Poetry XIV-XVI centuries. continued the best traditions of the poets of the previous era from Ferdowsi and Rudaki to Omar Khayyam and Saadi.
The work of Saadi (c. 1203-1291), despite the relative time distance, typologically directly touches the literature of the era under consideration (for more information about the poet, see vol. II present edition).
The work of the younger great poet of Shiraz, Hafiz, is primarily associated with the great Saadi, who influenced all the poetry of the Middle East and Central Asia. Both poets were deeply folk, humane and fearless. Saadi was more inclined to philosophical teaching, Hafiz - to more tangible sensual imagery.
Both thought of themselves as poets - prophets of their people. Hafiz and his contemporaries with renewed vigor asserted human dignity in the difficult conditions of the feudal Muslim world and sought to lyrically recreate the individual freed from the shackles of orthodox religion.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. Not only qasidas and gazelles, but also nazires find new life. The nazire genre appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. in a series of imitative “additions” of “Shah-name”. The merit of the approval and development of this genre in the didactic and romantic epic belongs primarily to Amir Khosrow (Khusro) Dehlavi (Delhi).
As before, poets turned to Sufi motifs. But over time, Sufi poetic imagery becomes primarily an artistic device. A unique literary style appeared, which became, in the words of A. N. Boldyrev, only “Sufi,” that is, Sufi in form and diverse in content.
Farsi literature reaches its highest development in the 14th century. in the works of Ibn Yamin, Ubaid Zakani, Hafiz, Kamal Khujandi.
In the 1370s, when a popular movement of Sarbadars arose against the tyranny of Timur in Khorasan, Central Asia, Gilan, Mazandaran and Kirman, a new direction appeared in literature - Hurufism, close to Sufism and Shiism. The Hurufi heresy brought forward its poets, Azerbaijanis by origin - Nasimi (executed in 1417), Qasim al-Anwara (d. 1434), etc.
Under Timur's successors, panegyric poets wrote in Samarkand and then in Herat. Literature reached its culminating point in its development in Herat in the second half of the 15th century. in the works of the Persian-Tajik poet Jami (1414-1492) and the founder of Uzbek literature Alisher Navoi (1441-1501).
At the same time, the so-called “craft” poetry (Saifi and others) and fiction (“The Shining of Konop” by Hussein Vaiz Kashefi; d. 1505) intensified.
The literature of Western Iran was closely connected in the 15th century. with Herat, but was inferior to it in importance. Among the poets of the 15th century. Baba Figani (d. 1519) and the poet-craftsman Darwish Dihaki (d. 1531) stood out.
The literature of this time conveyed the element of popular indignation against the oppressors. Protest motives are heard in lyrics (ghazal, kyta) and in satire. The most prominent representatives of poetry that expressed the mood of the people were Ibn Yamin, Hafiz, Kamal Khujandi and the satirical poet Zakani.
Ibn Yamin (1287-1368) inherited from his father the position of dignitary and poet under the rulers of Khorasan. When the power of foreigners and their local servants collapsed under the blows of the Sarbadars, Ibn Yamin, an educated man, a subtle poet, became the singer of the Sarbadar leaders. He joined the plebeian wing of the rebels, led by one of the radical Sufi brotherhoods.
Some of the poet's poems sound like rebel war proclamations. In some he calls for unity, in others he speaks of hatred of enemies. At times his poems are mocking and ironic:
If you start following a cow for at least three months,
Your well-being will increase every week.
Well, if you praise the king seventy times a week,
There will be little sense: the jester is dearer to him.
Well, take a look and see:
Caring for one cow is better than serving a hundred shahs.
The ostentatious recklessness of the lyrical hero of Ibn Yamin - rinda (revelers) was a protest against asceticism, the hypocrisy of religion, a call for a clear conscience, freedom of spirit. For Ibn Yamin, man is higher than an angel, man is the highest value, conscience is his life mentor, bold daring is the path to happiness.
Ubaid Zakani was born at the end of the 13th century. in Southern Azerbaijan, and died in 1368. He studied in Shiraz, where, apparently, he encountered social injustice early on. In prose messages (risala), he ridicules the immorality of the feudal lords. The message “Ethics of the Noble” consists of seven chapters, each of which talks about wisdom, courage, modesty, etc.
The chapters are divided into two parts: “revoked doctrine” and “approved (current) doctrine”; in the first part, allegedly referring to the authority of the ancients, the author sets out his social and ethical views, and in the second, he exposes the morals of those in power, for whom “a cup of fiery wine is worth more than the blood of a hundred brothers.”
Zakani also ridicules cowardice: “I will not expose myself to the blows of arrows, axes and pikes; I like passions, wine and buffoons much more.” Many of Zakani's ghazals are characterized by a sharp satirical orientation.
History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.
First poem. SONG ABOUT BUGACH KHAN, SON OF DIRSE KHAN
Bayindyr Khan, according to a long-established tradition among the Oguzes, arranged a feast for the beks. At the same time, he ordered white tents to be erected for those who have sons, red ones for those who have no sons but a daughter, and black tents for childless beks. To further humiliate the latter, he ordered them to be served food from the meat of black sheep and to sit them on black felt.
This is what they did with the prominent bek Dirse Khan, who arrived with his retinue for the ceremony. He left Bayindyr Khan's headquarters in anger. At home, on the advice of his wife, Dirse Khan threw a feast, fed the hungry, distributed generous alms, thus begging God for a son. He had a son, who was raised as was customary among the nobility. At the age of fifteen, while playing with his peers, he suddenly saw the Khan’s fierce bull, which was being led to the square. His comrades abandoned the game and hid. But the brave young man forced the angry bull that rushed at him to retreat with a blow of his fist, and then cut off his head. With the wild delight of the Oguz beks, Korkut named him Bugach (Bull). According to Oghuz tradition, the father allocated an inheritance to his son and gave him bekship.
However, Dirse Khan's warriors, jealous of the young man's courage and the power he had achieved, began to weave intrigues around him. It ended with Dirse Khan mortally wounding his Bugach while hunting. The mother waited with trepidation for her son's return from his first hunting trip; She even prepared, according to Oghuz custom, to arrange a feast for this occasion. Having met only her husband, she rushed to him with questions and reproaches. Having received no answer, she took her forty warrior girls and went to look for her son,
The young man lay covered in blood, barely fending off the vultures. Khyzyr appeared and warned him that the juice of mountain flowers mixed with mother’s milk could be a cure for wounds, and then disappeared. The mother arrived, took her son away, cured him, but kept all this secret from her husband. The young man finally recovered. Meanwhile, forty Dirse warriors decided to put an end to the khan himself: they conspired to tie him up and hand him over to the hands of his enemies. Having learned about this, the khan's wife turned to her son, told him about what had happened and asked him to help his father out. Bugach went alone to meet the attackers and overtook them in the parking lot. Dirse Khan did not recognize his son and asked the traitors for permission to engage in battle with the young man, so that in case of victory they would free him. They agreed. But the young man entered into battle with forty traitors, killed some of them, took others prisoner, and freed his father. Bugach Khan received bekdom from Bayindyr Khan, and Korkut composed an oguzname poem about him.
This was accompanied by the disintegration of the common cultural space into areas with fairly fixed boundaries and their own cultural characteristics and interests. Tajik literature is separated from Iranian literature and subsequently develops independently. However, the main artistic postulates of the Persian tradition are preserved and reproduced with the addition of local motifs. The most important historical events or ideas for Tajiks, which most deeply affected the Tajik public consciousness, became decisive for its development.
The peculiarity of Soviet Tajik literature was that themes about transformations in society and historical milestones in the life of the Tajik people after the October Revolution were dealt with in a style reminiscent of folk tales or panegyric poetry traditional in the East. The predominant genre remained poetic collections of poems and especially poems. Realistic and critical tendencies took root poorly and were resolved mainly from the perspective of a semi-mythological struggle against evil, and not from the standpoint of critical analysis accepted in the European tradition.
Poems by Tajik folk poets Mirshakar (b.) “Golden Village” (), “Rebellious Panj” (), “Lenin in the Pamirs” (), “Love and Duty” (); Rahimi (-) (“Death for death, blood for blood”, “Victory”, “Shining Path”, etc.); Yusufi Habib (-) (“Songs of the Motherland”, who died near Warsaw), Mirzo Tursun-Zade (b.) (“Sun of the Country”), “Son of the Motherland”), “Bride from Moscow” (), “I from the East of the Free" (), "Voice of Asia" (), "From the Ganges to the Kremlin" () connected the themes of socialist construction, images of Lenin with the origins of the national liberation movement of the peoples of the East and were solved in the epic manner beloved of the Persian tradition, dating back to Persian mesnevi. Tajik poetry was characterized by romantic elation, emotionality and aphorism, coming from classical and folk poetry.
By including Soviet themes in the set of themes for poetic improvisations in the Persian style, Tajik writers preserved the national poetic tradition.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, a number of transformations related to the establishment of independence took place in Tajikistan, accompanied by clashes between opposing factions within the country. The further development of the literary process in Tajikistan is at a crossroads.
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TAJIK LITERATURE– written and oral works that make up the literature that developed on the territory of modern Tajikistan in the 16th–20th centuries. Tajik literature, perhaps more than any other except Iranian, can be considered a continuation of classical Persian literature. (). First of all, this is due to the linguistic proximity of the Tajik language and Farsi. Tajik literature is an example of modification of the classical Persian tradition in new historical conditions.
In the development of classical Persian literature 3–15 centuries. on the territory of Asia Minor and Central Asia, the early period is distinguished - the predominance of the ancient Pahlavi language, the creation of the Zaraostrian holy book Avesta, dynastic chronicles, tales of heroes, etc. The next period is associated with the influence of Arab culture and the formation of the New Persian Farsi language. This is the time of the formation of the main forms and plots of classical Persian literature in the main cultural centers - Bukhara, Herat, Isfahan, Samarkand, etc. The works of the classics of Persian literature Rudaki, Dakiki, Rumi, Khosrow, Hafiz, Firdousi, Nizami, Jami, etc. put it in a number of the highest achievements of world culture. The exchange of cultural achievements between regions of the Muslim world during this period was facilitated by the conquest of weakened regions by strengthening regions, the fluidity of borders between caliphates, and the free migration of cultural figures who knew several languages in search of patronage to the rulers of different regions. Thus, by the 15th century. In Central and Asia Minor, a relatively homogeneous space of Muslim Persian culture, different from Arab, developed.
The struggle between Shiite Iran and Sunni Central Asia in the 16th century. led to the separation of Central Asia from Iran. This was accompanied by the disintegration of the common cultural space into areas with fairly fixed boundaries and their own cultural characteristics and interests. Tajik literature is separated from Iranian literature and subsequently develops independently. However, the main artistic postulates of the Persian tradition are preserved and reproduced with the addition of local motifs. The most important historical events or ideas for Tajiks, which most deeply affected the Tajik public consciousness, became decisive for its development.
In the 16th–19th centuries. - the era of the decomposition of feudalism - in Tajik literature there is a crisis of court poetry - the basis of the Persian literary tradition. Urban literature began to develop, criticizing and ridiculing the feudal order. Elements of living spoken language are increasingly found in literary works. The peculiarity of this period is the variety of genres. One and the same poet could find both “low” popular and “high” - philosophical and religious genres.
One of the most significant poets of the 16th century, the so-called Sheybanid period, court poet Mullo Mushfiqi (1525–1588) lived and served at the courts of the rulers of Bukhara and Samarkand. His satirical poems, ridiculing feudal orders, are most famous in Central Asia. He is the originator of the “musallasi murakkab” form in Tajik poetry - tercets in which the first two lines rhyme. Mushfiqa's lyrics - collections of ghazals and qasidas, poems Flower garden Irema,Poem about wine,Reflecting World- an example of poetic skill, simplicity and wit. Mushfiqi entered Tajik folklore as a witty hero of folk jokes.
Other names of Tajik writers 16 are the poet Binoi (d. 1512) and Zainetdin Vosifi, who described in his memoirs the way of life of the literary circles of that time.
Of the authors of the 17th–18th centuries, the so-called Ashtarkhanid period, the most famous are the poet Sayido Nasafi, who expressed his protest against feudal oppression in his work; Khoki from Samarkand, known for his socio-satirical cycle of prose fables about animals; Mashrab from Namangan, executed in 1711 for works directed against the clergy, Ftirat Zarduz from Samarkand - author of mesnevi Tolib and Matlub.
In the field of elite poetry with mystical Sufi sentiments and stylistic searches, the most striking and significant name was the name of the poet and thinker Mirzo Abdul-Qadir Bedil, or Bidel (1644–1721) from Azimbad, Bengal, India. Bedil in his youth was a dervish, a healer and an ascetic, but later he not only did not reject worldly life, but also severely condemned detached and inactive trust in God, glorifying all work. In assessing his work, devout Islamists do not have a definite position - some consider his poems to be truly religious, others - atheistic, because they contain criticism of feudalism and official Islam. In India, outside of which the poet did not travel, he was not known, but his work - and Bedil wrote in Farsi - had a huge influence on the literature of Central Asia and Tajik literature in particular. His poetic and prose heritage is mesnevi Tilism-i khairat (Talisman of illumination), poem Irfan (Revelation) and others, where simple words were combined into complex metaphors, deep and melodious, is considered a classic of the so-called “Indian style.”
The “Indian style” in Persian literature originated during the Mughal era in the 12th century. This gallant, pretentious and masterfully refined style is associated with the name of Alisher Navoi and the Indian idealistic philosophy of Ramanuja of the 11th–12th centuries. It represents philosophical lyrics, a peculiar development of the mysticism of classical Sufi poets. The manner of presentation is extremely complex, the images are whimsical, deep and ambiguous. This style was very different from the strict clarity adopted in Old Persian poetry and was therefore called “Indian” (in Urdu literature it is in turn called “Persian”).
Bedil became widely known after his death - in all the literature of the Muslim world in the 18th century. a direction emerged, called the Bedili school. This is complex philosophical literature, close to the poetry of the “Indian style” with its advantages and costs, which include the excessive complexity of images and presentation. Bedil's work had a significant influence on Tajik literature until the beginning of the 20th century. and inspired a number of successors.
At the same time as Bedil wrote in the traditions of court poetry Shaukat from Bukhara (d. 1695), Sufi Alloyor from Kattakurgan (d. 1723) and others.
In the middle of the 18th century. power in Central Asia passes to the Mangyt dynasty, the last representative of which, Alimkhan, was expelled after the October Revolution in 1920. During the reign of this dynasty, a harsh regime was established, under which literary life practically froze.
At the beginning of the 19th century. as a result of the dynastic struggle in Fergana, an independent khanate emerged with its center in Kokand. Its ruler is the philanthropist and poet Umarkhan (reigned from 1809–1822) gathered poets at his court - literary life revived, poetry of the Bedili style began to develop. In addition to Umarkhan himself in Kokand the poets Ado, Akmal, Fazli were famous. Their sofas were created in two languages - Tajik and Uzbek, which were widely used at the Kokand court.
In the second half of the 19th century. Central Asia became part of the Russian Empire, which led to the rapid growth of the trading bourgeoisie. New social realities were also reflected in literary life. Along with imitations of the Bedili style, increasingly associated with the passing of emir feudalism, an educational direction is developing. At first, it differed little in form from Bedili literature. However, new topics raised in it are criticism of the extreme manifestations of emir despotism, the need for education, etc. - led to the search for new literary forms, mainly associated with the inclusion of elements of living spoken language in the fabric of the narrative.
The most talented representative of the educational movement, Ahmad Kalla (1827–1893) (pseudonym Donish), finally broke with Bedilism. His critical works exposed the deformities of the decaying emirate. Other representatives of the critical trend in Tajik literature of this period - Shokhin (d. 1894), Vozekh (d. 1894), Sahbo (killed by the emir 1918), Somi (d. 1907).
Significant influence on the development of Tajik literature at the beginning of the 20th century. provided by the bourgeois-liberal nationalist movement of the Jadids (from Arabic usul-i-jadid - new method), which spread in Central Asia in the 1990s. At the initial stage, the Jadids advocated reform of the old system of Muslim education, built on memorization of sutras from the Koran. Later, during the revolution of 1905–1907, Jadidism became an ideological bourgeois-liberal movement, it was supported by the bourgeoisie and part of the national intelligentsia of Central Asia. The Jadids advocated adapting Islam to the needs of the national bourgeoisie. They were grouped around publishing houses, newspapers and magazines published in Turkestan and Bukhara, around charitable societies, new type of Muslim schools, etc. After the February Revolution, the Jadids created nationalist parties, some of which collaborated with the Bolsheviks. Since the October Revolution of 1917, the Jadids became the inspirers of the Kokand autonomy, which entered into an agreement with the White Guards and participated in the Basmachi movement. After the final victory of Soviet power in Central Asia, Jadidism was eliminated as a hostile ideological movement.
Until the mid-1930s, in Tajik literature there was a struggle between the ideological influence of Jadidism and the emerging socialist realist Soviet trend. It is interesting to note that some of the founders of Soviet Tajik literature, for example, the writer Sadritdin Aini, Coming from the old intelligentsia, at the beginning of his literary career he was influenced by nationalist Jadid ideas, but later revised them. He was one of the first to accept the revolution, laying the foundation for realistic Soviet prose in the Tajik language. The stories belong to his pen Odin(in Russian 1930) - about the hopeless life of the poor and farm laborers of Tajikistan, Death of a Moneylender, in the center of which is the image of a capitalist from pre-revolutionary Bukhara, novels Dohunda(1933),Slaves(1935), depicting the path of Tajiks through the revolution to a new life, Yatim(Orphan) – about the life of Soviet youth, poem Man's war with water, collection of poems Yodgori (1935).
The birth of Tajik Soviet poetry, which overcame the influence of nationalist ideas of Jadidism, is associated with the names of the poets Abulhasim Lahuti (1887–1957) and Pairau Soleimani (1890–1933). Revolutionary lyrics by Lahuti, a participant in the 1905 revolution in Iran, like collections of poems and poems Bloody Throne of Soleimani imbued with ideas of liberation from centuries-old oppression, hope for a new life. They combined the traditions of oriental verse with poetics adopted from Russian revolutionary poetry.
During the years of Soviet power, a number of new names appeared in Tajik literature - poets Abdusalom Dekhoti, Mirzo Tursun-zade, Mukhamedzhan Rahimi, Mukhetdin Amin-zade, Javhari-zade Sukhaili, Yusufi, Mirshakar, Lutfi, Shambe-zade, Tillobek Puladi, M. Diyori ; prose writers and poets Rahim Jalil, Jalal Ikrami; prose writer Hakim Karim-zadeh and others.
The genre of dramaturgy began to develop: plays Slanderer Ismailova and Said Muradova, 16th year H.Karim-zadeh and Dungan, Chaudmont Ulug-zade, operas Vose(libretto by Tursun-zade and Dehoti), Kova(libretto by Lahuti), etc.
As part of the collection and study of folklore in the Tajik SSR, work was carried out to search for and publish pre-revolutionary and Soviet folklore, songs of folk poets and singers - shairi - Yusuf Vafo, Said Vali, Jalil Kurbanov, etc. A cycle of ancient tales was published Gurguli, collections of songs and satirical tales, work is underway to record a folk epic Gor-ogly. The collection saw the light Samples of Tajik literature, including the best works of poets and writers from the 10th century. to 1917.
The peculiarity of Soviet Tajik literature was that themes about transformations in society and historical milestones in the life of the Tajik people after the October Revolution were dealt with in a style reminiscent of folk tales or panegyric poetry traditional in the East. The predominant genre remained poetic collections of poems and especially poems. Realistic and critical tendencies took root poorly and were resolved mainly from the perspective of a semi-mythological struggle against evil, and not from the standpoint of critical analysis accepted in the European tradition.
Poems of Tajik folk poets Mirshakar (b. 1912) Golden village(1942),Rebellious Panj(1949),Lenin in the Pamirs(1955),Love and duty(1962); Rahimi (1901–1968) (Death for death, blood for blood, 1943),Victory, 1947,Bright path, 1952 and etc.); Yusufi Habib (1916–1945) who died in 1945 near Warsaw ( Songs of the Motherland, 1939), Mirzo Tursun-Zade (b. 1911) ( Sun of the country, 1936),Son of the Motherland, 1942),Bride from Moscow (1945),I'm from the free East(1950),Voice of Asia(1956),From the Ganges to the Kremlin(1970) connected the themes of socialist construction, images of Lenin with the origins of the national liberation movement of the peoples of the East and were solved in the epic manner beloved by the Persian tradition, dating back to the Persian mesnevi. Tajik poetry was characterized by romantic elation, emotionality and aphorism, coming from classical and folk poetry.
By including Soviet themes in the set of themes for poetic improvisations in the Persian style, Tajik writers preserved the national poetic tradition.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, Tajikistan underwent a series of transformations associated with the establishment of independence, accompanied by clashes between opposing factions within the country. The further development of the literary process in Tajikistan is at a crossroads. Whether the events of recent years will lead to a revival of nationalist ideas in the literature of Tajikistan and what forms the new Tajik literature will take will apparently depend on the choice that Tajik society makes.
Of some interest might be a comparison of literary forms existing in Tajik Soviet literature (within the framework of the former Tajik SSR) and Afghan ( cm. AFGHAN LITERATURE), since the northern regions of Afghanistan are compactly populated by Tajiks who retained their language and had no connections with Soviet Tajiks. Unfortunately, for such a comparison of the literary sources of one nation, divided by way of life and political system, there is not enough information due to clashes in the Tajik territories affected by military operations.
