly by matchlock guns.

Conquest of the Khanate of Kokand

During the Tashkent campaign, Alimkhan was killed by the people of his younger brother Umar Khan (1787-1822). Having established himself on the Kokand throne, Umar Khan gained fame as the patron of culture and science. During the reign of Umar Khan, the Khanate of Kokand maintained diplomatic relations with the Russian Empire, the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva and the Ottoman Empire. In subsequent decades, the situation in the Kokand Khanate was characterized by constant internecine struggle for power. The main warring parties were the sedentary Sarts and the nomadic Kipchaks. Each side, having won a temporary victory, brutally dealt with the vanquished. Naturally, the socio-economic and political situation of the Kokand Khanate suffered greatly from civil strife. The situation was aggravated by constant conflicts with the Russian Empire. As is known, the Kokand Khanate laid claim to power in the Kazakh steppes, but the Kyrgyz and Kazakh tribes chose to become subjects of the Russian Empire, which contributed to an even greater aggravation of bilateral relations. In the middle of the 19th century, at the request of the Kazakh and Kyrgyz families who transferred to Russian citizenship, the Russian Empire began military campaigns on the territory of the Kokand Khanate - with the aim of weakening the Kokand positions and destroying the fortresses that threatened the Kazakh steppes. By 1865, Russian troops captured Tashkent, after which the Turkestan region was formed with a Russian military governor at its head.

In 1868, the Kokand Khan Khudoyar was forced to sign a commercial agreement proposed to him by Adjutant General Kaufman, which gave the right of free stay and travel to both Russians on the territory of the Kokand Khanate and Kokand residents on the territory of the Russian Empire. The agreement actually established the dependence of the Kokand Khanate on the Russian Empire, which could not please the Kokand elite. Meanwhile, the socio-economic situation in the Kokand Khanate itself had seriously deteriorated. Under Khudoyar Khan, new taxes were introduced on residents who were already suffering from the khan's oppression. Among the new taxes were even taxes on reeds, steppe thorns, and leeches. The Khan did not even strive to maintain his own army - the sarbaz were not paid a salary, which encouraged them to independently look for food for themselves, that is, in fact, to engage in robberies and armed attacks. As historians note, “Khudoyar Khan not only did not moderate his cruelty in governance, but, on the contrary, took advantage of purely eastern cunning, his new position as a friendly neighbor of the Russians for his despotic purposes. The powerful patronage of the Russians served him as protection from the constant claims of Bukhara, on the one hand, and on the other, one of the means of intimidating his rebellious subjects, especially the Kyrgyz” (Incidents in the Kokand Khanate // Turkestan collection. T. 148).

Kokand sarbaz in the courtyard of the Khan's palace

Khudoyar's policies turned even his closest associates, led by Crown Prince Nasreddin, against the khan. An army of four thousand, sent by the khan to pacify the Kyrgyz tribes, went over to the side of the rebels. On July 22, 1874, the rebels besieged Kokand, and Khan Khudoyar, who was accompanied by Russian envoys, including General Mikhail Skobelev, fled to the territory of the Russian Empire - to Tashkent, which was already under Russian control at that time. The Khan's throne in Kokand was occupied by Nasreddin, who condoned the anti-Russian policies of the Kokand aristocracy and clergy. In the Kokand Khanate, real anti-Russian hysteria began, accompanied by pogroms of postal stations. On August 8, 1875, the 10,000-strong Kokand army approached Khujand, which was part of the Russian Empire. Gradually, the number of Kokand residents gathered near Khojent increased to 50 thousand. Thanks to the fact that the khan declared ghazavat - “holy war”, crowds of fanatical residents of the Kokand Khanate, armed with anything, rushed to Khojent. On August 22, a general battle took place, in which the Kokand people lost one and a half thousand people killed, while only six soldiers died on the Russian side. The fifty thousand army of Kokand, commanded by Abdurrahman Avtobachi, fled. On August 26, Russian troops under the command of General Kaufman approached Kokand. Realizing the hopelessness of his situation, Khan Nasreddin went to meet the Russian troops with a request for surrender. On September 23, General Kaufman and Khan Nasreddin signed a peace treaty, according to which the Kokand Khanate renounced an independent foreign policy and the conclusion of treaties with any state other than the Russian Empire.

However, the leader of the anti-Russian resistance, Abdurrahman Avtobachi, did not recognize the agreement concluded by the khan and continued hostilities. His troops retreated to Andijan, and on September 25, the rebels proclaimed the new khan of the Kyrgyz Pulat-bek, whose candidacy was supported by the all-powerful Avtobachi. Meanwhile, in January 1876, a decision was made to liquidate the Kokand Khanate and annex it to Russia. The resistance of the rebels led by Avtobachi and Pulat-bek was gradually suppressed. Soon Abdurrahman Avtobachi was arrested and sent to settle in Russia. As for Pulat Bek, known for extreme cruelty towards Russian prisoners of war, he was executed in the main square of the city of Margelan. The Kokand Khanate ceased to exist and became part of the Turkestan Governor-General as the Fergana region. Naturally, after the conquest of the Kokand Khanate and its inclusion in the Russian Empire, the armed forces of the Khanate ceased to exist. Some of the sarbaz returned to peaceful life, some continued to work as caravan guards, and there were those who went into criminal activity, organizing robberies and robberies in the vastness of the Fergana Valley.

Khanate of Khiva - successor to Khorezm

After the Russian conquest of Central Asia, the statehood of only the Bukhara Emirate and the Khanate of Khiva, which became protectorates of the Russian Empire, was formally preserved. In fact, the Khanate of Khiva existed only in the vocabulary of historians, political and military leaders of the Russian Empire. Throughout its history, it was officially called the Khorezm state or simply Khorezm. And the capital was Khiva - and that is why the state created in 1512 by nomadic Uzbek tribes was called the Khanate of Khiva by domestic historians. In 1511, Uzbek tribes under the leadership of the sultans Ilbas and Balbars - the Chingizids, descendants of Arab Shah ibn Pilada, captured Khorezm. Thus, a new khanate emerged under the rule of the Arabshahid dynasty, which ascended through the Arab Shah to Shiban, the fifth son of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan. At first, Urgench remained the capital of the Khanate, but during the reign of Arab Muhammad Khan (1603-1622), Khiva became the capital, retaining the status of the main city of the Khanate for three centuries - until the end of its existence. The population of the Khanate was divided into nomadic and sedentary. The dominant role was played by nomadic Uzbek tribes, but some of the Uzbeks gradually settled down and merged with the ancient settled population of the Khorezm oases. By the middle of the 18th century, the Arabshahid dynasty gradually lost its power. Real power ended up in the hands of the ataliks and inaks (tribal leaders) of the Uzbek nomadic tribes. The two largest Uzbek tribes, the Mangyts and the Kungrats, competed for power in the Khanate of Khiva. In 1740, the territory of Khorezm was conquered by the Iranian Nadir Shah, but in 1747, after his death, Iran's power over Khorezm ended. As a result of the internecine struggle, the leaders of the Kungrat tribe gained the upper hand. In 1770, the leader of the Kungrats, Muhammad Amin-biy, was able to defeat the warlike Turkmens-Yomuds, after which he seized power and laid the foundation for the Kungrat dynasty, which ruled the Khanate of Khiva for the next century and a half. However, at first the formal rule of the Genghisids, who were invited from the Kazakh steppes, remained in Khorezm. Only in 1804 did Muhammad Amin-biy’s grandson Eltuzar proclaim himself khan and finally remove the Genghisids from governing the khanate.

Khiva was an even more underdeveloped state than its southern neighbor, the Emirate of Bukhara. This was explained by a smaller percentage of the sedentary population and a significant number of nomads - Uzbek, Karakalpak, Kazakh, and Turkmen tribes. Initially, the population of the Khiva Khanate consisted of three main groups - 1) nomadic Uzbek tribes who moved to Khorezm from Desht-i-Kipchak; 2) Turkmen tribes; 3) descendants of the ancient settled Iranian-speaking population of Khorezm, who by the time of the events described had adopted Turkic dialects. Later, as a result of territorial expansion, the lands of the Karakalpak tribes, as well as a number of Kazakh lands, were annexed to the Khiva Khanate. The policy of subjugating the Karakalpaks, Turkmen and Kazakhs was carried out by Muhammad Rahim Khan I, who ruled from 1806 to 1825, and then by his heirs. Under Eltuzar and Muhammad Rahim Khan I, the foundations of centralized Khiva statehood were laid. Thanks to the construction of irrigation structures, the Uzbeks gradually settled, and new cities and villages were built. However, the general standard of living of the population remained extremely low. In the Khanate of Khiva, food was more expensive than in the neighboring Emirate of Bukhara, and the population had less money. In winter, Turkmens migrated to the vicinity of Khiva, purchasing bread in exchange for meat. Local peasants - Sarts - grew wheat, barley, and garden crops. At the same time, the level of development of urban culture, including crafts, also remained unsatisfactory.

Unlike the cities of the Bukhara Emirate, Khiva and the three other cities of the Khanate were of no interest to Iranian, Afghan and Indian merchants, since, due to the poverty of the population, goods were not sold here, and there were no home-made products that could interest foreigners. The only truly developed “business” in the Khiva Khanate remained the slave trade - here were the largest slave markets in Central Asia. Periodically, the Turkmens, who were vassals of the Khiva Khan, made predatory raids into the Iranian province of Khorasan, where they captured captives, who were subsequently enslaved and used in the economy of the Khiva Khanate. Raids for slaves were due to a serious shortage of human resources in the sparsely populated Khorezm lands, but for neighboring states such activities of the Khiva Khanate posed a serious threat. Also, the Khivans caused serious damage to caravan trade in the region, which was one of the main reasons for the start of the Khiva campaigns of Russian troops.

Khiva army

Unlike the Bukhara Emirate, the history and structure of the armed forces of the Khiva Khanate have been studied very poorly. Nevertheless, according to individual memoirs of contemporaries, it is possible to recreate some details of the organization of the defense system of the Khiva Khanate. The geographical position of Khiva, constant participation in wars and conflicts with neighbors, the low level of economic development - all this together determined the belligerence of the Khiva Khanate. The military power of the Khanate consisted of the forces of nomadic tribes - the Uzbeks and Turkmens. At the same time, all contemporary authors recognized the great belligerence and tendency to participate in hostilities of the Turkmen population of the Khiva Khanate. The Turkmen played a vital role in organizing slave raids into Persian territory. The Khiva Turkmens, penetrating into the territory of Persia, entered into contact with representatives of local Turkmen tribes, who acted as guides and pointed out the least guarded villages in which they could successfully profit from both things and products, and “living goods”. The stolen Persians were then sold at the Khiva slave markets. At the same time, the Khiva Khan received a fifth of the slaves from each campaign. Turkmen tribes constituted the main and most combat-ready part of the Khiva army.

Karakalpak horseman from Khiva

As historians note, there was no army in the modern sense of the word in the Khiva Khanate: “the Khivans do not have a permanent army, but if necessary, the Uzbeks and Turkmens, who constitute their warlike population, are taken, by order of the khan, for weapons. Of course, there is no discipline in such a cathedral army, and as a result there is no order and subordination... They don’t keep lists of soldiers” (Quoted from: History of Central Asia. Collection of historical works. M., 2003, p. 55). Thus, in the event of the outbreak of war, the Khiva Khan mobilized tribal militias of the Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. The Uzbeks and Turkmens competed on their own horses and with their own weapons. There was practically no military organization and discipline in the mounted hordes of Khivans. The most skillful and courageous warriors formed the personal guard of the Khiva Khan, and the commanders of the forward detachments that carried out raids on enemy territory were also selected from them. The leaders of such detachments were called sardars, but had no power over their subordinates.

The total number of troops collected by the Khiva Khan did not exceed twelve thousand people. However, in the event of a serious threat to the Khanate, the Khan could mobilize the Karakalpak and Sart populations, which made it possible to increase the number of troops by approximately two to three times. However, the numerical increase in the army as a result of the mobilization of the Sarts and Karakalpaks did not mean an increase in its combat effectiveness - after all, the forcibly mobilized people did not have special military training, the desire to comprehend the military craft, and also, given the self-sufficiency of weapons customary in the Khiva army, they were extremely poorly armed. Therefore, the mobilized Sarts and Karakalpaks caused nothing but problems for the Khiva Khan, which forced him to gather a militia from civilians only in the most extreme cases. Since the Khiva army was actually a tribal militia, the issues of its material support lay entirely with the warriors themselves.

Turkmen horsemen present booty to the khan

Usually a Khivan warrior took with him on a campaign a camel loaded with food and utensils; the poor Khivans were limited to one camel for two. Accordingly, on the campaign, the Khiva cavalry was followed by a huge convoy, consisting of loaded camels and their drivers - usually slaves. Naturally, the presence of a huge convoy influenced the speed of movement of the Khiva army. In addition to the extremely slow movement, another feature of the Khiva army was the short duration of the campaigns. The Khiva army could not withstand more than a month and a half of the campaign. After forty days, the Khiva army began to disperse. At the same time, taking into account that no records of personnel and, accordingly, payment of salaries were kept in the Khiva army, its soldiers calmly dispersed individually and in groups to their homes and did not bear any disciplinary responsibility for this. Khiva campaigns usually did not last more than forty days. However, even this period was enough for the Uzbek and Turkmen warriors to get rich during the robberies of the population of the territories they passed through.

Structure and weapons of the Khiva army

As for the internal structure of the Khiva army, it should be noted the complete absence of infantry. The Khiva army always consisted of one cavalry - mounted militias of Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. This nuance deprived the Khivan army of the opportunity to conduct military operations using methods other than a clash in an open field. Only sometimes dismounted cavalry could set up ambushes, but the Khivans were not capable of storming enemy fortifications. However, in horse battles, the Turkmen cavalry of the Khiva khans showed itself to be very effective. Turkmen horsemen, as noted by the authors of that time, moved very quickly, being excellent riders and shooters. In addition to the Turkmen and Uzbek cavalry, the Khiva Khanate also had its own artillery, although very small in number. In the khan's capital, Khiva, there were seven artillery pieces, which, according to the description of contemporaries, were in unsatisfactory condition. Even during the reign of Muhammad Rahim Khan, experiments began in Khiva on casting their own artillery pieces. However, these experiments were unsuccessful, since the guns were cast with muzzles and during testing the guns often burst. Then artillery pieces were cast on the advice of Russian prisoners and a gunsmith ordered by the Khan of Khiva from Istanbul. As for the production of gunpowder, it was produced in workshops belonging to the Sarts. Saltpeter and sulfur were mined on the Khiva territory, which made gunpowder cheap. At the same time, the quality of gunpowder was very low due to non-compliance with the proportions of its constituent substances. The khans trusted the maintenance of artillery pieces exclusively to Russian captives during campaigns, recognizing the latter’s technical competence and their greater suitability for artillery service compared to the Uzbeks.

The Khiva cavalry was armed with bladed weapons and firearms. Among the weapons, it should be noted sabers - usually made in Khorasan; spears and pikes; bows and arrows. Some horsemen, even in the first half of the 19th century, dressed in damask armor and helmets, hoping to protect themselves from enemy sabers and pikes. As for firearms, before the Russian conquest of Central Asia, the Khiva army was armed mainly with matchlock guns. Outdated firearms negatively affected the firepower of the Khiva army, since most guns were impossible to shoot from a horse - only while lying down, from the ground. As noted by N.N. Muravyov-Karssky, “therefore they are used only in ambushes; their butts are quite long; a wick is wound onto these, the end of which is grabbed by iron tweezers attached to the butt; These tweezers are applied to the shelf using an iron rod held to the shooter’s right hand; At the end of the barrel, suction cups in the form of two large horns are attached to the stock. “They love to decorate the barrels of their guns with a silver notch” (Quoted from: Travel to Turkmenistan and Khiva in 1819 and 1820, of the Guards General Staff Captain Nikolai Muravyov, sent to these countries for negotiations. - M.: typ. Augusta Semyon, 1822 ).

Three “Khiva campaigns” and the conquest of Khiva

Russia tried three times to establish its position in the region controlled by the Khanate of Khiva. The first "Khiva campaign", also known as the expedition of Prince Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky, took place in 1717. On June 2, 1714, Peter I issues a decree “On sending the Preobrazhensky regiment to captain lieutenant prince. Alex. Bekovich-Cherkassky to find the mouths of the Daria River...” Bekovich-Cherkassky was given the following tasks: to explore the former course of the Amu Darya and turn it into the old channel; build fortresses on the way to Khiva and at the mouth of the Amu Darya; to persuade the Khan of Khiva to accept Russian citizenship; to persuade the Bukhara khan to become a citizen; send Lieutenant Kozhin to India under the guise of a merchant, and another officer to Erket, in order to discover gold deposits. For these purposes, Bekovich-Cherkassky was assigned a detachment of 4 thousand people, half of which were Greben and Yaik Cossacks. In the area of ​​the mouth of the Amu Darya, the detachment was met by the Khiva army, which was several times larger than the Bekovich-Cherkassky expedition in number. But, given their superiority in weapons, the Russian detachment managed to inflict serious damage on the Khivans, after which Shergazi Khan invited Bekovich-Cherkassky to Khiva. The prince arrived there accompanied by 500 people from his detachment. Khan managed to persuade Bekovich-Cherkassky to station Russian troops in five cities of Khiva, which required dividing the detachment into five parts. Bekovich-Cherkassky succumbed to the trick, after which all the detachments were destroyed by the superior forces of the Khivans. The decisive role in the destruction of Russian troops was played by the warriors of the Turkmen tribe of Yomuds, who were in the service of the Khiva Khan. Bekovich-Cherkassky himself was stabbed to death during a festive feast in the city of Porsu, and the Khiva Khan sent his head as a gift to the Bukhara emir. Most of the Russians and Cossacks were captured in Khiva and were enslaved. However, in 1740, Khiva was taken by the Persian Nadir Shah, who freed the surviving Russian prisoners by that time, supplied them with money and horses, and released them to Russia.

General Kaufman and the Khan of Khiva conclude an agreement

The second attempt to establish itself in Central Asia was made more than a century after the unsuccessful Bekovich-Cherkassky campaign that ended in tragedy. This time, the main reason for the Khiva campaign was the desire to secure the southern borders of the Russian Empire from the constant raids of the Khivans and to ensure the security of Russia’s trade communications with Bukhara (Khiva detachments regularly attacked caravans traveling through the territory of the Khiva Khanate). In 1839, on the initiative of the Orenburg Governor-General Vasily Alekseevich Perovsky, an expeditionary corps of Russian troops was sent to the Khiva Khanate. It was commanded by Adjutant General Perovsky himself. The strength of the corps was 6,651 people, representing the Ural and Orenburg Cossack troops, the Bashkir-Meshcheryak army, the 1st Orenburg regiment of the Russian army and artillery units. However, this campaign did not bring the Russian Empire victory over the Khanate of Khiva. The troops were forced to return to Orenburg, and the losses amounted to 1054 people, most of whom died from disease. Another 604 people were hospitalized upon returning from the campaign, many of them died from illness. 600 people were captured by the Khivans and returned only in October 1840. However, the campaign still had a positive consequence - in 1840, the Khivan Kuli Khan issued a decree banning the capture of Russians and even forbade the purchase of Russian captives from other steppe peoples Thus, the Khiva Khan intended to normalize relations with his powerful northern neighbor.

The second Khiva campaign was undertaken only in 1873. By this time, the Russian Empire had conquered the Bukhara Emirate and the Kokand Khanate, after which the Khiva Khanate remained the only independent state in Central Asia, surrounded on all sides by Russian territories and the lands of the Bukhara Emirate, which accepted the protectorate of the Russian Empire. Naturally, the conquest of the Khiva Khanate remained a matter of time. At the end of February - beginning of March 1873, Russian troops with a total number of 12-13 thousand people marched on Khiva. Command of the corps was entrusted to the Turkestan Governor-General Konstantin Petrovich Kaufman. On May 29, Russian troops entered Khiva, and the Khiva Khan capitulated. Thus ended the history of the political independence of the Khiva Khanate. The Gendemian Peace Treaty was concluded between Russia and the Khanate of Khiva. The Khanate of Khiva recognized the protectorate of the Russian Empire. Like the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva continued its existence while maintaining the previous institutions of power. Muhammad Rahim Khan II Kungrat, who recognized the power of the Russian emperor, received the rank of lieutenant general of the Russian army in 1896, and in 1904 - the rank of cavalry general. He made a great contribution to the development of culture in Khiva - it was under Muhammad Rahim Khan II that printing began in the Khiva Khanate, the Madrasah of Muhammad Rahim Khan II was built, and the famous poet and writer Agahi wrote his “History of Khorezm.” In 1910, after the death of Muhammad Rahim Khan II, his 39-year-old son Seyid Bogatur Asfandiyar Khan (1871-1918, pictured) ascended the Khiva throne. He was immediately awarded the rank of major general of the imperial retinue, Nicholas II awarded the khan the Orders of St. Stanislav and St. Anne. The Khiva Khan was assigned to the Orenburg Cossack army (the Bukhara emir, in turn, was assigned to the Terek Cossack army). However, despite the fact that some representatives of the Khiva nobility were listed as officers of the Russian imperial army, the situation with the organization of the armed forces in the Khanate was much worse than in the neighboring Bukhara Emirate. Unlike the Bukhara Emirate, a regular army was never created in Khiva. This was explained, among other things, by the fact that the nomadic tribes that formed the basis of the Khiva army were extremely alien to conscription and permanent military service. The Turkmen horsemen, distinguished by their great personal courage and individual skills as excellent horsemen and shooters, were not suited for the everyday rigors of military service. It was not possible to create regular military units from them. In this regard, the settled population of the neighboring Bukhara Emirate was much more convenient material for building armed forces.

Khiva after the revolution. Red Khorezm.

After the February Revolution in the Russian Empire, tremendous changes also affected Central Asia. It should be noted here that by 1917, the Khiva Khanate continued to suffer from internecine wars between the Turkmen leaders - the serdars. One of the main culprits for destabilizing the situation in the Khanate was Junaid Khan, or Muhammad Kurban Serdar (1857-1938) - the son of a bai from the Junaid clan of the Turkmen Yomud tribe. Initially, Muhammad-Kurban held the position of mirab - water manager. Then, in 1912, Muhammad-Kurban led a detachment of Turkmen horsemen who robbed caravans traveling through the Karakum sands. Then he received the Turkmen military title “serdar”. To calm down the Yomuds and stop robberies of caravans, Khan Asfandiyar undertook a punitive campaign against the Turkmens. In retaliation, Muhammad Kurban Serdar organized a series of attacks on the Uzbek villages of the Khiva Khanate. After Asfandiyar Khan, with the help of Russian troops, managed to suppress the Yomud resistance in 1916, Muhammad Kurban Serdar hid in Afghanistan. He reappeared in the Khiva Khanate after the 1917 revolution and soon entered the service of his former enemy Asfandiyar Khan. A detachment of 1,600 Turkmen cavalry, subordinate to Junaid Khan, became the basis of the Khiva army, and Junaid Khan himself was appointed commander of the Khiva army.

Gradually, the Turkmen Serdar acquired such a significant position at the Khiva court that in October 1918 he decided to overthrow the Khiva Khan. Junaid Khan's son Eshi Khan organized the murder of Asfandiyar Khan, after which the khan's young brother Said Abdullah Ture ascended the Khiva throne. In fact, power in the Khiva Khanate ended up in the hands of Serdar Junaid Khan (pictured). Meanwhile, in 1918, the Khorezm Communist Party was created, which was not very large, but maintained close ties with Soviet Russia. With the support of the RSFSR, an uprising began in the Khanate of Khiva in November 1919. However, initially the forces of the rebels were not enough to overthrow Junaid Khan, so Soviet Russia sent troops to help the Khiva rebels.

By the beginning of February 1920, the Turkmen troops of Junaid Khan suffered complete defeat. On February 2, 1920, Said Abdullah Khan of Khiva abdicated the throne, and on April 26, 1920, the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was proclaimed as part of the RSFSR. At the end of April 1920, the Red Army of the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was created, subordinate to the People's Nazirate for Military Affairs. Initially, the Khorezm Red Army was recruited by recruiting volunteers for military service, and in September 1921, universal conscription was introduced. The strength of the Red Army of the KhNSR was about 5 thousand soldiers and commanders. By the summer of 1923, the Red Army of the KhNSR included: 1 cavalry regiment, 1 separate cavalry division, 1 infantry regiment. Units of the Red Army of the KhNSR helped units of the Red Army in the armed struggle against the Turkestan Basmach movement. On October 30, 1923, in accordance with the decision of the 4th All-Khorezm Kurultai of Soviets, the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was renamed the Khorezm Socialist Soviet Republic. From September 29 to October 2, 1924, the 5th All-Khorezm Kurultai of Soviets took place, at which the decision was made to self-liquidate the KhSSR. This decision was caused by the need for national-territorial demarcation in Central Asia. As the Uzbek and Turkmen populations of the KhSSR competed for dominance in the republic, it was decided to divide the territory of the Khorezm Soviet Socialist Republic between the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic and the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic. The territory inhabited by Karakalpaks formed the Karakalpak Autonomous Region, initially part of the RSFSR, and then annexed to the Uzbek SSR. Residents of the former Khorezm Soviet Socialist Republic began to serve in the ranks of the Red Army on a general basis. As for the remnants of the Turkmen detachments subordinate to Junaid Khan, they took part in the Basmachi movement, in the process of liquidation of which some of them surrendered and moved on to peaceful life, and some were liquidated or went to the territory of Afghanistan.

By the time it came under Russian protectorate, the Bukhara Khanate occupied about 200 thousand km 2 and numbered up to 3 thousand inhabitants. The Uzbeks who inhabited it mainly lived in the valleys of the Zarafshan, Kashka-Darya, and Surkhan-Darya rivers; Tajiks lived in the mountainous regions of Darvaz, Karategin, Baljuan and Kulyab; Turkmens - in the regions of Chardzhou, Karshi, Kerki and along the right bank of the Amu Darya River.

Being under Russian protectorate since 1868, the Bukhara Khanate retained its traditional administrative-territorial division. It included the bekstva-vilayets: Kermininsky, Chardzhuysky, Ziyautdinsky, Nurata, Khatyrchinsky, Kitabsky, Shakhrisabzsky, Chirakchinsky, Yakkabagsky, Guzarsky, Baysunsky, Karateginsky, Denausky, Gissarsky, Darvazsky, Baljuansky, Shugnano-Rushansky, Kulyabsky, Kurgantepa, Kabadiansky, Shirabadsky, Kelifsky, Kerkinsky, Burdalyksky, Kabaklysky, Karshi and Narazymsky. Bukhara and its suburban lands constituted an independent administrative unit. The Bukhara emir ruled the khanate, relying on the Muslim clergy, landed aristocracy and merchants. He was considered the supreme commander of the army, which consisted of sarbaz (soldiers).

At the head of the state administration of Bukhara was the first minister of the khanate - Kush-begi. He owned all administrative and administrative power. He controlled the work of financial authorities, supervised the collection of kharaj and zyaket. The kush-begi were subordinate to the divan-begi, who were in charge of collecting kharaj - land taxes, and the zyakachi-kalon, who collected tax from livestock. An important item of state income was aminana - a duty on exported goods. A special source of income for the Bukhara serving nobility was peshkash - offerings in the form of gifts. The emir also practiced selling positions - beks, amlyakdars, qazis and rais. The beks ruled the vilayets, were appointed and replaced according to the proposal of the jackpots. Amlyakdars headed tumens - administrative-tax units; they were also appointed and removed by the emir on the recommendation of the kush-begi.

In the Bukhara Khanate, 90% of the population were rural residents 74. They formed the backbone of the emir's army, divided into infantry, cavalry and artillery. At the head of the cavalry and artillerymen was Topchi-Bashi, the chief of artillery. The protection of order in the cities was carried out by mirshabs - policemen. The soldiers received a salary of one tilli; with this meager money they had to feed and clothe themselves. In order to somehow support their families, soldiers were allowed to engage in agriculture and small trade.

As a result of the new treaty on the protectorate concluded in September 1873, the Bukhara Khanate, although it came under tighter imperial control than before, retained many benefits and privileges. The appointed special representative of Russia did not have the authority to interfere in the internal affairs of the Khanate; he only had the right to control the foreign policy, military and foreign trade situation of the Khanate.

The Bukhara Khanate was still headed by the emir, whose property was not separated from the state property, which gave him great advantages. The cumbersome apparatus of state administration has also been preserved.

The highest administrative power in the Bukhara Khanate remained in the hands of Kush-begi, who managed all economic and civil affairs. Subordinate to him were the junior kush-begi, who was in charge of the financial part, and the officials - divan-begi, who stood at the head of the regions.

The supreme military leader - the military topchi-bashi - was also the head of the capital's garrison. The main branches of the Bukhara army were cavalry and irregular detachments of nukers - service people. In peacetime they were exempt from taxes, and in wartime they had to serve in full armor, with a war horse. The army was divided into hundreds, dozens. The commanders of hundreds received tanho - land estates - for their service from the emir, while the lower ranks received from the state during the war period only horses, grain for food, clothing and small sums of money. The emir always had a military detachment of cavalry and infantry with him.

In the XIX - early XX centuries. In connection with railway construction and active migration of the population from European Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, European-style settlements and small cities appeared in the Bukhara Khanate: New Bukhara, Chardzhuy, Termez and Kerki. These settlements had an independent administrative system. They were subject to the “Regulations on the Administration of the Turkestan General Government” of 1867. The Bukhara authorities had no right to interfere in their internal affairs. All officials of these settlements were appointed by the Turkestan governor-general.

According to the “Rules on the management, management and improvement of settlements near the railway stations of Chardzhuy and New Bukhara” dated June 23, 1888, the Russian representative enjoyed the same administrative power in these settlements as military governors. In New Bukhara, the position of a city chief was introduced, whose powers extended to Russian subjects of the city of Old Bukhara and villages along the railway between the Farab and Kattakurgan stations. Chardzhuy, Termez and Kerki were ruled by Russian commanders who had equal rights with the district commanders of the Turkestan General Government 75

Military garrisons stationed in the Bukhara Khanate also had a special status. The troops were located near the city of Kerki and in the border fortification of Termez. They controlled the Afghan border. On the border line from the city of Kerki to Darvaz there were border guard posts of the special Amu-Darya brigade and customs posts that regulated Russia's trade with the states of the East.

In 1885, the “Russian Imperial Political Agency” was created in Bukhara, performing the functions of an embassy. All connections between Tashkent and St. Petersburg and the Bukhara government were carried out through a political agent as the official representative of Russia in the Khanate. He was also entrusted with control over the Russian-Afghan border: he monitored compliance with the terms of the agreement concluded between the two states in 1873, the duty-free transportation of Russian goods through the protectorate zone to neighboring eastern states, regulated mutual payments between Russian and Bukhara traders, and ensured payment of claims for bills presented by Russian subjects, carried out judicial functions related to the interests of the Russian merchants in the Khanate.

In the created judicial commission, consisting of a Russian political agent and a jackpot, criminal and civil cases that arose between Russian and Bukhara subjects were resolved by mutual agreement of the parties.

At the end of the 19th century. the prerogatives of a political agent undergo changes in connection with the organization of the Russian court in the Bukhara Khanate. His judicial rights were somewhat limited as a result of the introduction of the institution of justices of the peace, who decided the cases of Russian citizens.

In 1873, after the conquest of the Khiva Khanate by the tsarist troops, a peace treaty was concluded, according to which the Khanate became a protectorate of Russia. To control the activities of the khan, a Divan is created consisting of 7 people: 4 representatives of the Russian administration and 3 representatives of the Khiva side (khan, divan-begi and mehter). The decisions of the Divan, headed by the khan, were approved by the Turkestan governor-general, who also appointed and dismissed members of the Divan. After the formation of the Amu-Darya district, the Divan was abolished. In 1874, the district was renamed into a department with its center in the city of Petro-Alexandrovsk. It is headed by a Russian military commander with the rank of officer 76

In 1887, the “Regulations on the management of the Turkestan region” were adopted, according to which the Amu-Darya department was included in the Syrdarya region, its head was equal to the district head, but with the retention of special powers. He remains the head of the department's troops and in military affairs is subordinate to the Turkestan governor-general, being also the diplomatic representative of Russia in the Khiva Khanate.

Internal administration remained unchanged after the conclusion of the protectorate agreement. The Khan with hereditary power remained at the head of the Khiva Khanate, although his rights were curtailed by the Divan and the head of the Amu-Darya department. Management was carried out through palace officials and senior clergy. The main dignitary was Kush-begi, who was in charge of the settled population of the southern half of the Khanate. He was followed by the mehter, to whom the settled population of the northern part of the country was subordinate. The position of divan-begi, who managed the state chancellery, was also important.

In the Khiva Khanate, the previous division into districts was also preserved, headed by hakims - rulers, and sometimes qazis - judges. The lands around the cities on the right side of the Amu Darya were exempt from taxes and transferred to the management of members of the khan's family.

The administration of the cities of the Khiva Khanate was in the hands of the hakims, their assistants - yuzbashi (centurions) and kedkhudo (elders).

In villages, the management function was carried out by elders, whose responsibilities included collecting taxes from the settled population, resolving minor administrative issues and monitoring the behavior of residents. Mirabs were in charge of irrigation in rural areas.

The nomads had a special management system. The Kazakhs, Turkmens, and Karakalpaks who inhabited the Khanate were not subordinate to the hakims - they were ruled by their tribal elders: among the Turkmen - beks and vakils, among the Kazakhs and Karakalpaks - biys, who stood at the head of individual clans. Associations of clans were led by ataliks, who were subordinate to the beklyar-begi khan's officials.

Police power was concentrated in the hands of the Mirshabs, who performed police functions at night, when the bazaars ended and the gates of the cities were closed.

The Khanate also retained its own army. The regular army, numbering 1,500 people, guarded the khan's family in peacetime. During the war, a people's militia was assembled, which consisted of nukers (horsemen and infantry), as well as a special unit of mounted Turkmens. The regular army was led by Yesaul-Bashi. The militia commanders appointed by the khan were not professional military men 77 .

In the Khanate and under the protectorate of Russia, the Islamic clergy continued to play a large role. Its service part included: sheikh-ul-Islams, qazis, rais, muftis, mudarris, imams, etc. There was also an institution of unofficial clergy - dervish sheikhs, who headed murid organizations that had a great influence on the rural and urban population.

The local court was also preserved here. The supreme judge - kazi-kalyan - was appointed by the khan, like other judges in the state. Judges also performed notarial functions, certifying property transactions and inheritance cases with seals. They were entrusted with supervision of waqf property and guardianship of minor and incompetent heirs. The judges were not supported by the khan, but lived on fees for performing legal acts. They decided cases according to Sharia - Muslim religious law based on the Koran and collections of judicial decisions. The verdict was final and not subject to appeal. The judge listened to witnesses during the trial, and the testimony of two women was equated to the testimony of one man. He pronounced the sentence immediately and carried it out immediately. Fines, imprisonment, caning, and cutting off hands or feet were used as punishments. There was no preliminary investigation, as well as defense of the accused. The death penalty was carried out only with the permission of the khan. The positions of judges in cities were performed by qazis, subordinate to the chief judge. In nomadic areas, judicial functions were also performed by qazis. Some tribes had their own qazis, for example, the Karakalpaks resolved their court cases in Chimbay if they concerned inter-tribal relations. Judicial punishments were also severe: beheading, beating with sticks, cutting off the nose.

The second person after the supreme judge in the khanate was rais - the chief; he supervised the behavior of residents, their compliance with Sharia regulations and carried out the functions of a trade inspection. Rais used lists to check parishioners' attendance at the obligatory five-time prayers; in the markets he controlled the correctness of merchants' measures and weights. If violations were discovered, the perpetrators were punished with a whip, and goods were confiscated from traders 78 .

This was the political and administrative structure of two large state formations in Central Asia - the Bukhara and Khiva khanates - until the October Revolution of 1917.

Story

Revolution in Khiva

An attempt at liberal reforms after the February Revolution of 1917 failed due to the conservative views of Asfandiyar Khan, who began to obstruct reforms.

In the spring of 1918, Asfandiyar Khan was killed during a coup d'etat by the people of the leader of the Turkmen-Yomuds, Junaid Khan, in the palace of Nurullah Bai, and his younger brother Said Abdullah Khan was enthroned. Junaid Khan received real power.

The de facto dictatorship of Junaid Khan and his aggressive foreign policy led the country to terrible military defeats (Siege of Petro-Alexandrovsk (1918)), which further increased dissent in the Khanate and emigration from it. In November 1919, a communist-led uprising began. However, the forces of the rebels were not enough to defeat government troops. Red Army troops from Russia were sent to help the rebels. By the beginning of February 1920, Junaid Khan's army was completely defeated. On February 2, Said Abdullah Khan abdicated the throne (he later lived in the USSR as a simple worker and was buried in Krivoy Rog), and on April 26, 1920, the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was proclaimed as part of the RSFSR.

In 1922, as part of the RSFSR, the Khorezm NSR entered the USSR, then it was transformed into the Khorezm SSR, and in the fall of 1924, during the national-territorial demarcation in Central Asia, its territory was divided between the Uzbek SSR, the Turkmen SSR and the Karakalpak Autonomous Okrug of the RSFSR.

Socio-economic and political life

The economic crisis greatly affected the political situation in the state. Under Arab Muhammad Khan, the Yaik Cossacks, led by Ataman Nechai, guarding the Russian border, carried out a robbery attack on Urgench, capturing 1000 boys and girls [ ] . But on the way back they were overtaken by the khan and his army. The Cossacks were defeated. Some time later, Ataman Shamai and his detachment attacked Urgench, but they also were unsuccessful and were captured by the khan.

Discord became more frequent in the Khanate. In 1616, the sons of Arab Muhammad Khan, Habash Sultan and Elbars Sultan, with the support of the heads of the Naiman and Uighur tribes, rebelled against their father. Khan gave in to his sons. He added the city of Wazir to the lands that belonged to them. But in 1621 they rebelled again. This time, his other sons, Isfandiyar Khan and Abulgazi Khan, acted on the side of Arab Muhammad Khan. The troops of Habash Sultan and Elbars Sultan won the battle. By order of his sons, the father who was captured by them was blinded with a red-hot rod and thrown into the zindan. Some time later, the khan was killed. Abulgazi Sultan found refuge in the palace of the Bukhara Khan Imamkuli. Asfandiyar Khan fled to Khazarasp. Later, his victorious brothers allowed him to go on Hajj. But Asfandiyar Khan went to the Iranian Shah Abbas I and, with his help, took the Khiva throne in 1623. Having learned about this, Abulgazi Sultan hurried to Khiva. Isfandiyar Khan (1623-1642) appointed him ruler of Urgench. But soon their relationship deteriorated, and Abulgazi fled to the ruler of Turkestan, Yesim Khan. After the death of the latter in 1629, Abulgazi moved to Tashkent to its ruler Tursun Khan, then to the Bukhara Khan Imamkuli.

At the same time, Abulgazi Khan was an enlightened ruler. He wrote historical works in the Uzbek language “Shazharai Turk” (Family Tree of the Turks) and “Shazhara-i Tarokima” (Genealogy of the Turkmens)

After the death of Abulgazi Khan, the throne was taken by his son Anusha Khan (1663-1687). Under him, relations with the Bukhara Khanate worsened even more. He undertook military campaigns against him several times, reached Bukhara, and captured Samarkand. In the end, the Bukhara khan Subkhankulikhan organized a conspiracy against him, and Anusha Khan was blinded.

Subkhankuli Khan formed a conspiracy in Khiva from his supporters. In 1688, they sent a representative to Bukhara with a request to accept the Khanate of Khiva as their citizenship. Taking advantage of this circumstance, Subkhankuli Khan appointed Inak Shakhniyaz Khan of Khiva. But Shahniyaz did not have the ability to govern the state. Feeling his helplessness, he betrayed Subkhankuli Khan and began to look for a stronger trustee. Russia could become this. With the help of the Russian Tsar Peter I, he wanted to maintain his position. In secret from Subkhankuli Khan in 1710, he sent his ambassador to Peter I and asked to accept the Khanate of Khiva into Russian citizenship. Having long dreamed of taking possession of the gold and raw materials reserves of Central Asia, Peter I considered this an opportunity and on June 30, 1710, issued a decree satisfying Shakhniyaz’s request. After these events, political life in the Khiva Khanate became even more complicated.

The social situation in the Khanate of Khiva, as in other states of Central Asia, was characterized by stagnation; this was due to the lag of the Khanate from the process of world development. Political fragmentation, the dominance of subsistence farming, ongoing internal strife, and attacks by foreigners led to the fact that the country's economy was in decline and social life was monotonous. The rulers thought more about their well-being than about the benefit for the state and the people.

In the Khiva Khanate, as well as in the Bukhara Khanate, there were many taxes and duties. The main one was the land tax “salguto”. Among other taxes, the population paid “algug” (once a year) and “miltin puli” (for the purchase of a gun), “arava oluv” (use of the population’s carts), “ulok tutuv” (mobilization of working livestock), “kunalga” (provision of housing for ambassadors and officials), “suisun” (slaughter of animals for treating government officials), “chalar puli” (payment for messengers), “tarozuyana” (payment for scales), “mirabana” (payment to the elder for the division of water), “darvazubon” puli" (payment to the gatekeeper and guard), "mushrifana" (payment for determining the amount of tax on the harvest), "afanak puli" (payment to the one who brings news of the begar), "chibik puli" (payment for exemption from public works), payment to the clergy, etc. In total, the people paid about 20 types of tax.

In addition, the population was involved in mandatory public works:

• “begar” - one person from each family had to work 12 days a year (sometimes up to 30 days) at various construction sites, cleaning irrigation canals, etc.;
• “kazuv” - construction of canals;
• “ichki va obhura kazuv” - cleaning irrigation systems and dams with sluices;
• “kachi” - construction of defensive walls and dams;
• “Atlanów” - participation with a horse in the Khan’s hunt.

These duties, associated mainly with the maintenance of irrigation systems, were a heavy burden for the working people, since most of them were associated with earthworks. Sometimes newly erected dams were destroyed under the pressure of water, and the period of excavation work was extended to 1-3 months. Therefore, from time to time crop failures occurred in the Khanate, famine occurred, and the people were forced to leave their homes. At the time of the arrival of the Kungrat dynasty, about 40 families lived in Khiva.

By this time, the population of the Khanate numbered about 800 thousand people, 65% of whom were Uzbeks, 26% Turkmen, and the rest Karakalpaks and Kazakhs. Uzbek tribes and clans lived mainly in the north of the Khanate, in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. [ ]

The Khanate consisted of 15 vilayets - Pitnak, Khazarasp, Khanqa, Urgench, Kashkupyr, Ghazavat, Kiyat, Shah-Khabbaz (Shahbaz), Khojeyli, Ambar-Manok, Gurlen, Kunya-Urgench, Chumanay, Kushrat, Tashauz - and two governorships - Besharyk and Kiyat-Kungrat, as well as tumens belonging to the khan himself.

Supreme power was exercised by the khan. High-ranking officials inak, atalyk and biy enjoyed great influence. To resolve issues of national importance, under Muhammad Rahim Khan I, a divan of influential officials, that is, a state council, was created. Court cases, administered by the clergy, were based on Sharia law. Uzbek was considered the state language.

Land was considered the main wealth of the Khanate. It consisted of irrigated (akhya) and non-irrigated (core) lands. In the Khiva Khanate, as well as in the Bukhara Khanate, there were the following types of land ownership: state (amlyak), private (mulk) and religious waqf.

At the same time, land ownership in the Khiva Khanate had its own distinctive features in comparison with land ownership in the Bukhara and Kokand Khanates. The Khan and his relatives owned half of all lands, the rest of the lands were considered state (except for waqf). Tenants worked on state lands.

Farmers who worked on the khan's and private lands were called yarimchi (yarim - half): they gave half the harvest for rent.

The Khan's relatives did not pay taxes to the state. The clergy, major officials, owners of tarkhan letters, which gave the right to lifelong ownership of land, were also exempt from taxes, and small landowners, burdened with taxes, went bankrupt and, in the end, lost their land.

The main occupation of the khanate's population was agriculture. Its basis was agriculture and cattle breeding.

Farming was carried out under difficult conditions. The lands were irrigated by the waters of canals drawn from the Amu Darya, and in many places by chigir, driven by draft power. The drying up of the old riverbed of the Amu Darya at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries forced the rulers to seriously engage in irrigation. Arab Muhammad Khan (1602-1621) ordered a canal to be built near the Tuk fortress. Under Ali Sultan (1558-1567), the Yangiaryk, Tahiti, and Yarmysh canals were built. In 1681, the Shahabad canal was put into operation.

New Urgench was built under Abulgazi Khan in the 17th century. After this, ancient Urgench began to be called Kunya-Urgench. It contains the 12th-14th century mausoleum of Fakhrildina-Razi, the mausoleum of Sultan-Tekesh, Najmitdin-Kubro, a cathedral mosque, a minaret and the remains of caravanserais. New Urgench is the center of the current Khorezm region.

In 1874, Abdalov and Atajan founded book printing in Khorezm, and Khudaybergen Devanov became the first Uzbek photographer and cinematographer.