Area: 7.7 million km2 Population: 22 million people Capital: Canberra Geographical location The Commonwealth of Australia occupies the entire continent, and also includes the island of Tasmania and a number of small islands, and has no land borders. (Remember the peculiarities of the geographical location of the continent.) The Commonwealth of Australia is a federal state, part of the Commonwealth, headed by Great Britain, the 6th largest in the world. Commonwealth - […]
The exceptional originality and antiquity of the flora and fauna of Australia is explained by its long isolation. Most plant (75%) and animal (90%) species in Australia are endemic, meaning they are not found anywhere else in the world. Among the animals there are few mammals, but species extinct on other continents have survived, including marsupials (about 160 species). Characteristic representatives of the Australian flora [...]
Australia's climate is determined by its tropical location and low rainfall. Therefore, January is hot summer, and July is winter. Average temperatures in summer are from +20 to +28 °С, in winter +10…+15 °С. (Analyze the placement of summer and winter isotherms on the climate map of Australia.) Snow falls only in the Australian Alps and in the mountains of Tasmania. Tropical sun, […]
Geographical location Australia is located entirely in the Southern and Eastern Hemispheres. Almost in the middle it is crossed by the Southern Tropic. Australia is an isolated continent, remote from other continents. This is what determined the uniqueness of its nature. The main trade routes lie away from the mainland, which complicates the development of economic ties. (Which islands are the “bridge” between Australia and Southeast Asia?) The area of Australia […]
Australia is the smallest and most amazing continent. Australia was discovered later than America. The entire continent is occupied by one state - the Commonwealth of Australia. The Australian continent is the flattest of all continents and the driest. One of the features of the continent’s nature is the absence of young mountains, glaciers and active volcanoes. Australia, earlier than other continents, about 150 million years ago, separated […]
Australia occupies an entire continent and the island of Tasmania. This country is located in the Southern Hemisphere, so the seasons are opposite relative to the inhabitants of Eurasia. For example, New Year celebrations occur during summer. Most of Australia is arid and desert, with only a small part being inhabited and suitable for agriculture, but there is plenty of space for grazing. This country is rich [...]
This city arose more than 80 years ago in the Simpson Desert, in the south of the Australian continent. In those days, its inhabitants - and the town was then above ground - worked in the mines, extracting opal. Decades later, almost all the stone reserves were taken out, and the miners moved into the adits. It was very hot at the top - more than 50 degrees Celsius, and sandy sand […]
The founder of the city, Englishman John Batman, arrived in 1835 on his ship to the shores of Port Phillip Bay, opening the mouth of the Yarra River, and founded the settlement that later became Melbourne. It is the second largest city and the capital of the state of Victoria. The largest city and current capital, Canberra, became such only in 1927. Before this, the capital was Melbourne. High-rise buildings, wide streets, lots of greenery [...]
This is the only major city whose name is taken from the Aboriginal language - “meeting place”. Canberra is located in a picturesque basin among hills covered with eucalyptus forests. This place was chosen specifically for the construction of the capital, which began in 1913. Canberra is a unique city, unlike the capitals of other major cities in the world. It is a carefully planned green garden city whose parks have been planted […]
In 1778, a flotilla of ships with exiles arrived from England to the shores of Botany Bay. In the holds of 11 ships they brought 736 prisoners - thieves, cheaters, murderers. There were also political ones among them - Irish rebels. It was not easy for the settlers: the other end of the earth, summer instead of winter, which should be according to the calendar, unpredictable savages nearby. According to British archives, a total of about […]
Even after the discovery of the New World and circumnavigation, questions remained unclear about the possibility of the existence of hitherto unknown continents in the Southern Hemisphere. Their searches led to important geographical discoveries. Discovery and exploration of Australia and Oceania The unknown southern land - Terra Australis incognita - was sought by the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and English. In 1642, the Dutchman Abel Tasman proved the existence of a southern continent by walking along its entire […]
The highest point in Australia is Mount Kosciuszko, located in the state of New South Wales in the very south of the mainland. The height of the peak is 2 thousand 228 meters, but the highest mountain in Australia practically does not stand out against the background of neighboring mountains in the Australian Alps chain. The fact is that the neighboring peak Townsland is only 20 meters lower, and other […]
The Na Pali Coast, more than 20 km long, is located in the northwestern part of the island of Kauai, part of the Hawaiian archipelago. Translated from the local language, the name of the coast means “Stones”. Rocks falling vertically into the sea from a height of several hundred meters create a landscape of unique beauty. Many species of birds and exotic plants are found here. In the valleys of this mysterious [...]
Fraser Island is located in Queensland, north of Brisbane, and is a 123-kilometer-long sand spit separated from the mainland by a wide strait. You can get there only by a double-decker ferry, from the upper deck of which you can enjoy an unforgettable view of the world's largest sand island. To preserve the nature of the island, a national park was created here, covering its entire […]
The Franz Joseph and Fox Glaciers are located on the west coast of South Island, one of New Zealand's two large islands. Here, in the Southern Alps mountain range, are the country's largest glaciers - Tasman, Franz Joseph and Fox. They "flow" to the west coast through huge glacial valleys. The moist wind, rising from the surface of the Tasman Sea to the tops of the mountains, cools and […]
The fjord is located on the west coast of South Island in the Southland region. The length of this narrow bay is 20 km. It was formed during the last ice age, when ice, moving towards the sea, squeezed out a deep depression in the rocky ground. About 10 thousand years ago, the glacier retreated, and the Tasman Sea flooded the resulting valley. The height of the steep, almost vertical shores of Milford Sound […]
In the center of Australia there is a giant rock formation 348 m high. This is one of the oldest sections of the earth's crust on the planet. It was formed during the Archean era about 680 million years ago. The rock rises in the middle of a perfectly flat desert and with its oval shape resembles a giant elephant lying on its side. The length of the rock is 3.6 km, the width is about 3 […]
The Great Barrier Reef stretches along the east coast of Australia for more than 2000 km south of Papua New Guinea. Its width in the northern part reaches 2 km, in the southern part - 150 km. The Great Barrier Reef is a unique and largest structure on the planet created by living organisms. Of the 350 species of coral known in the world, 340 live here. […]
Over the last millions of years of Australian history, the mainland developed separately and isolated from the rest of the world. The reason for this was the significant distance of Australia from other continents. The isolation of the continent allowed the formation of a unique flora and fauna here, unlike any other continent on Earth. Of the approximately 12 thousand species, about 9 thousand are endemic. Among flowering plants there are 85 endemic […]
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Subtitles
Origin of the name of the continent
Toponymy
The origin of the name of the continent is due to the fact that already in ancient times, geographers formed a strong belief about the existence of a hypothetical landmass in the southern hemisphere, occupying a significant part of it. This continent was labeled differently on maps: Unknown Earth(Terra Incognita), Unknown Southern Land(Terra Australis Incognita), South Land(Terra Australis). In search of this continent, Dutch sailors in the 17th century. discovered the territory of modern Australia and separated it from the Southern continent, called first Zuyland(“southern land”) and then New Holland. When, as a result of James Cook’s second circumnavigation of the world in 1772-1775, it became clear that the Southern Continent did not exist in the middle southern latitudes and, as Cook erroneously believed, did not exist in the high southern latitudes either, the name Australis, which had already become familiar on maps, turned out to be “free” " This was taken advantage of by the English navigator Matthew Flinders, who in 1814 proposed calling New Holland Terra-Australis or Australia. But his proposal was not immediately accepted, and only in 1817, the governor of the state of South Wales, Lachlan Macquarie, began to use the name “Australia” in official documents and invited the Colonial Office of the British Empire to accept, which was done in 1824.
Modern normative Russian name
The east coast of Australia is washed by the Coral and Tasman Seas of the Pacific Ocean, the northern, western and southern Indian Ocean, including the Timor Sea and the Arafura Sea. Near Australia are the large islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. Along the northeastern coast of Australia, the world's largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, stretches for more than 2000 km.
- The extreme eastern point of Australia is Cape Byron ( 28°38′15″ S w. 153°38′14″ E. d.HGIO)
- L Western - Cape Steep Point ( 153°38′14″ E. d.HGIO)
- 26°09′05″ S w. 113°09′18″ E. d. 153°38′14″ E. d.HGIO)
- Northern - Cape York ( 10°41′21″ S w. 153°38′14″ E. d.HGIO 142°31′50″ E. d. South - Cape South Point ( 153°38′14″ E. d.HGIO) .
39°08′20″ S w.
146°22′26″ E. d.
), (if we consider the island of Tasmania as part of the continent, then the South East Cape
43°38′40″ S w.
146°49′30″ E. d.
Relief
Plains predominate. About 95% of the surface does not exceed 600 m above sea level. Western Australian Plateau - average heights 400-500 meters, with raised edges: in the east - the Musgrave Mountains (highest point - Mount Woodroffe, 1440 m) and the MacDonnell Range (highest point - Mount Zeal, 1511 m), in the north - Kimberley plateau (height up to 936 m), in the west - the flat-topped sandstone ridge of Hamersley (highest point - Mount Meharry, 1251 m), in the southwest - the Darling Range (highest point - Mount Cook, 571 m). Central lowland with prevailing altitudes up to 100 m above sea level. In the Lake Eyre area the lowest point is 16 m below sea level. In the southeast is the Mount Lofty ridge. The Great Watershed Range, medium-altitude, with flat tops, steep, turning into hilly foothills (downs) in the west. In the south in the Australian Alps, the highest point is Mount Kosciuszko, 2230 m.
Geological structure
In Australia, all types of soils characteristic of tropical, subequatorial and subtropical natural zones are represented in a natural sequence.
In the area of tropical rainforests in the north, red soils are common, changing towards the south to red-brown and brown soils in wet savannas and gray-brown soils in dry savannas. Red-brown and brown soils containing humus, some phosphorus and potassium are valuable for agricultural use. The main wheat crops in Australia are located within the red-brown soil zone.
In the marginal regions of the Central Plains (for example, in the Murray Basin), where artificial irrigation is developed and a lot of fertilizers are used, grapes, fruit trees, and forage grasses are grown on sierozem soils.
In the ringed interior desert territories of semi-desert and especially steppe areas, where there is grass and in some places shrub-tree cover, gray-brown steppe soils are common. Their power is insignificant. They contain little humus and phosphorus, so when using them even as pastures for sheep and cattle, phosphorus fertilizers are required.
Water resources
The continent's water resources are limited. Australia is the continent with the poorest rivers. The rivers flowing from the eastern slopes are short, and in the upper reaches they flow in narrow gorges. Here they may well be used, and are partly already used for the construction of hydroelectric power stations. When entering the coastal plain, rivers slow down their flow and their depth increases.
Many of them in estuarine areas are even accessible to large ocean-going vessels. The flow volume and regime of these rivers are different and depend on the amount of precipitation and the time of its occurrence.
On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, rivers originate and make their way through the interior plains. The longest river in Australia, the Murray (2375 km), begins in the area of Mount Kosciuszko. Its largest tributaries, the Murrumbidgee (1485 km), Darling (1472 km), Goulburn and some others, also originate in the mountains.
The Murray River and its channels are fed mainly by rain and to a lesser extent by snow. These rivers are fullest at the beginning of summer, when the snow melts in the mountains. In the dry season, they become very shallow, and some of the Murray's tributaries break up into separate standing reservoirs. Only the Murray and Murrumbidgee maintain a constant flow (except in exceptionally dry years). Even the Darling, Australia's third longest river, is lost in the sand during summer droughts and does not always reach the Murray. Almost all rivers of the Murray system have dams and dams built, around which reservoirs are created, where flood waters are collected and used to irrigate fields, gardens and pastures.
The rivers of the northern and western coasts of Australia are shallow and relatively small. The longest of these, the Flinders, flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. These rivers are fed by rain, and their water content varies greatly at different times of the year.
Rivers whose flow is directed to the interior of the continent, such as Coopers Creek (Barku), Diamantina, etc., lack not only a constant flow, but also a permanent, clearly defined channel. In Australia, such temporary rivers are called " screams"(eng. creek). They are filled with water only during short showers. Soon after the rain, the river bed again turns into a dry sandy hollow, often without even a definite outline.
Most lakes in Australia, like rivers, are fed by rainwater. They have neither a constant level nor a drain. In summer, the lakes dry up and become shallow saline depressions. The layer of salt at the bottom sometimes reaches 1.5 m.
In the seas surrounding Australia, sea animals are hunted and fished. Edible oysters are bred in sea waters. In the warm coastal waters in the north and northeast, sea cucumbers, crocodiles and pearl mussels are fished for. The main center of their artificial breeding is located in the peninsula area Koberg(Arnhem Land). It was here, in the warm waters of the Arafura Sea and Van Diemen Bay, that the first experiments on the creation of special sediments were carried out. These experiments were carried out by one of the Australian companies with the participation of Japanese specialists. It has been found that pearl mussels grown in the warm waters off the northern coast of Australia produce larger pearls than those off the coast of Japan, and in a much shorter time. Currently, the cultivation of pearl mussels has spread widely along the northern and partly northeastern coasts.
Australia's lakes, which are quite significant in number and size, are swamps for most of the year. To the north of Spencer Gulf (but not connecting to it) lies Lake Torrens, surrounded by sand dunes, having a circumference of 225 km. Even further north, 12 meters below sea level, is the largest Lake Eyre, and to the east of it Lake Gregory, which can be divided into several separate lakes. To the west of Lake Torrens lies on a plateau, rising 115 m, the large Lake Gairdner, which, like countless smaller lakes in the same area, is extremely abundant in salt and seems to have only recently become separated from sea water. In general, there are clear signs that the southern coast of the continent is still slowly rising from the sea waters.
Climate
Subequatorial belt
Subequatorial climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature range (average air temperature throughout the year is 23-24 °C) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm, and in some places more than 2000 mm). Precipitation is brought here by the humid northwest monsoon, and falls mainly in summer. In winter, during the dry period of the year, rain falls only sporadically. At this time, dry, hot winds blow from the interior of the continent, which sometimes cause droughts.
Tropical zone
In the tropical zone on the Australian continent, two main types of climate are formed: tropical wet and tropical dry. A tropical humid climate is characteristic of the extreme eastern part of Australia, which is within the zone of southeast trade winds. These winds bring moisture-saturated air masses from the Pacific Ocean to the mainland. Therefore, the entire area of the coastal plains and eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range is well moistened (on average 1000 to 1500 mm of precipitation falls) and has a mild, warm climate (the temperature of the warmest month in Sydney is 22-25 °C, and the coldest month is 11.5 -13 °C). Air masses bringing moisture from the Pacific Ocean also penetrate beyond the Great Dividing Range, losing a significant amount of moisture along the way, so precipitation falls only on the western slopes of the ridge and in the foothills area.
Situated primarily in tropical and subtropical latitudes, where solar radiation is high, the Australian mainland is warming greatly. Due to the weak ruggedness of the coastline and the elevation of the outlying parts, the influence of the seas surrounding the mainland has little effect in the internal parts.
Australia is the driest continent on Earth, and one of the most characteristic features of its nature is the wide distribution of deserts, which occupy vast spaces and stretch for almost 2.5 thousand km from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the foothills of the Great Dividing Range.
The central and western parts of the continent are characterized by a tropical desert climate. In summer (December - February), average temperatures here rise to 30 °C, and sometimes higher, and in winter (June - August) they drop to an average of 10-15 °C. The hottest region of Australia is the north-west, where in the Great Sandy Desert the temperature remains at 35 °C and even higher almost all summer. In winter, it decreases slightly (to approximately 20-25 °C). In the center of the mainland, near the city of Alice Springs, in the summer the temperature rises to 45 °C during the day and drops to zero or lower at night (-4-6 °C).
The central and western parts of Australia, occupying about half of its territory, receive an average of 250-300 mm of precipitation per year, and the surrounding area of Lake Eyre receives less than 200 mm; but even these minor precipitations fall unevenly. Sometimes for several years in a row there is no rain at all, and sometimes the entire annual amount of precipitation falls in two or three days, or even in a few hours. Some of the water quickly and deeply seeps through the permeable soil and becomes inaccessible to plants, and some evaporates under the hot rays of the sun, and the surface layers of the soil remain almost dry.
Subtropical zone
Within the subtropical zone, three types of climate are distinguished: Mediterranean, subtropical continental and subtropical humid.
The Mediterranean climate is characteristic of the southwestern part of Australia. As the name suggests, the climate of this part of the continent is similar to the climate of the European Mediterranean countries - Spain and Southern France. Summers are hot and generally dry, while winters are warm and humid. Relatively small temperature fluctuations by season (January - 23-27 °C, June - 12-14 °C), sufficient precipitation (from 500 to 1000 mm).
The zone of subtropical continental climate covers the southern part of the mainland adjacent to the Great Australian Bight, includes the environs of the city of Adelaide and extends somewhat further to the east, into the western regions of the state of New South Wales. The main features of this climate are low precipitation and relatively large annual temperature fluctuations.
The subtropical humid climate zone includes within its boundaries the entire state of Victoria and the southwestern foothills of the state of New South Wales. In general, this entire zone is characterized by a mild climate and a significant amount of precipitation (from 500 to 600 mm), mainly in the coastal parts (the penetration of precipitation deeper into the continent decreases). In summer, temperatures rise to an average of 20-24 °C, but in winter they drop quite significantly - to 8-10 °C. The climate of this part of the continent is favorable for growing fruit trees, various vegetables and forage grasses. True, to obtain high yields, artificial irrigation is used, since in the summer there is not enough moisture in the soil. In these areas, dairy cattle (grazing on forage grasses) and sheep are raised.
The hot climate and insignificant and uneven precipitation over most of the continent lead to the fact that almost 60% of its territory has no flow to the ocean and has only a sparse network of temporary watercourses. No other continent has such a poorly developed network of inland waters as Australia. The annual flow of all the continent's rivers is only 350 km³.
Vegetable world
Since the Australian mainland, starting from the mid-Cretaceous period, was isolated from other parts of the globe, its flora is very unique. Of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, more than 9 thousand are endemic, that is, they grow only on the Australian continent. Endemics include many species of eucalyptus and acacia, the most typical plant families of Australia. At the same time, there are also plants here that are characteristic of South America (for example, southern beech), South Africa (representatives of the Proteaceae family) and the islands of the Malay archipelago (ficus, pandanus, etc.). This indicates that many millions of years ago there were land connections between the continents.
Since the climate of most of Australia is characterized by extreme aridity, its flora is dominated by dry-loving plants: special grasses, eucalyptus trees, umbrella acacias, succulent trees (bottle tree, etc.). Trees belonging to these communities have a powerful root system, which goes 10-20, and sometimes 30 m into the ground, thanks to which they, like a pump, suck out moisture from great depths. The narrow and dry leaves of these trees are painted mostly in a dull gray-greenish color. Some of them have leaves facing the sun with their edges, which helps reduce the evaporation of water from their surface.
In the far north and northwest of the continent, where it is hot and the warm northwest monsoons bring moisture, tropical rainforests grow. Their tree composition is dominated by giant eucalyptus, ficus, palm trees, pandanus with narrow long leaves, etc. The dense foliage of the trees forms an almost continuous cover that shades the ground. In some places on the coast itself there are thickets
Australia(from Latin Australis - “southern”) is a continent located in the Eastern and Southern Hemispheres of the Earth. The continent is part of the world region Australia and Oceania. Australia is the smallest continent, with an area of 7,659,861 km². The length of the continent from north to south is about 3700 km, the width from west to east is about 4000 km. The population is 23,143,495.
The ancestors of the Australian aborigines appeared in Australia 40-60 thousand years ago (according to other sources - about 70 thousand years ago). People arrived in Australia by sea at a time when New Guinea and Tasmania were part of the continent, making them the earliest sea travelers in the world. The settlement of the continent by people began 42-48 thousand years ago. years ago. The earliest human remains were found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in south-eastern New South Wales. These remains are one of the oldest examples of cremation found on Earth, indicating the early existence of religious rituals among Australian Aborigines.
In 1567 Alvaro de Mendaña discovered the Solomon Islands; in 1606 Luis de Torres visited New Guinea and suggested that he had seen the "great southern continent". Explorer Dirk Hartog landed on an island in Shark Bay in modern Western Australia in 1616. In 1642, Abel Tasman discovered the island that now bears his name - Tasmania. In 1644 he sailed the seas between New Guinea and Australia, but was unable to find a passage through the Torres Strait to the Pacific Ocean.
In 1768, the English government organized an expedition to conduct geographical and astronomical research in the Pacific Ocean. Captain James Cook, who led the expedition, also carried out secret instructions from the Admiralty to search for the Southern Continent. This expedition reached the eastern coast of Australia in 1770. It followed the coast north to a distance of 1670 km from what is now eastern Victoria to the Torres Strait. Cook named this land New South Wales and declared it a possession of England. He then headed across the Torres Strait to the Cape of Good Hope and from there returned to his homeland. Having explored the east coast together with the ship's naturalist Joseph Banks, he reported to the Admiralty about a favorable situation for establishing a colony in Botany Bay.
The first British colony on the continent, New South Wales, was founded on 26 January 1788 when Arthur Philip led the First Fleet to Port Jackson. This day later became a national holiday - Australia Day. Tasmania was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. England formally claimed western Australia as its own in 1828, thus beginning to own the entire continent.
Over time, separate colonies were formed from parts of New South Wales: South Australia (1836), Victoria (1851), Queensland (1859). The Northern Territory was created in 1911 by carving out parts of South Australia. South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia were founded as so-called “free colonies”, meaning prisoners were never imported there, but the latter two colonies soon began too. The reluctance of the people of New South Wales to accept convicts led to the end of the importation of prisoners into this colony; the last ship carrying convicts arrived in 1848.
Australia (from Latin australis - southern) is the smallest continent on Earth with an area of 7,659,861 km². The length of the continent from north to south is about 3,700 km, the width from west to east is about 4,000 km, the length of the mainland coastline (without islands) is 35,877 km. Due to its small size, it is sometimes called an island mainland. Australia differs from other continents in that there are no active volcanoes or glaciers, and there are many endemics in the organic world. There are also peculiarities in the development of the continent by man, in the change in its nature.
Australia is located entirely in the southern hemisphere. Almost in the middle, the continent is crossed by the Southern Tropic, so the northern part of it is in the hot zone, and the southern part is in the temperate light zones. Most of the continent is located in a hot thermal zone. The northern and eastern coasts of Australia are washed by the Pacific Ocean, and the western and southern coasts by the Indian Ocean. Near Australia are the large islands of New Guinea and Tasmania. Australia is an isolated continent, remote from all other continents except Eurasia and Antarctica. In the north, archipelagos and inland seas link it with Southeast Asia. In relation to Europe, Australia is one of the most remote regions in the world. The main world trade routes pass away from it. The outlines of the continent are simple, the shores are slightly indented. The northern coast is most dissected, where the shallow Gulf of Carpentaria, wide open to the ocean, is located. In the south is the Great Australian Bight, Tasmania, and the Cape York Peninsula. Most of the coastline is inconvenient for navigation. Only in the east and southeast are there quite a few relatively small bays. Significant difficulties for navigation are created by ridges of coral islands, which form the Great Barrier Reef, which is more than 2000 km long, off the eastern coast of the mainland.
The extreme eastern point of Australia is Cape Byron, the western is Cape Steep Point, the northern is Cape York, the southern is Cape South East Point (if we consider the island of Tasmania as part of the continent, then Cape South East Cape.
Australia is the flattest and lowest continent. Most of it is a plain, the edges of which are raised, especially significantly in the east. Only 2% of the territory is above the thousand-meter mark, and the highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko in South Wales, rises to just 2228 meters. The lowest point is the salt lake Eyre - 16 m below sea level.
In the geological past, most of Australia was part of the Gondwana continent, from which it separated towards the end of the Mesozoic. The basis of the continent is a Precambrian rigid platform - part of the Indo-Australian lithospheric plate. The crystalline foundation of the platform in the north, west and central part in some places comes to the surface, forming shields. In the rest of the territory it is covered by sedimentary rocks of continental and marine origin. In the east, the mountainous region of Paleozoic folding joined the ancient rigid platform
Based on the structure of the surface in Australia, they are divided into: the Western Australian Plateau, the Central Plain and the East Australian Mountains, the basis of which is the Great Dividing Range. The relief of the western part is dominated by plateaus and elevated denudation plains. In some places, recent tectonic movements have created revived block mountains on the platform. Long-term destruction processes led to the formation of remnants composed of hard crystalline rocks. In the east of the continent, the mountains formed in the Paleozoic were later severely destroyed, and in the era of Alpine folding they were broken by faults and uplifted.
Australia is rich in mineral resources. The crystalline rocks of the platform's foundation contain deposits of iron, copper, lead-zinc, uranium ores, tin, gold, and platinum. Sedimentary rocks contain deposits of phosphorites, table salt, hard and brown coal, oil, and natural gas. Many deposits lie at shallow depths and are mined using open-pit mining. In terms of reserves of iron ores and non-ferrous metal ores (bauxite, lead, zinc, nickel), as well as uranium, Australia ranks among the first in the world. It has become a major supplier of raw materials to the world market.
Australia is the driest continent on Earth. The climatic conditions on the continent are determined by its position near the equator, on both sides of the tropics. It is characterized by a large amount of solar radiation. The Pacific Ocean and trade wind air currents have a certain influence on the climate. The shallow ruggedness of the coasts, mountains in the east, plateaus and plateaus in the west and north weaken the influence of the surrounding water areas on the climate of the interior of the continent. Therefore, the climate in most of Australia is dry and continental. In general, precipitation falls over the continent 5 times less than over Africa.
Australia is located in 3 climatic zones: subequatorial, tropical and subtropical. Most of the island of Tasmania is located in the temperate climate zone. Subequatorial climate, a climate characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature range of 23-24°C and large amounts of precipitation. Precipitation is brought here by the humid northwest monsoon, and falls mainly in summer. In winter, during the dry period of the year, rain falls only sporadically. At this time, dry, hot winds blow from the interior of the continent, which sometimes cause droughts.
In the tropical zone on the Australian continent, two main types of climate are formed: tropical wet and tropical dry. A tropical humid climate is characteristic of the extreme eastern part of Australia, which is within the zone of southeast trade winds. These winds bring moisture-rich air masses from the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, the entire area of the coastal plains and eastern slopes is well moistened and has a mild, warm climate. Air masses bringing moisture from the Pacific Ocean also penetrate beyond the Great Dividing Range, losing a significant amount of moisture along the way, so precipitation falls only on the western slopes of the ridge and in the foothills area.
Australia is the driest continent on Earth, and one of the most characteristic features of its nature is the wide distribution of deserts, which occupy vast spaces and stretch for almost 2.5 thousand km from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the foothills of the Great Dividing Range. In the summer in the Simpson Desert the temperature reaches +60ْС in the shade. Lush tropical vegetation is found only in a narrow coastal strip or in the valleys of a few rivers.
Within the subtropical zone, there are three types of climate: Mediterranean, subtropical continental and subtropical humid. The Mediterranean climate is characteristic of the southwestern part of Australia. As the name suggests, the climate of this part of the continent is similar to that of European Mediterranean countries. Summers are hot and generally dry, while winters are warm and humid. Relatively small temperature fluctuations by season (January +23+27°C, June +12+14°C), sufficient precipitation.
The subtropical continental climate zone covers the southern part of the mainland, and extends slightly further east, into the western regions of New South Wales. The main features of this climate are low precipitation and relatively large annual temperature fluctuations.
The subtropical humid climate zone has a mild climate and significant rainfall, mainly in coastal parts. In summer, temperatures rise to an average of +20+24°C, but in winter they drop quite significantly to +8+10°C. The climate of this part of the continent is favorable for growing fruit trees, various vegetables and forage grasses. True, to obtain high yields, artificial irrigation is used, since in summer there is not enough moisture in the soil. Dairy cattle and sheep are raised in these areas.
The air temperature on the mainland varies from +60ْС in July to +30ْС and higher in January.
The hot climate and insignificant and uneven precipitation over most of the continent lead to the fact that almost 60% of its territory has no flow to the ocean and has only a sparse network of temporary watercourses. Perhaps no other continent has such a poorly developed network of inland waters as Australia. The annual flow of all the continent's rivers is only 350 km³.
The Australian continent is the poorest in rivers. The annual flow of all rivers in Australia is 350 cubic kilometers. This is half the annual flow of the Yenisei. The rivers flowing from the eastern slopes of the Great Water Dividing Range are short, and in the upper reaches they flow in narrow gorges. Here they are used for the construction of hydroelectric power stations. When entering the coastal plain, rivers slow down their flow and their depth increases. Many of them in estuarine areas are even accessible to large ocean-going vessels. The flow volume and regime of these rivers are different and depend on the amount of precipitation and the time of its occurrence.
On the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, rivers originate and make their way through the interior plains. The longest river in Australia, the Murray (2375 km), begins in the area of Mount Kosciuszko. Its largest tributaries, the Murrumbidgee (1485 km), the Darling (1472 km) and some others, also originate in the mountains.
The rivers of the northern and western coasts of Australia are shallow and relatively small. The longest of them, the Flinders, flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. These rivers are fed by rain, and their water content varies greatly at different times of the year. Rivers, the flow of which is directed to the interior regions of the continent, lack not only a constant flow, but also a permanent, clearly defined channel. In Australia, such temporary rivers are called "cries". They are filled with water only during short showers. Soon after the rain, the river bed again turns into a dry sandy hollow, often without even a definite outline.
Most lakes in Australia, like rivers, are fed by rainwater. They have neither a constant level nor a drain. In summer, the lakes dry up and become shallow saline depressions. The layer of salt at the bottom sometimes reaches 1.5 m. Australia's lakes, which are quite significant in number and size, are swamps for most of the year. To the north of Spencer Gulf lies Lake Torrens, surrounded by sand dunes, which has a circumference of 225 km. Even further north, 12 meters below sea level, is the largest Lake Eyre, and to the east of it Lake Gregory, which can be divided into several separate lakes. To the west of Lake Torrens on the tableland lies the large Lake Gerdner, which, like countless smaller lakes in the same area, is extremely abundant in salt, and seems to have only recently become separated from sea water. In general, there are clear signs that the southern coast of the continent is still slowly rising from the sea waters.
Australia is very rich in groundwater. Artesian basins occupy 2.5 million square kilometers - almost a third of the continent's territory.
Australia differs from other continents in the uniqueness of the organic world. Due to long-term isolation, the peculiarities of the geographical location and natural conditions, there are a large number of endemic forms on the mainland. Among plants, endemics account for 75%. Australia's animals are even more unique than their plants. Almost all mammals belong to ancient groups that disappeared on other continents.
Australia ranks first among continents in terms of the relative area of deserts and last in terms of forest area.
The zone of humid and variable-humid tropical forests is located in the northeast of the mainland, where there is a lot of rainfall. As you move towards the interior of the continent, forests with a diverse species composition are replaced by light and dry eucalyptus forests, which turn into tropical woodlands and savannas. The interior of the continent occupies vast expanses of semi-deserts and deserts.
Since the Australian continent for a long time, starting from the mid-Cretaceous period, was isolated from other parts of the globe, its flora is very interesting and unique. Of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, more than 9 thousand are endemic, that is, they grow only on the Australian continent. Endemics include many species of eucalyptus and acacia, the most typical plant families of Australia. At the same time, there are also plants here that are native to South America (for example, southern beech). South Africa (representatives of the Proteaceae family) and the islands of the Malay Archipelago (ficus, pandanus, etc.). This indicates that many millions of years ago there were land connections between the continents.
Since the climate of most of Australia is characterized by extreme aridity, its flora is dominated by dry-loving plants: special cereals, eucalyptus trees, umbrella acacias, succulent trees (bottle tree, etc.). Trees belonging to these communities have a powerful root system, which goes 10-20, and sometimes 30 m into the ground, thanks to which they, like a pump, suck out moisture from great depths. The narrow and dry leaves of these trees are painted mostly in a dull gray-greenish color. Some of them have leaves facing the sun with their edges, which helps reduce the evaporation of water from their surface.
Tropical rainforests grow in the far north and northwest of the country, where it is hot and the warm northwest monsoons bring moisture. Their tree composition is dominated by giant eucalyptus, ficus, palm trees, pandanus with narrow long leaves, etc. The dense foliage of the trees forms an almost continuous cover that shades the ground. In some places on the coast itself there are thickets of bamboo. In places where the shores are flat and muddy, mangrove vegetation develops.
Rain forests in the form of narrow galleries stretch for relatively short distances inland along river valleys.
The further south you go, the drier the climate becomes and the more intense the hot breath of the deserts is felt. Forest cover is gradually thinning. Eucalyptus and umbrella acacias are located in groups. This is a zone of wet savannas, stretching in a latitudinal direction to the south of the tropical forest zone. In appearance, savannas with sparse groups of trees resemble parks. There is no shrubby growth in them. Sunlight freely penetrates through a sieve of small leaves of trees and falls on the ground covered with tall, dense grass.
The central desert parts of the continent, where it is very hot and dry, are characterized by dense, almost impenetrable thickets of thorny low-growing shrubs, consisting mainly of eucalyptus and acacia trees. In Australia these thickets are called scrub. In some places the scrub alternates with vast, devoid of vegetation sandy, rocky or clayey desert areas, and in some places with thickets of tall turfy grasses (spinifex).
The eastern and southeastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range, where precipitation is high, are covered with dense tropical and subtropical evergreen forests. Most of these forests, as elsewhere in Australia, are eucalyptus trees. Eucalyptus trees are valuable industrially. These trees are unrivaled in height among hardwood species; some of their species reach 150 m in height and 10 m in diameter. Wood growth in eucalyptus forests is high and therefore they are very productive. There are also many tree-like horsetails and ferns in the forests, reaching 10-20 m in height. At their top, tree ferns bear a crown of large (up to 2 m in length) feathery leaves. With their bright and fresh greenery, they somewhat enliven the faded bluish-green landscape of eucalyptus forests. Higher in the mountains there is a noticeable admixture of damarra pines and beech trees. The shrub and grass cover in these forests is varied and dense. In less humid variants of these forests, the second layer is formed by grass trees. On the island of Tasmania, in addition to eucalyptus trees, there are many evergreen beech trees related to South American species. In the southwest of the mainland, forests cover the western slopes of the Darling Range, facing the sea. These forests consist almost entirely of eucalyptus trees, reaching considerable heights. The number of endemic species here is especially high. In addition to eucalyptus trees, bottle trees are widespread. They have an original bottle-shaped trunk, thick at the base and sharply tapering at the top. During the rainy season, large reserves of moisture accumulate in the trunk of trees, which are consumed during the dry period. The undergrowth of these forests contains many shrubs and herbs, full of bright colors.
In general, Australia's forest resources are small. The total area of forests, including special plantations consisting mainly of softwood species (mainly radiata pine), amounted to only 5.6% of the country's territory at the end of the 1970s. The first colonists did not find plant species characteristic of Europe on the mainland. Subsequently, European and other species of trees, shrubs and grasses were introduced to Australia. The grapevine and cotton plant have taken root here well. From grains - wheat, barley, oats, rice, corn and others. And also vegetables, many fruit trees, etc.
The Australian animal kingdom is this special, amazing part of the country. The unique fauna and flora of the continent are simply amazing. Animals are loved in Australia. Beautiful zoos and wildlife parks are springing up like mushrooms everywhere. And it’s no coincidence that local animals are the strongest attraction for tourists from all over the world...
The fauna of Australia is extremely unique. The unusual appearance of the kangaroo amazed the first Europeans to set foot on the shores of the continent. The image of a kangaroo was then included in the country's coat of arms. Amazing animals, covered with thick fur, but with a duck-like beak and laying eggs, platypuses have long remained a biological mystery. "Teddy bears" - a koala with cubs on its back is the admiration of all nature lovers. Frilled lizards that run on two hind legs and many other peculiar Australian animals never cease to amaze people. However, the diversity of animal species in Australia is small. There are only 235 species of mammals, 720 birds, 420 reptiles and 120 amphibian species known to live on this continent and adjacent islands.
Among the animals here, marsupials dominate; about 125 species are known. More highly organized mammals appeared on the continent much later than marsupials. They are represented by bats, a few mouse-like rodents, apparently carried on tree trunks that waves wash ashore, and (the dingo dog, brought here from Southeast Asia). In Australia there are no representatives of the order of carnivores (except dingoes), monkeys, ungulates and other animals that are widespread in other parts of the world. Due to the fact that there were no higher mammals in the Australian zoogeographical region, marsupials, without encountering competition or enemies, gave an extraordinary diversity of species corresponding to the biological types of higher mammals. Thus, the now exterminated marsupial wolf occupied the life niche of a real wolf, although it had no relationship with it; the marsupial mole resembles the African golden mole; marsupial squirrels are surprisingly similar to our flying squirrels, wombats both in appearance and in their way of life resemble marmots.
If marsupials with their amazing reproductive characteristics were once widespread in Asia and America (about 20 species of them are still preserved in America), then representatives of another subclass of Australian mammals - monotremes, or cloacals, are not known even in fossil form outside this region. areas. At the same time, these egg-laying mammals - the platypus and the echidna - in some features of their structure are very reminiscent of the most ancient mammals. They can truly be called "living fossils."
The birds in Australia are also remarkable. It is enough to recall emus, cassowaries, cockatoos, ground parrots, many of which nest not in hollows, but in burrows; budgerigars - those that people now often keep in cages at home; unusually brightly colored pigeons, including the magnificent crowned pigeon. On eucalyptus trees, numerous honey sucker birds obtain insects, pollen and nectar with their tassel tongues. Along the shores of Australian reservoirs live chicken geese, which got their name from the shape of their beaks, and black swans, which have become common inhabitants of European parks. Birds of paradise - the closest relatives of our crows and jackdaws - are distinguished by their fancy and bright plumage, but have the same croaking voices. The plumage of the lyrebird, or lyre bird, is magnificent. Of great interest to biologists are arbors - birds that build complex hut structures on the ground.
Among the reptiles of Australia there are also extremely interesting species. For example, the already mentioned frilled lizard with a huge fold of skin in the form of a cape, capable of running quickly on its hind legs (it resembles a small dinosaur); Moloch lizard covered with huge spines; numerous poisonous snakes, many others.
The rivers of South Australia are home to a lungfish with one lung - the cattail, or ceratod. 9/10 species of animals are endemic to Australia, that is, they are not found anywhere else in the world. Unfortunately, many of the Australian animals have been little studied, and it is unlikely that this can be done, since they have become extremely rare or have completely disappeared, like the marsupial wolf of Tasmania. Currently, 27 species of mammals and 18 species of birds are threatened with extinction.
Australia is home to a variety of poisonous animals, both on land and in water, including: 38 land and 23 species of sea snakes, 22 species of spiders, 4 species of ants, honey bees, 3 species of wasps, 2 species of beetles, 6 species of scorpions, 2 species caterpillars, centipedes, centipedes, mosquitoes and other insects. Even the platypus (platypus) and the echidna have a poisonous defense system! The coastal waters of Australia are home to: 2 species of poisonous octopus Bluering octopus, 7 species of jellyfish, cone shells, 2 species of Stonefish, 21 species of other fish including the poisonous (Port Jackson) shark, 11 stingrays, starfish including king starfish, corals , anemones, stinging sponges, sea worms, leeches, frogs and toads.
When it comes to snakes, Australia holds the absolute record. 9 of the 10 most venomous snakes in the world live here. Including No. 1 - Taipan.
There are many reasons for the unfavorable status of Australia's many wonderful animals. First of all, these representatives of the ancient fauna are very easily vulnerable and cannot compete with the “invaders”. The dingoes brought here, and later the foxes and rats, pushed aside or exterminated the primitive local species. This applies not only to animals, but also to birds. Thus, sparrows and starlings brought from Europe to Australia almost completely replaced local birds from gardens and parks. Rabbits imported from Europe have brought countless disasters to Australia; they destroyed vegetation over vast areas, depriving local species of animals and birds of food and shelter.
The first legislative acts on nature conservation in Australia were adopted at the end of the last century, when it became clear that Australian nature is unique and very vulnerable. However, these acts only provided for the creation of small protected areas or restrictions on the export of animals. But general objectives for nature conservation had not yet been set, i.e. there was no legislation on rational environmental management. In the Commonwealth of Australia there are now more than 1000 protected areas - reserve parks and state parks, occupying in total slightly more than 3% of the country's territory. However, until recently, most of them were small, and they were created with the aim of preserving rare plants and animals, and not protecting the entire natural complex. Only in one Kosciuszko National Park with an area of about 600 thousand hectares, created in 1944, were the principles of protection of natural complexes partially observed - from alpine meadows to eucalyptus forests. But almost the entire territory of the park suffers greatly from the influx of tourists. Many campsites, hotels, and restaurants have been built here. From Canberra, located 50 km from the park, more than half a million people come here every year. Among tourists there are also those who go to the park only to see the sunrise from the “roof of Australia”.
Small national parks such as Sydney and Royal are even more susceptible to the invasion of tourists (up to 3-4 million per year).
In recent years, several large national parks have been created in Australia in pastoral areas, including the Great Victoria Desert Park, now the largest on the continent, with an area of over 2 million hectares. It is located in the hilly desert in the center of the country. On the island of Green Island, in the state of Queensland, near the city of Cairns, one of the few underwater parks in the world is organized where colorful thickets of corals with their inhabitants are protected
Most Australian national and state parks were created and now serve to display natural monuments. Scientific research is carried out in very few parks, mainly by universities and the Academy of Sciences. These parks often resemble zoological gardens and are very attractive to tourists. Actually, the zoological gardens of Australia, usually located in picturesque areas, are not inferior in the beauty of natural landscapes to national parks, so that the concepts of “zoo” and “national park” in the Commonwealth of Australia seem to have merged.
In recent years, in addition to the creation of protected areas, Australia has taken other measures to conserve wildlife. Thus, in 1973, Australia signed the International Convention to Restrict Trade in Rare Species of Fauna and Flora. In 1977, the Department of National Parks and Nature Conservation compiled lists of animal species to be protected. In the same year, the first sheets of the national Red Book of Australia “Endangered Species” were published, and in 1978 the book by D. Ovington “Endangered Australian Species of Mammals, Birds and Reptiles” was published with drawings and distribution maps rare species.
Australian scientists are doing a lot to study the animal world and develop the scientific basis for its rational exploitation. Australia has joined the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Australia's population began to grow from around 350,000 people at the time of the first British settlement in 1788 and later increased through numerous waves of immigration. 77% of the Australian population are descendants of immigrants from the British Isles - the English, Irish, Scots, who formed the Anglo-Australian nation, the rest are mainly immigrants from other European countries, aborigines and mestizos - 250 thousand people. After World War II, an immigration program began, during which the country's population was increased from 7.6 million people in 1947. up to 23,143,495 in 2013 About 60% of this growth came from immigrants and their Australian-born children.
AUSTRALIA, the smallest continent and part of the world; located together with the adjacent islands (Tasmania, Kangaroo, Melville, Bathurst, Groot Island, etc.) in the Southern Hemisphere.
General information. Area 7631.5 thousand km 2 (with islands about 7704.5 thousand km 2). The extreme points of the continent: in the north - Cape York (10°41' south latitude), in the south - Cape SouthEast Point (39°11' south latitude), in the west Cape Steep Point (113°05' east longitude), on in the east - Cape Byron (153°34' east longitude). The southern tropic crosses the continent almost in the middle. From the south, west and north, Australia is washed by the Indian Ocean and its seas (Timor and Arafura), and from the east by the Pacific seas (Tasman and Coral). The coastline is poorly dissected. Two large bays protrude into the mainland: in the south - the Great Australian Bay, in the north - Carpentaria, separating the largest peninsulas of Cape York and Arnhem Land. The largest of the islands within the continental shelf is Tasmania, separated by Bass Strait. The Great Barrier Reef, a unique coral formation included in the World Heritage List, stretches along the northeastern coast for 2,300 km.
39°08′20″ S w. . Australia is the lowest of the continents; the average height is about 215 meters. The absolute height of 95% of the territory does not exceed 600 m (see map of Australia). Western Australia is dominated by plateau terrain (altitude 400-500 m) with numerous ridges and mesas. In the west rises the flat-topped Hamersley ridge (height 1251 m), in the southwest - the low-mountain ridges Darling (height 571 m) and Stirling (height 1096 m), in the east the highly dissected MacDonnell ridges (height 1511 m) and Musgrave (height
1440 m), in the north - the Kimberley plateau (height 937 m). The intermountain troughs of Central Australia correspond to extensive stratal and accumulative plains: the Nullarbor with karst landforms, the desert and flat Central Lowland with a depression, Lake Eyre North (the lowest point in Australia, 16 meters below sea level), the interfluve of the Murray (Murree) and Darling, coastal plain Gulf of Carpentaria. The relief of Eastern Australia includes the Great Dividing Range with steep eastern and gently rolling (so-called downs) western slopes; it stretches for 4 thousand kilometers along the eastern and southeastern coasts of the mainland.
It consists of a number of isolated plateaus and low-mountain ridges (Gregory, Clark, etc.), separated by river valleys and longitudinal intermountain basins; it is crossed by the transverse ridges of Drummond, Expedition, Liverpool, etc. south of 28° south latitude. The Great Dividing Range is a narrow chain of mid-mountain massifs and ridges (from north to south): the Hunter, Blue Mountains, Callarin and high Australian Alps with Australia's highest peak, Mount Kosciuszko (height 2228 m) in the Snowy Mountains massif. On the peaks of the Snowy Mountains there are forms of mountain-glacial relief. The southern edge of the continent is occupied by the mid-mountain and low-mountain folded-block Flinders Ranges (height
1180 m) and Mount Lofty (height 932 m).
), (if we consider the island of Tasmania as part of the continent, then the South East Cape. The territory of Australia is tectonically divided into the Precambrian Australian Platform, which includes the western and central parts of the continent along with the Arafura Sea, and the Tasmanian Paleozoic fold belt in the east (see Tectonic map). The structures of the Tasmanian belt and the Australian platform are partially covered by the cover of the young platform (syneclise of the Great Artesian Basin).
The Australian platform is a fragment of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, which broke up in the Mesozoic. Outcrops of metamorphic rocks of the Archean-Middle Proterozoic basement form the shields (blocks) of Yilgarn, Pilbara, Arantha, Musgrave, Gawler, etc., as well as ledges in the northwest and north (Pine Creek). The structure of the basement includes blocks of Archean consolidation and Proterozoic mobile belts. The Pilbara and Yilgarn blocks are Archean granite-greenstone areas composed of granite-gneiss complex rocks and greenstone belts. The oldest zircons on Earth (4150 million years old) were discovered in the quartzites of the Yilgarn block. The greenstone belts of the Pilbara block are Middle Archean (3.5-3 billion years old), and the Yilgarn block are Late Archean (3-2.7 billion years old) in age and are composed of basalts, komatiites, acidic volcanics and clastic rocks. Outcrops of unreworked Archean formations are also known on the Gawler Plateau and Pine Creek Outcropping. Early Proterozoic fold systems, composed of volcanic-sedimentary rocks and granitoids, developed in the interval from 2.2 to 1.6 billion years. These are the Halls Creek and King-Liopold systems with an age of final deformations of 1.85 billion years, Pine Creek, Tennant Creek - 1.9-1.7 billion years, Capricorn - 1.75-1.6 billion years. In the William and Mount Isa fold systems, active tectonic development continued in the Middle Proterozoic until
1.4 billion years. In Central Australia, the Arantha, Musgrave, Albany-Fraser, and Paterson blocks underwent repeated tectonic deformation, metamorphism, and granitization in the Early and Middle Proterozoic with the formation of mobile polymetamorphic belts. The last episode of magmatic activity in these belts in the interval of 1000-900 million years led to the final consolidation of the basement of the Australian Platform. The formation of the platform cover began in the Late Archean (Hamersley protosyneclise - 2.8-2.4 billion years) and continued in the Proterozoic in the Nabberu (2.2-1.7 billion years), McArthur, Birrindud and Kimberley basins (1, 8-1.4 billion years), Bangemall, Victoria River and South Nicholson (1.4-1 billion years), Amadius, Officer, Ngalia, Georgina (about 900 million years). In the Phanerozoic, syneclises (depressions) were formed: Joseph Bonaparte Bay, Canning, Yukla, grabens (troughs) Perth, Carnarvon, aulacogen Fitzroy, etc.
The Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic are represented by shallow-marine, lagoonal and continental sediments of all systems. In the Cambrian, there was an outpouring of plateau basalts in the Kimberley Basin. At the end of the Carboniferous - beginning of the Permian, cover glaciation developed. In the Late Cretaceous, as a result of rifting, the separation of Australia from Antarctica and the Hindustan block ended. In the east of Australia there is a long (3500 km) Tasmanian fold belt, in which fold systems stand out from west to east - Adelaide-Kanmantu, Thomson, Lachlan and New England, which completed their development respectively in the Cambrian - Early Ordovician, Ordovician, Middle Devonian and at the end of the Paleozoic . The Lachlan and New England fold systems are separated by the Sydney-Bowen foredeep. Since the Triassic, the entire territory of Australia has developed in a platform mode. The Jurassic-Cretaceous cover forms a large (2000 km across) syneclise of the Great Artesian Basin, overlying the folded formations of the Tasmanian belt, the Carpentaria and Murray basins.
146°49′30″ E. d.. Australia occupies a leading place among parts of the world in reserves of uranium, diamonds, nickel, and titanium in ilmenite-rutile placers. It is also extremely rich in ores of lead, zinc, tantalum, gold, iron, manganese, bauxite, phosphorites, brown and hard coal, oil and natural gas, etc. (Table).
Unique uranium deposits are known on the Gawler Plateau (Olympic Dam) and the Pine Creek ledge (Jabiluka, Ranger). The East Kimberley is home to one of the world's largest primary diamond deposits, the Argyle lamproite pipe. Deposits of nickel-cobalt sulfide ores (Kambalda) and gold ores (Kalgoorlie) are associated with the Archean greenstone belts of Western Australia. Gold mineralization is also noted in Proterozoic and Phanerozoic structures (Queensland, New South Wales, Northern Territory, etc.). Nickel ore deposits are known in the Musgrave block. Pyrite deposits of lead, zinc, silver, and copper are concentrated in Proterozoic structures - the Mount Isa fold system, the McArthur depression, etc. (Broken Hill, McArthur River, Mount Isa). Lead ore deposits are on the island of Tasmania. Late Archean-Early Proterozoic sedimentary strata are associated with deposits of ferruginous quartzites, the reserves of which in the Hamersley depression (iron ore basin) are among the largest in the world. Tantalum ore deposits are in Western Australia (Greenbushes and Wagdin). Bauxite deposits (Gov, Weipa) are confined to the weathering crusts of Archean granites and Lower Proterozoic volcanics. Phosphorite deposits are known in the Cambrian sediments of the Georgina Basin (Queensland and Northern Territory). Huge coal reserves are concentrated in the Permian deposits of Eastern Australia (Sydney and Bowen coal basins). Oil and gas fields are located in the sedimentary basins of Gippsland in the Bass Strait, Carnarvon (Barrow), the Perth trough, on the shelves of the western and northwestern coasts, discovered in the interior of Australia (Amadius basin and the Great Artesian Basin), oil shale - in the states of Queensland and Tasmania. In Eastern Australia there are numerous significant deposits of tungsten, molybdenum, tin, antimony, bismuth, and vanadium ores. Tungsten deposits are known on King Island in Bass Strait. Small deposits of manganese ores are on the island of Groot Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria, in the states of the Northern Territory, Western Australia (WoodyWoody deposit). In the beach sands of the eastern and southwestern coasts, this means quantities of rutile, zircon, ilmenite, and monazite. Australia has large resources of precious and semi-precious stones, among which noble opal and sapphire play a major role (deposits in the states of South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland).
Climate. Australia is the driest continent on Earth (see maps of Average Air Temperature and Annual Precipitation). Climatic conditions are characterized by high amounts of solar radiation - from 5880 to 7500 MJ/m2 per year. More than 50% of the territory is located in the tropical zone, the northern tip is in the subequatorial zone, and the southern tip is in the subtropical zone. In the north, precipitation falls mainly in summer (December - February), in the south - in winter (June - August). The dividing line between summer and winter maximum precipitation runs from 20-25° south latitude in the west to 30-32° south latitude in the east. Deviations of precipitation amounts from annual norms range from 15% to 40% on average; West of the Great Dividing Range, droughts are common, although in some months precipitation exceeds the annual norm. Fires occur periodically during the dry season, mainly in New South Wales.
Since the 1980s, an “ozone hole” has been observed over Australia, which is associated with a sharp increase in the incidence of melanoma among the white population of the mainland. In the subequatorial climate zone, the summer monsoon (up to 70% of precipitation falls) and winter dry seasons are clearly defined. Characterized by constantly high air temperatures - up to 20-28°C; before the onset of rains - up to 40°C. Tropical hurricanes sometimes hit the northern coast; in 1974, Hurricane Tracy destroyed the city of Darwin. In the tropical climate zone, two sectors are distinguished: continental dry desert and semi-desert (from the coast of the Indian Ocean in the west to the Great Dividing Range in the east) and oceanic (on the east coast and windward mountain slopes) with hot, humid summers and warm, less humid winters. The mountains, although low, prevent the movement of moist air masses inland, and precipitation falls mainly on the coast and eastern slopes of the ridges. In the central part of Australia, where continental tropical air dominates throughout the year and annual precipitation does not exceed 250 mm, there is a tropical desert climate (with the hottest Great Sandy Desert in Australia). The average summer temperature is 28-30°C, although it often rises to 40°C (absolute maximum 53.1°C), winter 12-20°C (sharp cold snaps occur). Annual and especially daily temperature amplitudes reach 35-40°C. Precipitation usually falls in the form of short showers, coming with northerly winds in summer and southerly winds in winter. Relative air humidity 30-40%. In the southwestern part of the mainland, as well as in the southeastern, in the Murray River basin, there is a Mediterranean type of climate with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. On the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range and in the north of the island of Tasmania, the climate is monsoonal, uniformly humid (up to 1500 mm of precipitation per year). The average temperature in the winter months is 5-10°C. In the Australian Alps, large amounts of precipitation are combined with significant seasonal fluctuations in air temperature (in the mountains there are frosts down to -20°C). The Nullarbor Plain receives very little rainfall (up to 250 mm) and is characterized by significant seasonal temperature differences (summer 22-24°C, winter 10-12°C). The southern part of the island of Tasmania enters the temperate zone. The constant influence of westerly air transport causes an abundance of precipitation on the west coast and mountain slopes. Seasonal differences in temperature (15°C in summer and 10°C in winter) are minor; In the mountains the frosts are down to -7°C.
Inland waters. Australia is characterized by poor development of surface runoff (see map River runoff). The flow volume of Australia's rivers is only 350 km 3 (less than 1% of the total flow of the Earth's rivers), and the thickness of the runoff layer is about 50 mm per year (6 times less than in Europe, 8 times less than in South America). The most developed river network is on the island of Tasmania, where the rivers are deep throughout the year, flow down from the mountains, are stormy, have rapids and have large reserves of hydropower. Australia's rivers are fed almost exclusively by rain. Only on the humid eastern edge of the continent do short, deep rivers flow that never dry up, and the runoff layer increases to 400 mm per year. About 10% of the territory drains into the Pacific Ocean. Almost 30% belongs to the Indian Ocean basin, 60% belongs to the area of internal drainage. The main watershed is the Great Dividing Range. The largest and deepest rivers, the Murray (Murray) and the Darling tributary, flow from its western slopes, constituting the largest river system of the mainland. The Murray (length 2570 km) is shorter than its tributary Darling (the longest river in Australia - 2740 km), but the deepest river in Australia (together with the Murrumbidgee tributary). The basin area of these rivers is 1057 thousand km2.
The rivers of the Murray Darling system are of great economic importance, their waters are used in hydropower and for irrigation of fertile but arid lands. In 1974, a project was implemented to transfer part of the Snowy River flow to the Murray River basin. The short, fast, rapid and deepest rivers with a clearly defined summer maximum flow towards the Coral and Tasman Seas: Fitzroy, Burdekin, Hunter, etc. In the lower reaches, some rivers are navigable: Clarence 100 km from the mouth, Hawkesbury 300 km. The largest rivers in the northern part of Australia - the Flinders, Victoria and Ord, flowing into the Arafura and Timor Seas, are navigable in the summer in their lower reaches. They often overflow their banks during the summer monsoon rains, and in winter they are weak, narrow watercourses that dry up in places in the upper reaches. During the dry summer season, the rivers of the southwestern part turn into chains of shallow reservoirs. In desert and semi-desert areas there is a network of dry riverbeds, called creeks in Australia, which fill with rainwater for a very short time. There is a particularly dense network of creeks (Cooper Creek, Diamantina, Eyre Creek, etc.) on the Central Plains, where they head to the drainless, drying Lake Eyre North. The Nullarbor Plain, devoid of periodic watercourses, has an underground water network with flow towards the Great Australian Bight. On the Ord River, the largest reservoir in Australia by area, the Ord Argyll Reservoir (about 800 km 2), was created.
Australia has many lakes and ancient lake basins. For the most part, the lakes are drainless and saline; many fill only after rains. The largest lake, Eyre North, reaches an area of 15 thousand km 2 in the wettest years; in the dry period it breaks up into shallow reservoirs separated by salt marshes. Large salt lakes include Torrens, Gairdner, Frome, etc. In the western part of Australia, numerous drainless lakes form a salt lake plain. On the Gordon River (Tasmania Island) there is the Gordon Reservoir, Australia's largest by volume (11.8 km 3). Australia has especially large underground resources, including artesian waters, the basins of which occupy one third of the continent's territory (about 2.5 million km 2). 6,500 artesian wells in more than 30 artesian basins provide water for industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes. The largest of them: Great Artesian Basin, Murray, Moreton Clarence, Eucla, Officer, Georgina, Canning, Carnarvon, Perth, Gippsland. Due to strong mineralization, not all groundwater is suitable for use.
Geological structure. In most of Australia, in the interior arid and semi-arid regions, primitive soils of tropical and subtropical deserts and semi-deserts are common. In Western Australia, crushed soils and semi-fixed ferruginous concretionary sands (products of ancient soil formation) predominate; on the plains of the Central Lowlands there are sandy-clayey and clayey soils, and around salt lakes there are salt marshes. As moisture increases and the degree of lateritization of the soil layer, primitive desert soils are replaced by reddish-brown semi-desert and red-brown savannah soils. In the subequatorial belt, podzolized red soils and podzolized lateritic soils have formed; in the subtropical zone, gray-brown (often solonetzic) and brown soils are characteristic. In the mountains, under forests, red-yellow ferrallitic soils are formed, and on the island of Tasmania, brown and yellow-brown forest soils are formed. Often found, especially in the subtropics, are so-called binary soils, which have a buried profile of ancient soil. Australia is a continent of ancient weathering crusts, lateritic in the north and west, siliceous in the southeast. In vast ancient lake basins and runoff depressions, dark-colored fused soils were formed. All these types of soils are poor in biophilic elements and require significant doses of fertilizers. Among the destructive processes, the most common are secondary salinization, water erosion and deflation.
Vegetation. The flora and fauna of Australia are distinguished by their antiquity and high degree of endemism. The Australian floristic kingdom, which includes Australia and Tasmania, has no equal in the number of endemics: of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, 80% are endemic (for example, about 500 species of the genus Acacia and about 500 species of the genus Eucalyptus, the most typical representatives of the Australian flora). Along with this, there are representatives of genera and families common in South America (southern beech), South Africa (Proteaceae) and Southeast Asia (ficus, pandanus, etc.). Australia contains formations of tropical forests, wet and dry sclerophyll forests, tropical and subtropical woodlands, various types of shrubs, savannas, semi-deserts and deserts (see map Geographical zones and zones). The degree of moisture in the area plays a major role in their distribution. On the Arnhem Land Peninsula, mangroves occur on the low-lying coastal plains. The northern and eastern edges of the continent are occupied by indigenous moist tropical evergreen forests. They are dominated by giant eucalyptus, ficus, palm trees, and pandanus. Along river valleys, tropical rainforest penetrates into the zone of wet savannas with rare groups of trees (eucalyptus, bottle tree, acacia). To the south, on the eastern edge of Australia, rising along the damp eastern and southeastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range, dense tropical and subtropical forests grow (of eucalyptus, tree ferns, and representatives of the genus Callitris). With increasing continentality, forests are replaced by tropical woodlands, bushes and savannas.
In the interior of Australia, there are dense, almost impenetrable thorny thickets of low-growing shrubs (dominated by low acacias and shrubby forms of eucalyptus), as well as extensive sandy (Great Sandy Desert, Great Victoria, Simpson, etc.) deserts with typical tall turf grasses (spinifex) . There are rocky or clayey-saline (Gibson) deserts with saltwort and shrub vegetation. Deserts and semi-deserts occupy about 70% of the territory. In the southwest of Australia, on the western slopes of the Darling Range, monodominant forests of fringing eucalyptus - jarrah (height up to 150 m) grow. On the island of Tasmania, wet mixed forests (eucalyptus, southern beech, tree ferns) are common on the western windward edges, and steppe meadows are found on the eastern slopes. Forests, including artificial plantations of American radiata pine, occupied (2000) about 5% of the continent's territory, including tropical rainforests of less than 0.5%. In the appearance of modern Australian landscapes, plants (food, feed and technical) imported from other regions of the world play a huge role, replacing natural vegetation in large areas. Alien plant species (buffalo grass, cryptostegia, giant mimosa pudica, prickly pear, etc.) have become harmful weeds.
Anthropogenic landscapes differ significantly from natural ones. About 65% of the territory is involved in economic activity. About 40% of all forests have been destroyed, including 75% of tropical rainforests (individual tracts in the east have been preserved), and more than 60% of coastal wetlands in the south and east of Australia have been lost. The natural landscapes of the subtropical zones have undergone the most profound changes. Almost all coastal plains and intermountain basins have been converted into cultivated pastures, gardens and plantations. To the west of the Great Dividing Range, grasslands predominate. The largest tracts of irrigated land are concentrated here and the largest amount of grain is produced (the so-called wheat-sheep belt), fruits, vegetables, etc. Fields, gardens, plantations and vineyards are combined with cultivated pastures, also irrigated. The Nullarbor Plain has preserved almost unchanged landscapes with shrub and semi-desert formations. In Western Australia, within the subtropical zone, pastures and arable lands are widespread, in the extreme southwest there are forestry landscapes, and on the southwest coast there are arable and garden-plantation landscapes, mainly around Perth and other cities. The remaining territories (except for protected lands) are occupied by pasture lands. In the main agricultural areas, soils are subject to processes of secondary salinization and accelerated erosion. On the island of Tasmania, mainly in the eastern part, pastures, arable lands and garden-plantation anthropogenic landscapes predominate.
Animal world Australia and the adjacent islands are so unique that they stand out as a special Australian zoogeographic region. The fauna is characterized by a poor species composition, endemism and the presence of relics. There are only 235 species of mammals, 720 of birds, 420 of reptiles, 120 of amphibians (90% of vertebrate species are endemic). The region is distinguished by the uniqueness of mammals: only their most primitive representatives live here - monotremes (oviparous platypus, echidna and prochidna). Marsupials are especially diverse (more than 10 endemic families): carnivores (marsupial mice, marsupial rats, marsupial martens); marsupial anteaters (one species in southwestern Australia); marsupial moles (in the sandy deserts of Central Australia); climbing marsupials - possums (in tropical and subtropical forests they lead a mainly arboreal lifestyle); koalas (one species, a marsupial bear, inhabits eucalyptus forests); wombats (marsupial marmots); kangaroos (kangaroo rats, wallabies, true kangaroos), found in various natural landscapes (deserts, forests, etc.).
The island of Tasmania is home to two representatives of marsupials that are absent on the mainland - the marsupial wolf and the marsupial devil. The highest mammals of Australia are represented by only two orders - chiroptera (bats) and rodents (beaver rats, rabbit rats, kangaroo mice - all from the mouse family). Birds are very diverse: emu, cassowary, lyrebird, birds of paradise, various types of parrots and pigeons (including the crowned pigeon), honey suckers, weed chickens. Waterfowl nest on rivers and lakes: black swan, geese, etc. Among the reptiles there are frilled lizards, molochs, and adders. Tropical rainforests are rich in endemic species of ants, termites, butterflies and beetles. Inland waters are rich in fish, including endemic species (lungfish, cattail). Johnson's crocodile and snake-necked turtle are common. Predators include dingoes and foxes. There are numerous rats, camels, and rabbits (which have destroyed the grass cover over vast areas), brought from the Old World as pets or objects of hunting. In the southern part of the island of Tasmania, a typical representative of the Antarctic fauna is found - the little penguin. As a result of anthropogenic impacts, 10 of 144 marsupial species and 8 of 53 native rodent species became extinct. Due to deforestation, many animal species are endangered; about 17% of mammal species are listed in the IUCN Red List. Introduced representatives of the fauna of other continents caused great damage to nature.
Specially protected areas. In Australia, there are more than 4.5 thousand specially protected natural areas of various categories, occupying about 8% of Australia’s area, including about 500 national parks and natural monuments (among them the symbol of Australia, the Ere Rock outlier massif). 12 national parks are part of the global network of biosphere reserves, 15 are included in the World Heritage List. In 1879, the first on the mainland and the second in the world Royal National Park was created in the state of New South Wales, located 32 km south of Sydney. The most significant include the world's largest marine park, the Great Barrier Reef (area 500 thousand km2) and Kakadu National Park.
History of geographical exploration. Even in ancient times, it was assumed that in the Southern Hemisphere there was a vast continent stretching to the polar latitudes. Ptolemy (2nd century), and then scientists of the late Middle Ages, showed on maps the continent south of the Tropic of Capricorn and called it Terra Australis Incognita (Unknown Southern Land). It is believed that the Dutchman W. Janszoon was the first European to land on the Australian coast in the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1606. In the same year, the Spaniard L. Torres discovered the strait named after him. In the 1620s, Dutch navigators J. Carstens, W. van Kolstert, F. Theisen and P. Neates discovered the Arnhem Land and Cape York peninsulas, as well as the western part of the southern coast of Australia. By 1640, Dutch sailors had visited the west, north and south coasts. In 1642, the Dutchman A. Tasman walked south of the mainland and discovered an island, which he called Van Diemen's Land. Later this island was renamed in honor of the discoverer and became known as Tasmania. In 1644, Tasman, moving along the northern coast of Australia, proved that the open land was much smaller than expected and did not extend into the cold polar latitudes. The western part of Australia was called New Holland.
In 1770, the English navigator John Cook discovered the east coast of Australia and declared the new land a colony of Great Britain, calling it New South Wales. In 1778, the first English convict colony was founded (on the site of modern Sydney). In 1798, the Englishman J. Bass walked around the island of Tasmania and mapped the strait, which was later named after him. His compatriot, Captain of the Royal Navy M. Flinders, sailed around the entire continent in 1797-1803, and the modern name Australia appeared on his maps (since 1814).
Exploration of the interior of the continent to find land suitable for grazing began in the 19th century. The first expedition to overcome the Blue Mountains was led in 1813 by G. Blaxland. The Englishman C. Sturt discovered (1829-30) the Darling River and went down the Murray River to its mouth. During the English expeditions of 1830-45, T. Mitchell discovered vast fertile plains west of the Great Dividing Range; E. Eyre mapped lakes Torrens and North Eyre, the Flinders and Gawler ranges, and in 1841 walked along the southern coast to Albany. In 1840, the Polish traveler P. Strzelecki discovered the highest peak - Mount Kosciuszko. In 1844-45, the German traveler L. Leichhardt walked along the Great Dividing Range to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and then went to the western coast of the Arnhem Land peninsula, where the city of Darwin is now located. The English expeditions of R. Burke and W. Willis (1860) and J. Stewart (1862) crossed the continent from north to south; from east to west in the 1870s - the English expeditions of J. Forrest, E. Giles, P. Warburton. By the end of the 19th century, all of Australia's major geographical features had been mapped.
Peoples. The indigenous population of Australia is the Aboriginal Australians, whose ancestors first appeared on the mainland about 60 thousand years BC (the discovery of a man from Lake Mungo, 62 thousand years ago). From the end of the 16th century, Australia began to be developed by Europeans, in the 17th century - mainly by the Dutch, and from the end of the 17th century - by the British. As a result of the colonization of Australia by immigrants from the British Isles, the main population of modern Australia - Anglo-Australians - emerged.
In the 19th century, especially after the “gold rush” of the 1850s and 60s, immigrants from Germany, the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, China, the USA, and Canada appeared in Australia. Immigration to Australia continued into the 20th century, including from Malaysia, the Philippines, India and Pakistan. After the 2nd World War, thousands of refugees and displaced persons ended up in Australia, after the Hungarian events of 1956 - about 14 thousand Hungarians, after the Czechoslovak events of 1968 - about 6 thousand Czechs and Slovaks, in the 1970s - about 15 thousand refugees from Lebanon, about 70 thousand - from Indochina. Today in Australia there are about 100 ethnic groups speaking, according to various estimates, 75-100 languages, not counting English and Aboriginal languages. About 25% of Australia's population is of non-British ethnic origin. Thus, the number of Maltese in Australia exceeds the Maltese population of Malta. Ethno-territorial and professional groups have emerged: Italian farmers in New South Wales, German winegrowers in the Barrosa Valley; in the cities there are large Italian, Greek, Chinese, Vietnamese, Russian and other communities.
See map of Australia. Peoples. See also the Population section in the article Australia (state).
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N. A. Bozhko (geological structure and minerals), T. A. Kovaleva.
