Glaciers of the Kuban region: Marukhsky, Dautsky and Kugurtlyu. -Glaciers of the upper reaches of Baksan: Azau and Adyl. - Glaciers of Chegem. - Cherek-Takho glaciers: Ulu-auz, Mizhirgi and Bizingi. - Glaciers of the upper reaches of the Balkar Cherek: the Dykh-su glacier, Agshtan and Shtulu, or Karasu. - Glaciers of the upper reaches of Urukh: Kharves, Tana, Bartu, Karagom and Fastak. - Adai-khokha glaciers: Tseysky and Rekom. - Devdoraki Glacier. - Glaciers of Svaneti: Adysh, Truiber and others. - Glaciers of the upper reaches of the Rion: the glacier of Zophetura and Cheshura. - Conclusion.
The remarkable glaciers of the Kuban region include: Marukhsky, Dautsky and Kugurtlyu.
Marukh Glacier is located in the upper reaches of the Marukh River, which, together with Aksaut, forms Maly Zelenchuk, which flows into the Kuban. Directly south of the last sources of the Marukh, the Main Range is very high and covered with huge masses of snow, and to the southeast stretches a fairly long and wide valley, which serves as the bed of the Marukh glacier. I encountered numerous remnants of snow avalanches of fairly decent size in the middle of summer, both at the very bottom of the valley in the upper reaches of the Marukha River, and near the Marukha glacier. Some of them even blocked the river itself, and the water had to wash the tunnels in them for itself.
The abundance of avalanches indicates, of course, a large accumulation of snow in this part of the mountains; This is what causes the formation of a significant glacier. The Marukha glacier is probably the largest in the Kuban region. In an hour and a half I walked about half of it, so I think that its entire length is at least five miles. Noticeably inferior in this respect to the most significant glaciers of the Terek region (Bizingi, Karagom and the Dykh-su glacier), it is, however, larger. At a distance of a mile from the lower end of the glacier, I measured, as far as possible, its width in steps and found that it was approximately 400 fathoms. In other places, it seems to me, the width of the glacier should reach a mile. Its surface is generally quite clean and relatively smooth. In some places, however, it is intersected by significant cracks.
The glacier is surrounded by rather large moraines, which indicate a significant decrease in its size. On the right side of the glacier they stretch in several parallel rows, forming ridges 10 fathoms high.
The Marukh glacier is relatively easily accessible. You can climb it from the left side without any difficulty. The degree of accessibility can also be judged by the fact that in 1877, a detachment of General Babich, along with mountain artillery and several hundred Cossacks, passed along its surface to the pass. I visited this glacier in 1878 and describe it as it was 12 years ago.
In the upper reaches of Daut, which flows into the Kuban, there is one small but very beautiful glacier of the 1st category. It is called the Daut glacier. It is 2-3 versts long, and about half a verst wide, most of its surface is very flat, and only at the bottom is it inclined quite steeply; The glacier ends with a high, almost vertical ice wall. In the second half of the 1870s. here was a huge grotto, the arches of which consisted of pure blue-green ice and had a very beautiful, although irregular, outline. The river flowing from here is the main source of Daut.
Most of the surface of this glacier is very clean, but in some places it is covered with rock fragments and mud stripes. Halfway along the length of the glacier there are many arcing cracks, and a little higher the glacier has a wild, harsh appearance and presents countless protruding ice teeth, separated by deep cracks. Firn fields follow even higher. Several small steep firn glaciers adjoin this glacier on the sides; Its moraines are nothing special.
Kugurtlyu Glacier descends from Elbrus and is located in the upper reaches of the Kugurtlyu River, which makes up one of the sources of the Kuban. This glacier is difficult to access. At a distance of a mile from the lower end, you have to get off your horse and make your way on foot along a very tiring path. The terminal moraine, in the form of a ridge 500 steps long and 200 steps wide, surrounds the glacier on the lower side and consists of large fragments of various rocks. In several places, stormy streams break through it, forming many waterfalls. At the very end of the glacier there are also piles of huge stone blocks, between which the water flowing from under the ice makes its way. The same blocks lie in a very unstable position on the edge of the glacier, which forms a very steep ice ledge here. When climbing the glacier in July 1879, we had to walk for 150 steps, carving steps in the ice; when the first, steepest ledge was overcome, the further path became much easier.
The Kugurtlyu glacier is about 400-500 steps wide at the bottom, but widens noticeably at the top; its length, as far as one can judge by eye, is 1.5 or 2 versts. At the top it divides into two more or less separated ice fields.
The surface of the glacier is nothing special; in the lower part it is more or less dirty and strewn with many large and small fragments of rocks, but the further you go up, the cleaner and purer it becomes. At a distance of a mile from the lower end, the surface of the glacier becomes almost completely clear. Only in one place, on the right side of the glacier, did we encounter many huge cracks; in other places they were smaller and less common. Lateral moraines, consisting of small crushed stone, stretch in several parallel rows and lie partly on the glacier itself, partly on its sides. The upper part of the glacier is surrounded on almost all sides by high, pointed, torn rocks, probably the edges of an ancient crater.
In the terminal moraine of a glacier one often comes across pieces weighing up to two pounds and consisting of sulfur mixed with grains of white quartz, pieces of trachyte and other minerals. Thanks to the presence of sulfur in the moraines of the glacier, the glacier itself and the river flowing from it received their name, meaning sulfur glacier and sulfur river. Without a doubt, this sulfur was deposited on the walls of the Elbrus crater at a time when its volcanic activity had not yet completely ceased.
Azau It is one of the rather significant glaciers of the Caucasus, but by no means one of the largest, as some scientists and travelers previously believed it to be. It is fed by the snows of the southern slope of Elbrus and the eastern slope of the Hoti-Tau ridge, which connects Elbrus with the Main Range. Azau differs from most glaciers in the Caucasus in that it is formed from a significant number of individual ice streams. In this respect, it resembles the Swiss glaciers Mer de glace and Aletsch, but is much inferior to them in size. Its lower part is quite narrow. In 1881 its width was up to 100 fathoms. At that time it represented a more or less steep slope, intersected by many cracks and separated from a large pine forest by 300 or 400 fathoms. At the end of the 1870s. it ended at an altitude of 7630 ft. above sea level, and in 1849 - at an altitude of 7350 ft. In 1881 it had small terminal moraines, indicating its retreat at that time. At a distance of two versts from the lower end, Azau becomes noticeably wider, reaching 170 fathoms, and another verst and a half higher, its width is probably more than a verst. The lateral moraines on the left side of the glacier are very large; they lie partly on the ice, partly to the side of it, and represent several high parallel ridges. On the ice they form a stripe of steps 100 wide; the right side of the glacier in its middle and lower part rests on steep cliffs and has moraines only a few steps wide. Azau is formed from 4 branches, two of which originate from the snows of Elbrus, one from Hoti-tau and one from the mountains bordering the right side of the glacier. Although one of the branches starting on Elbrus is probably longer than all the others, the wide ice field descending from Hoti-tau can most likely be mistaken for the beginning of the glacier. At the top, without a noticeable border, it turns into a huge snow field, several miles long and wide.
On the right side the main part is joined by a short, curved branch, probably less than one and a half miles in length and with the slightest moraines; it joins the main branch about three versts from the lower end of the glacier. The branches on the right side are much larger, both of them descend from Elbrus. The lower one joins the main glacier opposite the right branch; it is relatively small, located in a narrow rocky gorge and intersected by many transverse cracks; in one place there is a large icefall on it, which completely interrupts it. Below this place a more even surface stretches again, finally merging with the main branch.
The next branch is much longer, but also quite narrow. It begins with vast snow fields descending from the very peaks of Elbrus. It is very steep and in many places consists only of ice pillars and teeth, separated by chasms. The moraines on its sides are not noticeable.
Adil, or Shkhildy, is located in the upper reaches of the Adyl, which flows into the Baksan on the right side. This is a huge and inaccessible glacier. Opposite its upper part rises the remarkable peak of the Caucasus - Uzhba. Adil is formed from two branches: one descending from the western side and the other from the eastern side. From the place where they join, the main part of the glacier stretches, which is at least 6 or 7 miles in length; its width is also very significant. In general, this is one of the largest glaciers in the Caucasus. Adyl is also remarkable in that it increased when all the glaciers of the Caucasus were retreating. The reason for this was the circumstance that I wrote about 8 years ago.
In the early 1860s, according to the stories of local residents, a huge rocky mountain fell onto the Adyl glacier, precisely at the place where its main branch is formed from two side branches, rising above the glacier with a sheer wall several thousand feet high. Its weight must be taken in billions of pounds. Having fallen down and hit a neighboring mountain, it knocked down part of the latter, itself was crushed into pieces, and at the same time a huge mass of stone fragments rolled along the glacier and even further down the Adyl valley. The entire glacier, for about seven miles, was littered with huge masses of rubble and stones; They rolled even further along the gorge and destroyed a large pine forest over a space of about four miles. The huge clearing where hay had been cut before this disaster was almost entirely covered with stones. The noise, shaking of the earth and clouds of dust that filled the gorge were so great that residents of neighboring villages took this phenomenon for the end of the world.
During my visit to this gorge in 1881, that is, 18 years after the described disaster, almost the entire surface of the glacier was covered with a layer of stone and rubble several arshins or even fathoms thick. There was no ice visible here at all, and the surface of the glacier had an unimaginably wild, harsh appearance. Its side branches remained clean, and a small space of the very top part of the main branch, precisely that part that was formed from the merger of two side branches and moved here after the described catastrophe.
The increase in Adyl at a time when all other glaciers of the Caucasus were retreating must be attributed to the following reason: a thick layer of stone and rubble protected the ice here both from the action of sunlight and from contact with warm air, as a result of which its melting was greatly slowed down; the resulting increase in the glacier's normal thickness and weight, as well as the pressure of the enormous masses of stone lying on the glacier, should have accelerated its movement and forced it to advance.
Adyl ends, according to Abikh’s definition, at an altitude of 7362 ft.
In the upper reaches of the Chegem there are several glaciers, about which until very recently there was almost no information. N.V. Zhukov at the end of last year reported three glaciers located in this area. The largest of them is Shaurta, reaching 7 miles in length and initially running almost parallel to the Main Ridge; it is 250 fathoms wide, but in the upper part it still widens significantly and is divided into two branches. It ends quite low, precisely at an altitude of 7294 feet, and therefore, undoubtedly, should be classified as a glacier of the 1st category.
Near Shaurtu lie the Tyutyurgu and Kulak glaciers. Tyutyurgu is located in the upper reaches of the river of the same name, starts from the Kargashili-tau ridge with three branches, is about 3.5 versts in length and ends at an altitude of 9704 ft. Kulak, according to N.V. Zhukov, is the most beautiful of the glaciers in this area; it lies in a narrow gorge and stretches, like Shaurt, parallel to the Main Ridge. At the bottom this glacier is quite narrow (110 fathoms), and then it expands greatly. Halfway along its length, a rocky ledge sticks out of the ice - Kara-Tyube, on both sides of which there are high icefalls. Above this place the glacier is very flat and has a completely clean surface; its lower end is so littered with stones that it could not be recognized as a glacier if the ice were not revealed by cracks furrowing it in all directions. The terminal moraine of the glacier abuts a ridge covered with pine forest, which, in turn, is nothing more than an even older moraine.
Mizhirgi Glacier descends from the vast snow fields of the northern slope of Dykh-tau and the ridge that runs between Dykh-tau and Koshtan-tau. It has already been said that this glacier, together with the firn fields, is 9 versts in length, and the glacier itself is about 6 versts. At the very top end it is about a verst wide, then it narrows to 400 fathoms, and in the middle part even to 180. In only one place does it form an intercept of 160 fathoms, and then at the bottom it expands again to 250 and even a little more. At the bottom it is terribly steep; deep cracks intersect it in all directions, and the very end represents an ice ledge, which, according to N.V. Zhukov’s measurements, is 61 fathoms high. On the sides, the lower part of the glacier also presents ice walls of enormous height and, moreover, divided by cracks into separate ice columns and teeth . Here it is not only impossible to climb or walk along the glacier, but it is not even safe to come close to it, since masses of ice weighing tens or even hundreds of thousands of pounds fall from it almost every day. Three similar collapses occurred during my stay near Mizhirga. This, at least, was Mizhirgi in 1881. On the five-verst map of the Caucasus in the 1870s. this huge glacier was not marked at all. It ends at an altitude of 7422 ft. above sea level.
Another glacier descends from Koshtan-tau Ulu-auz, belonging to quite significant. Its length, not counting the firn fields, is at least 3 versts, its width in the lower part is more than 300 fathoms, in the middle - somewhat less, and in the very top - again much more. On the right side this glacier is joined by several more wide lateral firn glaciers. The entire Ulu-Auz represents a very gentle arc, with its concave side facing northwest. A fairly decent river, Dumala, flows out of it and flows into Cherek. The thickness of the ice, according to N.V. Zhukov, here reaches 41 fathoms, and the length of the glacier, together with the firn fields, is 7 versts.
The most remarkable of the glaciers in this area, that is, the upper reaches of Cherek-Takho, is Bizings, or Ulutau-chiran. This is, without a doubt, the most remarkable of all the glaciers of the Caucasus. I have already said that in length, equal to 17 versts, it is not inferior to the greatest of the glaciers of the Alps, namely the Aletsch glacier. Only the 8th lowest part of Bizinga is quite narrow (250 fathoms), but higher up its width reaches a mile or more. I visited this glacier in 1881, when it was in a period of retreat; at that time he had already managed, as was noticeable from his moraines, to shorten a mile and a half compared to what he had been twenty years ago. Its width and thickness have also decreased significantly. The right side moraine in the lower part of the glacier was a full half a mile away from it, and the thickness of the ice decreased by 200 feet. It ended in the 1870s, according to Abikh, at an altitude of 6583 ft.
Bisingi begins with two branches, of which the eastern one is much longer than the western one; from their junction, a strip of ice 10 miles long stretches in a straight direction, with an average width of more than 400 fathoms. Its huge lateral moraines stretch in several parallel rows and reach a height of 15, even 20 fathoms. They also indicate a significant decrease in the glacier in the last 20-30 years. The surface of this glacier is no less remarkable. In the middle and upper parts it is quite clean, and especially in the middle, which is a huge, almost completely white longitudinal bulge formed as a result of lateral pressure on the ice. Deep cracks cross it in different directions. In one place they form such a dense network that this part of the glacier turns into countless ice pillars and pyramids, through which there is no way to get through. There are especially many cracks along half the length of the glacier; many of them are 15-20 feet wide and probably at least fifty, and perhaps as much as a hundred fathoms deep. Some holes and cracks between the ice ledges are filled with water and resemble small lakes. Here there are narrow, but very deep wells, also filled with water, which seems to be colored in an unusually pleasant bluish-green color, depending on the color of the ice walls of the well. Countless multitudes of waterfalls, mills and tables adorn the surface of this huge glacier. Some of the tables are enormous in size. So one of them was a granite block weighing five thousand pounds, resting on an ice stand 1.5 fathoms high. There are hundreds of smaller tables here The sandy mounds are especially remarkable and beautiful. Halfway along the glacier, on the right side, there are high, 10 or 20 fathoms, ice cones and pyramids, covered with a thin layer of gray rubble, through which transparent bluish-green ice shines through the surface of the glacier. There are many streams with countless waterfalls. They are especially beautiful and full of water on a hot sunny day.
The Bisingi Glacier is very accessible. From the left side (western) I climbed it on horseback, and only in some places got off the horse: I also rode almost the entire glacier in the transverse direction. In general, there are few cracks in the lower third, but the middle and partly the upper third are intersected by many of them. The Cherek River flowing out from under the glacier is so large that it is impossible to cross it on horseback. On the right side of the glacier grows a small forest consisting of birches, rowan trees, willows, etc.
The place where the Bisingi glacier lies is a deep gorge, surrounded on almost all sides by giant mountains. The greatest peaks of the Caucasus after Elbrus are concentrated around this glacier; four of them rise above Kazbek. On the southern side, this gorge is closed by the Main Range with the peaks of Shkhara at 17,038 ft., Dzhanga-tau at 16,657 ft. and Katyn-tau at 16,296 ft., from the southeast - by the ridge on which rise Dykh-tau (17,096 ft. .) and Koshtan-tau (16,925 f.), and from the north-west - the Kargashili-tau ridge, also very high and covered with eternal snow.
In terms of beauty and formidable grandeur, there is no gorge in the Caucasus similar to this one. Grove and his companions, who traveled the length and breadth of Switzerland, said that they had never seen anything in the Alps that could compare with this place in the beauty and grandeur of the huge mountains, as well as in the completely peculiar wildness of the valley.
In Balkaria, which is located in the upper reaches of the so-called Balkar Cherek, there are two very remarkable glaciers, namely: the glacier Dykh-su And Agshtan. The first of them is not much inferior in size to Bizinga. It lies in an unusually wild, narrow and rocky gorge, which can only be navigated on foot with difficulty. It is so cramped and harsh not only near the glacier, but also in its very lower part. When traveling through this gorge, the view of the glacier opens at a time when there are two miles left before it. Then its end appears to be a very high, steep, gray ledge, completely covered with stone and rubble. In this place the glacier is quite narrow, about 300 steps wide, but the higher you go, the wider it becomes. At a verst from its lower end it is equal to 400 fathoms, and at a distance of a little over two versts it reaches 500 fathoms. In some places it even exceeds a mile. The length of the Dykh-su glacier is very significant and is not much inferior to the length of Bizinga. The main part of the glacier, representing one continuous, slightly winding ice stream, extends for 9 miles; but above it, glacier fields still stretch, more or less separated from each other, for several miles. If we take the top of Shkhara as the beginning of the glacier, then its length, together with the firn fields, will be at least 14 miles. It stretches parallel to the Main Ridge, almost straight from east to west, making only, as noted above, small zigzags; and it begins in that acute angle that is formed by the Main Ridge and its spur, where Dykh-Tau and Koshtan-Tau rise. It lies, therefore, next to Bizingi, but on the other side of the just mentioned spur. The upper parts of these glaciers almost converge, and the snows of Shkhara, which represents the junction where the Main Ridge and the mentioned spur intersect, feed both the one and the other glacier. It begins with several snow and ice fields that stretch for many miles and present either more or less gentle slopes or the most terrible ice abysses, ledges, walls and cliffs. One of these fields, going north, stretches almost to the very top of Dykh-tau, that is, counting according to the horizontal projection, 7 versts, in reality much more; As for those that descend from the top of Shkhara, they occupy a space of six miles in length and width. On the right, that is, on the southern side, this glacier is joined by two more side ones. One of them, namely Ailama, descends from the huge snow fields of the Main Range. Its average width is slightly more than half a mile.
The surface of Dykh-su presents such a wild and harsh appearance as few glaciers: huge ice mounds stick out on it, or terrible abysses yawn on it. There are especially many of them near lateral moraines. The left half of the glacier, starting from its lower end and up to half its length, is almost completely littered with piles of stone and rubble. Huge mounds of them are found in places in other parts of the glacier; in general, its right side is much cleaner, and the very middle is almost completely clean. All of the above applies to the lower half of the glacier; As for the top, there are almost no stones and rubble on it, and it represents a white strip of ice a mile wide, and in the uppermost part even about two, and five miles long.
Dykh-su glacier It is much superior to Bizingi in its inaccessibility and stern appearance, but inferior to it in terms of beauty. It does not have such beautiful lakes, tables, or sandy mounds as on Bizingi. Its moraines are also much smaller, which, however, must be entirely attributed to the steepness of the slopes of the gorge, on which they cannot stay for long.
Agshtan Glacier belongs to the very large and unusually beautiful ones. Its length without firn fields is about 5 versts, with the fields, if we consider Mount Sharivtsik as their beginning, 8 versts and a little more, exactly 9 versts, if we take the edge of that huge snow field that stretches to the west from the upper part as the beginning of the glacier glacier. Its width is also remarkable. At the very bottom end it is small, but at a distance of a mile from it it is equal to 300 fathoms, and a little higher it already reaches a mile and soon exceeds it. Even higher, the glacier does not narrow anywhere, but gradually expands more and more; in the middle part its width is two versts, and in the uppermost part - about three, but here it little by little turns into huge snow fields, occupying more than 20 square meters together with the glacier. verst.
The moraines of Agshtan are relatively small. On the right side, exactly where the glacier is directly adjacent to the steep cliffs, there are almost no of them; above this place the slopes of the gorge become flatter and less rocky, here the moraines become quite large in size, and then again become much smaller. On the left side they are located only in the lower part of the glacier, while the upper part, almost everywhere without sharp boundaries, turns into huge snow fields that feed the glacier.
Agshtan probably surpasses all Caucasian glaciers in purity of ice. There are almost no stones or rubble anywhere on its surface, so the view of the glacier from the high cliffs surrounding it is unusually picturesque. This glacier is even more beautiful and original from below, from the bottom of the Ak-su valley. I have already said in my articles about Balkaria that the tall, pointed green-blue columns of ice, piling up on the steep ledge of that huge rock on which this glacier ends, have such an unusual and original appearance that a person who has seen few glaciers will never accept them for ice
Shtulu Glacier, otherwise Karasu, or Gezevtsik, also located in Balkaria, belongs to quite interesting ones. It descends more or less deeply into the valley and therefore should be classified as a glacier of the 1st category, but in terms of its size it occupies an average place. The lower part of it is quite narrow, about half a mile, but the further we go up, the wider and wider the ice field surrounding us will become. Thus, already at half the length of the glacier its width is no less than a mile, and in the very upper part it is even more; the length of the entire glacier extends from three to four miles.
Its lower part is almost completely covered with piles of stone and rubble, from under which ice is visible, however, in many places; somewhat higher, stones and rubble cover the surface of the glacier no longer so evenly, but form five more or less distinct longitudinal ridges, that is, moraines. The latter circumstance indicates that the Shtulu glacier was formed from four more or less independent flows. Indeed, looking up, we see that on the left side a narrow but rather long branch joins the lower part of the glacier; from the place where it connects with the main part of the glacier, a large moraine stretches, covering the left side of the glacier with rubble. This is the largest of the medial moraines. The remaining three branches of the glacier connect with each other much higher, precisely at the beginning of the firn fields, and are separated from each other by two low ridges of rocks, only slightly protruding from the snow or ice. From each of these ridges a small moraine stretches down along the glacier. Thus, three median moraines are obtained; together with the two marginal ones they form the five moraines that have already been mentioned. A very interesting ice grotto is located where the Kara-su river flows out from under this glacier. It is very beautiful and so large that a decent two-story house could be placed in it.
The Shtulu glacier is very accessible, and two roads pass through it: one from Balkaria to the upper reaches of Rion, the other to Svaneti.
Of the glaciers of Digoria, Karagom and Tana are very remarkable; In addition, Bartu and the Urukha glacier deserve attention.
Regarding the size of the glacier Urukhsky, or Harves, as the Digorians call it, one can say the same thing as about Shtulu. This is a 1st category glacier, but of medium size. With the exception of the lowest part, the steepness of which reaches up to 30°, it is very flat. The first steep ledge is followed by a fairly flat part, with a slope of only 19°, and even higher, that is, in the middle and upper parts, the surface of the glacier, to the eye, seems almost horizontal and has a slope of only 7°. The clean surface with such an insignificant drop and the absence of cracks allows you to walk along this glacier as if it were a boulevard.
At the upper end, Harves is divided into four short glacier fields, covered with snow and completely devoid of moraines. The northern of these fields is the longest and represents an almost continuous series of cracks, holes and abysses; the others have a clean and smooth surface. The entire length of this glacier is about four miles with an average width of approximately half a mile. It ends, according to academician Abikh, at an altitude of 8500 ft. Its moraines are nothing special.
Tana belongs to the largest glaciers in the Caucasus and is located in the upper reaches of the Tana River, which flows into Urukh. Tana is formed from three separate glaciers, which are quite large in size. In this respect, it differs from most of the glaciers of the Caucasus, which represent one continuous ice stream, which, if divided into branches, is only in the uppermost part, directly bordering the firn. Thus, in its shape it resembles Azau and Shtula, but surpasses them in size.
The right branch of Tana is quite long, but not wide, especially in its lower part. It forms a bend in the form of an arc of large radius, and only at the bottom, where it merges with the main branch, does it present a more or less flat surface; its middle and upper parts consist of countless ice columns, battlements and pyramids, separated by deep chasms.
The middle branch is much wider than the previous one, but probably shorter. It represents a very wide glacier field, crossed over most of its length by many cracks.
As for the left branch, it also has a very significant length and width, and from its very beginning to its merger with the middle branch it represents a continuous system of teeth, cracks, holes, abysses and icefalls. The last two branches are completely devoid of moraines. There are almost none on the right branch. Therefore, that part of the Tana, which was formed from the fusion of branches, has almost no central moraines.
From the place where the branches connect with each other, a huge glacier field stretches down. It should be noted that the last two branches are clearly visible from a distance, several miles from the glacier; the right branch and the lower part can only be seen when you get to the glacier itself. This lower part stretches several miles in length and is about a mile wide. Its end is a very steep (from 30 to 40°) ledge, littered with huge masses of stones; it is followed by a flatter part, which has a steepness of about 10° and is also covered with stones and rubble; finally, even higher, right up to the division of the glacier into branches, stretches a flat ice field with a clean, even and smooth surface.
It has already been said that the multitude of ram's foreheads on the slopes surrounding this glacier shows that it formerly reached a much larger size.
Glacier Bartoo is located not far from Karagom, but somewhat to the west of it. The lower part of Bartu forms a narrow ice tongue, about 100 fathoms wide and 0.2 versts long; beyond this narrow part the glacier begins to quickly expand, and in the upper part its width reaches a mile; The length of Bartu together with the firn fields is about five miles. Its lower part is quite flat, the middle part represents a ledge where the glacier bends and forms many transverse cracks; it is followed again by a more flattened part, but also intersected by cracks. Even higher it divides into two more or less significant branches and two much smaller ones. From the junction of the two main branches, a small median moraine stretches along the glacier. The largest - western branch - is about two miles long.
Karagom belongs to the most remarkable of the glaciers of the Caucasus. It descends below all the Caucasian glaciers, precisely to 5702 m. above sea level. This is the only glacier in the entire Caucasus that descends below 6 thousand ft. The length of Karagom, if we take the snow field descending from the western slope of Adai-Khokh as the beginning, is equal to 14 versts in horizontal projection, but in reality it is much longer. Consequently, in this respect, it is second only to Bizingi and approximately equal to the Dykh-su glacier. Freshfield says that of all the glaciers in Switzerland, only the Aletsch is larger than the Karatom. E. Favre apparently agrees with this opinion. The lower part of Karagom, over an area of entire miles, is surrounded by slopes covered with dense birch and pine forests, and is only 5 miles away from residential areas, namely from the village of Noakau. Near the lower end Karagom is quite narrow. According to Favre, in this place its width is about 460 m, but in fact it is slightly less. A mile from the end its width is about 300 fathoms. At the top, the width of the glacier reaches 1.5 versts, and here it gradually turns into several snow fields, separated from each other by prominent rocky ridges. There are no median moraines on Karagom, but the marginal moraines are very large. The right moraine is especially beautiful, consisting of white crushed stone and in the form of a shaft, 60 fathoms high, bordering a bluish glacier. The left moraine is also very high, but has a dark color.
On Karagom you can admire the unusually delicate color and purity of the ice. Nowhere in the Caucasus have I seen such beautiful cracks and such transparent ice as here. The lowermost part of the glacier, tapering wedge-shaped, has a fairly flat surface; it is followed by a part crossed by many transverse cracks, then again more even and gentle, and, finally, an endless labyrinth of abysses that stretch continuously through most of the glacier and all the firn fields to the very tops of the ridge. Approximately half the length of this glacier, two lateral branches adjoin it.
The lower end of Karagom forms a deep recess with an ice grotto in the middle. The Karagom River bursts out of this grotto with a deafening noise.
In the upper reaches of the mentioned river there is also a fairly large glacier. Locals call it Fastak-chete. It lies between Bartu and Karagom. This glacier is 4 versts long and quite significant in width. The road from Digoria to Rachinsky district of Kutaisi province passes through it. It ends very shallowly and imperceptibly, since its lower part is completely littered with stones and rubble. Three side branches are attached to the main part of Fastak-chete: one on the right side and two on the left. The river flowing from under this glacier then meets the Karagom ice on its way and, having washed a tunnel through it, goes under the ice.
Adai-Khokh, which represents the junction where the Main and Lateral Caucasus ranges intersect, is rich in glaciers. They descend from it to the north side West Skatycomsky And East Skatycomsky glaciers of very significant size, and to the east - very large Tseysky glacier. In addition, many smaller glaciers descend from Adai-khokh and its spurs.
The most remarkable of all these glaciers is Tseysky, described in some detail by M. Dechy. After Karagom and Tetnuld, it descends below all the glaciers of the Caucasus, precisely to 6575 ft., and has a very significant value. Its length together with the firn fields is 7 versts; at the bottom it is quite narrow, then it widens noticeably and soon reaches a mile in width; further, at an altitude of 2511 m, the walls of the valley in which it moves move closer to each other, through which the glacier again noticeably narrows. In addition, the gorge forms a threshold here, as a result of which the entire mass of the glacier turns into a whole labyrinth of cracks, ice teeth and pyramids. Behind this place again stretches a fairly flat part of the glacier, about two miles wide, then a second icefall, and soon after it a third, crossing the glacier in its entire width and presenting unimaginable chaos. Behind it the firn fields begin, feeding the glacier. They are separated along several ridges of rocks protruding from snow and ice. Above these fields, which make up the beginning of the glacier, rise still high wild rocks, the tops of which are also covered with snow and ice. In several places there are hanging firn-glaciers on them, heading towards the main one - Tseysky. Even further behind these rocks rises a slender, high peak, forked at the top. This is the peak of Adai-khokha.
The Tsey glacier is unusually beautiful, as evidenced by a photograph taken by M. Dechy and attached to his article in the Alpine Journal for 1885. I visited this glacier in 1878. At that time, huge heaps of stones were piled up slightly below its end and rubble that made up the terminal moraines; the glacier was then in a period of decline. It ended in a rather steep ledge, in the middle of which there was a huge and unusually beautiful ice grotto with winding arches, consisting of beautiful blue-green ice and several fathoms high. It was clearly visible even 10 miles from the glacier from a small village located in the Tsey Valley.
To the south of Tseysky, another medium-sized glacier descends to the Tsey valley. It does not reach the Tsey Valley and ends on a steep slope. Deshi calls it the glacier Rekom, since the river flowing from under it flows into Tseya opposite the famous prayer house Rekom. The position of the ancient moraines of this glacier shows that it once descended much lower and connected with Tseysky. Its width at the bottom, according to Deshi, is about 300 m, and slightly higher it reaches half a kilometer.
Eight more or less significant glaciers of Kazbek have already been mentioned. Of these, the most famous, however, not at all for its size, is the Devdoraki glacier. It originates from a vast, about two miles wide, snow field located north of the peak of Kazbek and at an altitude of 12,500 ft. above sea level.
The glacier is made up of three branches that have a common beginning and are separated from each other by ridges of rocks protruding from the snow. The largest of the branches lies to the north of the others, its average width is 150 fathoms and its length is about a mile; the next few are narrower and shorter, and the third is comparatively very small. In addition to these main branches, which begin in the area of eternal snow and consist of more or less pure ice, the glacier is joined by four branches that begin on the right slope of the Devdoraki Gorge. They are much smaller than the previous ones, consist of snow and are formed from avalanches that roll down from the slopes of the Devdoraki Gorge in winter. Sometimes (for example, in 1886 and 1887) some of them did not even reach the glacier. Strictly speaking, they cannot be considered its branches.
From the three branches mentioned earlier, one main part is formed, which stretches almost straight from west to east along the Devdoraki Gorge. Its greatest width is 180 fathoms, the smallest at its tip is 88 fathoms; The thickness of the ice at the end of the glacier is also 30 fathoms, and the length of this entire part is more than 800 fathoms, counting according to the horizontal projection, but in reality it is much more. At this distance from the lower end the glacier splits into two uppermost branches and turns at an obtuse angle to the southwest. The entire length of the glacier without snow fields will therefore be 3 versts. From here you can see how small it is in comparison with Bizingi, Karagom and many other glaciers of the Caucasus.
The glacier's moraines consist mainly of black trachyte and dark slate; in addition, beautiful greenish-colored siliceous breccia is often found in them; pieces of quartz, various crystalline schists, etc. are less common.
Surface Devdoraki glacier terribly cool. In the space of the last two miles it has a drop of 800 pounds. a mile, or almost 23°, and in its upper parts it becomes even steeper, reaching 50°, and in one place an even greater value. Due to such steepness, this glacier is classified by some researchers, such as Abikh, Khatisyan, as a glacier of the 2nd category, while others (Statkovsky, Favre), taking into account the fact that it does not hang on the mountainside, but lies in the deep gorge, classify it as 1st category.
This glacier ends, according to G.S. Khatisyan, at an altitude of 7580 ft. above sea level and five miles from the Georgian Military Road.
The entire lower part of the glacier is completely hidden under piles of stone and rubble, and ice is visible here only on the steepest slopes, where neither stone nor rubble can hold. Its surface looks like a series of waves with rounded crests, and between them many fast streams flow in deep ditches with ice walls.
The lowest part of the glacier ends in a rather long, narrow and terribly steep tongue. Stones are constantly falling down from it, so it is unsafe to approach its base. A little higher up, the glacier is more or less accessible, and here you can quite easily cross from one side to the other; As for the middle and upper parts, they are completely impassable and represent an endless labyrinth of abysses, holes and cracks. In this place there are continuous icefalls where it is impossible to take a single step.
The Devdoraki River, or Amilishka, flowing from this glacier rushes with terrible speed in deep, steep banks. Its size is so significant that it is quite difficult to ford it. It does not carry water, but some kind of mud, and when it flows into the Terek, it makes it terribly muddy. The water of Devdoraki acquires this property due to the fact that the glacier, during its movement, carries away whole piles of black trachyte and dark slate, crushes and grinds them into powder, and in the same way scratches and polishes the bottom and slopes of its bed, which consists mainly of black trachyta, and the resulting sand, crushed stone and dirt get into the water and make it so cloudy, opaque and dirty.
About two versts from the lower end of the glacier a river flows into Amilishka. Chach flowing from Chachuya glacier, lying north of Devdoraki. The Kabakha River, resulting from the confluence of the two mentioned, flows for a distance of a little more than 2.5 miles and finally flows into the Terek. Its gorge is also very deep, rocky and more or less winding; The steepness of its slopes in some places reaches 70° or even more. The river itself has an average drop of 9° (before the confluence with the Terek it is 7.3° and up to 14°). At a distance of 1350 fathoms this gorge has a drop of 250 fathoms. This speaks most eloquently of what the course of Amilishka and Kabakha should be.
Back in the early 60s, local residents unanimously asserted that ten years ago this glacier descended much lower and was much larger in width and height. The testimony of the mountaineers was fully confirmed at that time, notes G.S. Khatisyan, by the position of still fresh moraines that lay 10 fathoms above the surface of the glacier. Traces of terminal moraines could not be found at that time and, of course, only because they could not survive for a long time in such a steep and narrow gorge. As for those huge moraine deposits that lie at the very end of the Kabakha valley and rise above the level of the Terek with a sheer wall of almost 50 fathoms in height, they belong to the formations of long-past eras, that is, to the time of the Ice Age.
There is hardly any need to talk in detail about the rubble of the Devdoraki glacier in this article, since quite a lot has already been written on this subject; in the same way, it would be possible to critically analyze all this material only in an article specifically devoted to the Devdoraki glacier and its rubble. For those who are not at all familiar with this terrible phenomenon, I will speak about it in the most general terms.
The greatest of the blockages occurred in the following years: in 1776, 1785, 1808,1817 and 1832. In addition, in 1842 and 1855. There were two smaller blockages that did not reach the Georgian Military Road.
The collapse on June 18, 1776 was very large and blocked the Terek for three days, and then, when it broke through the ice dam, many villages were flooded with water. Even those that were at an altitude of 250 feet were subject to such flooding. above the Terek level.
On June 20, 1808, a huge blockage also fell into the Terek valley and blocked it for two whole hours. After this, “a strong thrust of water, gradually eroding this icy mass, opened the way for its passage, and therefore tore it apart, and the Terek flowed along the gorge in terrible waves.” This blockage was probably smaller than the previous one, since it blocked the Terek for only two hours.
Almost no information has been preserved about the collapse of 1817. It occurred in October, its height reached 50 fathoms, and the flow of the Terek was stopped for almost a day.
There is much more information about the collapse of 1832, which, however, does not make it possible to form a proper concept about it. It fell at 4 a.m. on August 13 and blocked the Terek between Gulety and the Daryal post for more than two miles, also stopping its flow for 8 hours and completely stopping communication along the Georgian Military Road. The mass of ice that fell on the road was more than 40 fathoms in height and the same in width, which, with a length of 2 versts, amounted to a volume of more than 16 million cubic meters. fathoms. This, however, does not exhaust the entire mass of ice that fell from the mountain, since a significant part of it should, without a doubt, linger in the rocky, winding Devdoraki gorge. The ice, hitting the rocky right bank of the Terek with force, became so compact that when laying the road it had to be torn up in many places with gunpowder. On the road it completely melted away only two years later, precisely in August 1834, but it continued to lie on its sides for a long time. Dubois de Montpere, driving here in 1834, saw on both sides of the road mighty walls of ice mixed with stones and cobblestones, which, as the ice melted, fell onto the road and could easily kill and crush the passerby. This rubble melted completely only five years after its fall.
In 1842 there was a new blockage. Local residents warned of its approach back in August. At the end of November, the ice had already reached the place from which the rubble of previous times had broken off. The water in the river flowing from under the glacier became very muddy and often stopped flowing; the noise and crackling of the ice was heard almost continuously, and the hunters could not get through the places where they had walked before; On November 28, the ice had already passed that part of the gorge from which it had fallen earlier, and stopped four miles from the Georgian Military Road. Residents were surprised at its stop, which had never happened before, they attributed it to pestilence, but they were expecting a blockage from hour to hour; Therefore, they drove their cattle from the gorge and did not themselves go through the places where the blockage was supposed to occur. The ice continued to crack, and sounds like cannon shots were heard continuously. The size of the shifted part of the ice was, according to local residents, twice as large as in 1832. At the end of December, the blockage moved forward significantly and the part that broke away from it dammed the river, as a result of which a lake formed between this part and the blockage itself, from which water flowed with sides and top of the ice. Winter found the blockage in this position, and the residents were convinced that it would not be moved until spring.
In the Collection of Information on the Rubble, we find a number of reports for June and July 1843, which convey that no visible changes are taking place in this rubble. What follows is a series of reports of similar content, covering the period from February to August 6, 1844. From the indicated time to October 30, almost no changes occurred in the rubble. This ends our information about him. Without a doubt, he gradually melted away there.
In 1855, almost the same story repeated itself. Residents of Gulet warned that the time of blockage was approaching, and soon the ice actually rolled down the gorge 50 fathoms; by July 11, the dam had descended by 320 fathoms. A number of reports showed that the blockage had not moved forward until October 19, 1855. He probably melted in the same place.
It is still unknown what is the real reason for the fall of the Devdoraki glacier; but there are several more or less probable hypotheses to explain this remarkable phenomenon. According to Mr. Khatisyan, the main reason for the collapse is a strong temporary increase in the size of the glacier in length, width and thickness; according to Mr. Statkovsky, the main role here is played by water accumulating somewhere in the gorge due to its blocking with ice.
According to E. Favre, Mr. Khatisyan’s assumption is indirectly confirmed by similar phenomena that happened more than once in Tyrol with the Rofen-Vernagt glacier, which is strikingly similar to the Devdoraki glacier. This glacier grows greatly from time to time and produces great devastation, one after another in 70-80 years. In 1667, Rofen-Vernagt, says Favre, moved forward by 1200 m (almost 4 thousand ft.) in 90 days, and at the same time adds that the increase in the Devdoraki glacier can also be independent of the increase or decrease in the glaciers surrounding it, as this happened with Rofen-Vernagt, and that such a strong increase in the glacier is not necessary to produce the Kazbek collapse. Finally, from the fact that the mountaineers noticed a strong increase in the glacier only a few weeks before the collapse, one must, in the opinion of E. Favre, assume that it happened extremely quickly.
The formation of the blockage, according to Mr. Khatisyan, is also facilitated by the following circumstance. In those years when the glacier noticeably increases in size, it strongly presses against the rocks that make up its left bank, rises up and moves here, as measurements have shown, much faster than on the right side. Encountering an insurmountable obstacle from the mentioned rocks, it turns to the right and here, unrestrained by anything, collapses.
That the Devdoraki glacier at times increases quite significantly is evident from the following: from 1873 to August 1875, its end moved forward by 23 fathoms, and by May 1876 by another 7 fathoms; at the same time it also increased in width and thickness. Its lengthening compared to 1864 was equal to 118 fathoms. From October 1876 to April 1877, he moved forward another 11 fathoms.
The essence of another hypothesis is as follows: “Let us imagine,” says Mr. Statkovsky, “that a series of several such years may occur in which, for whatever meteorological reasons, the tip of the glacier began to constantly move forward; it is easy to foresee that the glacier, encountering an obstacle to its forward movement, will break off; from these fragments, due to the property of ice, quickly fusing one with the other, a continuous ice dam is formed, which, having reached a considerable height and blocking the path of the Amilishka river, forms a lake. This lake, growing more and more, will finally burst the dam with the pressure of its waters, and then the entire mass of accumulated water, together with fragments of the dam and part of the tip of the glacier raised by the water, will rush down the ravine. This mass, moving with incredible speed along a narrow and winding ravine, will tear up its banks, which consist along its entire length, especially on its right side, of ancient moraines, and thus the Terek will be dammed at the mouth of the Devdoraki gorge with a mass of stones, mud and ice , as it was in 1832."
According to Mr. Statkovsky, a disaster must occur every time the glacier reaches that part of the street where it narrows greatly, thanks to a protruding cape, and cannot step over this narrowed place.
“Thus,” says Mr. Statkovsky, “the blockage is nothing more than a huge ravine removal, called in the Tatar provinces of Transcaucasia - mudflow, and in the Alps - Nant sauvage.”
Elsewhere, the same author says that the Kazbek stone-ice blockage cannot occur from an arbitrary rupture of ice, cut by deep cracks and not forming a continuous mass, and that this ice, encountering an obstacle to movement in a small slope and unevenness of the bed, as well as in the tortuosity and crampedness of the Devdoraki Gorge, they cannot receive movement either from gravity or from any pushes from above. The reader can get acquainted with further details of this hypothesis in the articles of the author himself, published in the Collection of information about the rubble (Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Geographical Society. Book 7; Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Russian Technical Society. Vol. 9).
This hypothesis seems extremely incredible to me. The Swiss geologist Favre, who personally examined the Devdoraki glacier, has almost the same opinion about it. He says that he does not know of a single outfall in the Alps that is as significant in this regard as the Devdoraki dam, and that the devastation produced by the Getroz and Rofen-Vernagt glaciers, with which Mr. Statkovsky compares the Devdoraki dam, is not at all similar to it, because they have different origin. They are formed as a result of the glacier blocking another valley lying on the side of the glacial one and connecting with it. Barrage occurs when the end of the glacier descends below the junction of both valleys. Favre further says that in a narrow and deep valley, which cannot be closed by a glacier moving into it from a neighboring side valley, the flow of water cannot be allowed to be stopped. Indeed, one cannot but agree with this. Favre also does not allow the river to be dammed by avalanches falling from the side slopes of the gorge.
In the climatology of the Caucasus, Mr. Statkovsky speaks somewhat differently about the cause of the rubble. Here are his words: “The blockage occurs because the glacier, approaching the narrow corridor of the Amilishki River, encounters an obstacle to its spread in it, climbs the mountain, forms an ice mountain up to 100 fathoms high, which closes the source to the waters both originating from its melting and and rain, until finally this dam breaks, and then this mass of ice along with water rushes with extraordinary speed along the steep gorge of the stream, breaking off its rocks, and, reaching the Terek, which has a perpendicular direction to it, dams the river with ice, stones and dirt."
This much more probable assumption is very similar to the explanation of the causes of the collapse proposed by E. Favre.
The true cause of the blockages would be easy to find out if we had accurate information about the phenomena that preceded the blockages and accompanied them; in fact, neither from the Collection of Information nor from other sources we learn anything like this, instead we often read that the authorities of the Georgian Military Road, in the face of the expected danger, send either the Gulets Tsogol or other mountaineers to inspect the glacier, but do not dare to go there. The exception is only 2-3 cases when the glacier, although from afar, was inspected by officials along the road. For this reason, we do not know exactly even the most important thing, which part of the glacier breaks off, that is, we do not know for sure whether only its lower end is falling, or perhaps the ice that lies much higher is collapsing. There are very incomplete and confusing instructions on this matter, but they cannot be given decisive importance. In the same way, we don’t know at all what the Devdoraki or Kabakha valley looks like after the collapse, that is, we don’t know what the glacier is like at that time, whether there is ice left in the valley and if it remains, then how much there is; we don’t know whether the blockage moved along the narrow gap where the river flows, or along the more spacious, right side of the gorge, etc. Meanwhile, it would be enough for one intelligent person to look at the gorge immediately after the blockage to answer dozens of unresolved questions no guesses, hypotheses or assumptions.
Hopes to obtain more or less accurate information by questioning the natives were unsuccessful. From the interesting article by A. Viskovatov, which anyone interested in this matter can be advised to read, it is clear how little he could learn about the rubble from the Gulets, who lived 5-6 miles from the glacier, and how confusing and contradictory their testimony was
Academician Abikh says: “If someone in Tiflis approached me with a question, why do we, with all our commissions with their maps and plans, still not know whether the Devdoraki glacier will fall or not, and if it falls, then when? I would answer him: there can be no harvest where there was no sowing. If we now had at hand, over the past period, a series of consistent and comparative observations and studies carried out systematically and methodically on the laws of development of the Kazbek glaciers in their entirety and especially the Devdoraki glacier, then the answer to this question would not, perhaps, present any difficulties.” .
According to G.S. Khatisyan, the danger of rubble has not passed. They can easily be repeated as soon as the period of decrease in the Caucasian glaciers, which has been going on for 30 or 40 years, is replaced by a period of their increase. This opinion seems more than probable to me. If blockages have become less frequent in the last half century, then this, according to G.S. Khatisyan, should be attributed to the fact that the glacier over time expands its channel more and more and it is no longer so quickly filled with ice to a certain height necessary for the formation of collapse.
Although on the southern slope of the Caucasus the snow line descends significantly lower than on the northern slope, nevertheless, the southern slope is generally much poorer in glaciers; In addition, there is not a single huge glacier on it like the Dykh-su, Bizingi or Karagom glaciers. If we exclude the upper reaches of the Ingur, that is, Svaneti, then there will not be a single large glacier left on the southern slope; There are two medium-sized glaciers in the upper reaches of the Rion, but on the rest of the southern slope there are glaciers of the 2nd category, and only small glaciers of the first category. The reason for this seemingly strange phenomenon must be attributed, firstly, to the relatively high temperature of the southern slope, which accelerates the melting of glaciers, and secondly, to the difference in the orographic character of both slopes of the Main Caucasus Range. The development of glaciers, notes E. Favre, is more influenced by the amount of snow accumulating on the mountains than by the height of the snow line; Therefore, glaciers should reach greater size where there are extensive basins or cirques filled with snow, extensive snow fields and where the main mountain ranges are located. In this regard, the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus is much more favorable for the formation of glaciers than the southern one. In fact, nowhere on the southern slope are there such deep gorges, surrounded by such high ridges, as the Dykh-su, Adila gorge or the upper part of the Chereka-Takho gorge, where the Bizingi glacier lies; further, on the southern slope, valleys or gorges that are highly branched in their upper parts, such as the valleys of Baksan, Balkar Cherek or Urukh, are less common. The main peaks of the Caucasus, such as Elbrus, Dykh-tau, Kazbek, covered with huge snow fields, also belong to the northern slope. For this reason, on the southern slope there are nowhere such vast and gently sloping snow fields as on Elbrus or near Dykh-Tau. Finally, the southern slope is generally much steeper than the northern, so it is dominated by hanging glaciers of lower grades, and some large ones (Adysh, Tsanner), although they descend low, still have a relatively shorter length. Due to all these reasons, the glaciers of the northern slope descend, as E. Favre notes, on average, 1400-1600 m (4600-5250 ft.) below the snow line and resemble the Alpine ones in size, while the glaciers of the southern slope end only at 800- 1000 m (2600-3300 ft.) from the snow line.
Let us now say a few words about the most significant glaciers on the southern slope. In the upper reaches of the Zophetura, a tributary of the Rion on the left side, there is a glacier of the 1st category, descending quite deeply into the valley (approximately up to 6800 or 7 thousand feet above sea level). In comparison with the large glaciers of the northern slope, it is only medium in size. Its lower end is not particularly steep and is littered with piles of stones, “completely hiding the ice underneath. This glacier is formed from two branches. Its relatively long and narrow eastern branch is very steep and, due to the many cracks scattered along its entire length, has an extremely wild appearance. Its eastern outskirts, adjacent to the lateral moraine, are especially distinguished by this character. This branch begins almost from the very crest of the ridge. The western branch is surrounded by very high rocks and at the bottom is quite flat, from the junction of both branches an ice stream is formed a mile and a half long and in the upper part about. half a verst wide; at the bottom it narrows significantly. From the two lateral moraines of the mentioned branches, one rather large middle moraine is also formed, visible several miles from the glacier. It stretches almost to the end of the glacier and, moreover, closer to the western side of it. It is quite flat, has a clean, more or less flat surface and few cracks. Only during the last 60 fathoms it descends relatively steeply. All glacier moraines consist mainly of granite and slate. Another similar glacier is located in the upper reaches of the Cheshura River, which also flows into the Rion. It is approximately equal in size to the previous one and together with it belongs to the largest glaciers in the upper reaches of the Rion.
The glaciers of Svaneti reach a significantly larger size. The most remarkable of them, according to E. Favre, are those that descend from the eastern side of Adysh, then the glaciers Kilda And Zanner.
All of them belong to the glaciers (glacier d'eculement) gradually descending into deep valleys. One glacier, Uzhba, should also be counted among them.
Adysh Glacier, or Lerha, says E. Favre, represents a majestic ice cascade, strongly reminiscent of the Rhone glacier, while Tetnuld itself, which feeds this glacier, is very similar in its majestic appearance to Mont Blanc. We read the same thing in Deshi. From the east, this glacier is surrounded by a wall of rocks belonging to Mount Adysh, while on its western side the snowy heights of Tetnuld rise.
The beginning of Adysh is located on the very crest of the Main Ridge and, according to Deshi, represents an icefall the likes of which are not found anywhere in the Alps. The lower part of Adysh expands in the form of a fan and ends, according to Favre, at an altitude of 2186 m (7170 ft.), and according to Deshi, at an altitude of 7455 ft. On the right side of the glacier, near a rocky slope, lies a large moraine, while on the left side its shale piles are covered with dense vegetation.
Truiber belongs to the most remarkable of the glaciers of the southern slope. Below the glacier, the Mulhara gorge is very narrow, littered with huge masses of ancient moraines, and a river flows along its bottom, all covered with foam; but where the glacier begins, the gorge immediately widens and gives it a spacious room. It ends, according to Deshi, at an altitude of 7 thousand feet. and in its size strongly resembles the greatest of the glaciers of the Alps.
From the top of the Main Ridge it appears as a majestic icy river calmly descending into a deep gorge. On its sides, on the side parts of the mountains, there are many more smaller glaciers; some of them reach the Main Point, while others end much higher. At the top, Truiber splits into two large branches; Its moraines form huge masses of stones, and from the two lateral moraines of the mentioned branches, one is also of enormous size - the middle one, which then merges with the left lateral moraine. A beautiful view of this glacier also opens from the ridge between the Muzhal and Adysh rivers.
Zanner, or Tetnuld, descends from the western slope of Tetnuld into the valley of one of the sources of Mulhara. This is a huge glacier, also formed through the connection of two side branches. It descends significantly below the forest line and ends, according to E. Favre, at an altitude of 2014 m, or 6606 ft., above sea level and only two miles from the village of Dzhabeh. Previously, it ended even lower, precisely at an altitude of 6410 ft.
Everything that has been said in this article can be summarized as follows: in terms of their general character, the Caucasus Mountains occupy the middle between the mountains of Central Asia and Central Europe, with the eastern half of the Caucasus approaching the mountains of Asia, and the western half approaching the mountains of Europe. The main Caucasian ridge is 1,420 versts long, and for only about 300 versts its ridge is covered with eternal snow. In the west they begin from Oshten and, with significant interruptions, stretch to the upper reaches of Marukh; between this point and Adai-khokh they are almost uninterrupted on the crest of the ridge. To the east of the Georgian Military Road, the Main Ridge is devoid of snow for about 300 versts, and even further east, between Begul and Baba-Dag (80 versts in length), eternal snow again appears on its ridge. The side ridge, intersecting with the Main Ridge at Mount Adai-Khokh, is also covered with eternal snow over an area of 273 versts; the largest masses of it accumulate on the Svaneti, Pirikitel and Bogos ridges and on the Shah-Dag group. In the Lesser Caucasus, only Ararat and Alagyoz are covered with significant masses of snow.
We also encounter the first glaciers in the Western Caucasus in Oshten. Between Oshten and the sources of Marukha there are few glaciers and their sizes are small. Marukhsky is the first large glacier on the western side.
The largest glaciers are located on the Main Ridge between Elbrus and Adai-Khokh inclusive. East of Adai-Khokh and to the Caspian Sea there are almost no glaciers on the Main Ridge. On the Side Ridge the number and size of glaciers is much less than on the Main Ridge and its buttresses. The largest glaciers of the Main Range are concentrated not on Elbrus and Kazbek, but in Bizingi, Balkaria and Digoria. On the southern slope, large glaciers are located in Svaneti, and medium-sized glaciers are in the upper reaches. Riona. The side ridge has glaciers on the Kazbek, Pirikitelsky, Bogossky ridges, on Shah-Dag and in some other places. In the South of the Caucasus, glaciers exist on Ararat and Alagöz.
In the western half of the Caucasus, much less snow falls than in the eastern half, so the snow line goes down much lower. On Oshten its height is about 8,900 feet, and Shakh-Dag (80 versts from the Caspian Sea) is more than 12,500 feet, and even higher it lies on Ararat (from 13 to 14 thousand feet. On the southern slope in general it is located 1000 or 1500 ft. lower than in the north. Thus, the height of the snow line in the Caucasus fluctuates within about 5 thousand ft. In terms of the height of the snow line, the Western Caucasus approaches the Alps, and the Eastern Caucasus more or less resembles the mountains of Central Asia.
Only one glacier in the Caucasus, namely Karagom, descends below 6 thousand meters. above sea level and at least five glaciers descend below 7 thousand feet.
The glaciers of Digoria, then Svaneti, Ossetia and the Nalchik district of the Terek region descend below the others. The largest glacier in the Caucasus is Bi-zingi (about 17 versts long), followed by: Dykh-su and Karagom glaciers (both about 14-15 versts with snow fields), Tseysky, Agshtan, Tana, etc.
In terms of the number or size of glaciers, the Caucasus is much inferior to the Karakoram, the Himalayas and the Scandinavian mountains, significantly inferior to the Alps, but much superior to other mountains of Europe and Asia. On the northern slope of the Caucasus there are at least 70 glaciers of the 1st category and several hundred of the second. The size of the surface of the largest glaciers of the Caucasus is not inferior or almost inferior to the surface of the largest glaciers of the Alps (Aletsch, Gorner, Nizhneaarsky, etc.).
The size of glaciers in the Caucasus, like those in other countries, changes periodically. At the end of the 1840s. The glaciers of the Caucasus increased, and some of them even entered ancient forests. In the 1860s. a reverse process was noticed, which continued throughout the 1870s and 1880s. The increase and decrease in time of the Caucasian glaciers probably coincides more or less with the same phenomena in the Alps.
Glaciers of the Ice Age left a lot of traces in the Caucasus. These glaciers descended to approximately 2 thousand ft. above sea level, reached the plains, but did not extend to these latter. Thus, in this respect, the Caucasus occupies the middle between the mountains of Central Europe and Central Asia, where the glaciers probably did not descend below 5 thousand pounds.
Notes of the Caucasian Department of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Tiflis, 1892. Book. 14. Vol. 1.
Altai is the highest part of the Altai-Sayan mountain system. It consists of many mountain ranges and massifs up to 3000–4000 m high, on which numerous mountain glaciers are located. Peaks topped with snow caps are called “squirrels” here. The climate of Altai is determined by three main factors: its position in the temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere, the dominance of the western transport of air masses and the influence in winter of a powerful Asian anticyclone with partly cloudy frosty weather.
Cyclones coming from the Atlantic sharply intensify upon contact with the mountains and, under the influence of mountainous terrain, change the direction of movement from east to northeast. At the same time, the wind increases, the wind intensifies and heavy precipitation falls, mainly in the form of snow in the high mountain zone. As they move eastward, the air masses dry out, and on the eastern and southern outskirts of Altai the amount sharply decreases.
In Quaternary times, Altai experienced powerful glaciation, traces of which are well preserved in the form of glacial sculptural forms in the mountains and moraine deposits in the valleys. The main feature of the relief is a combination of extensive leveling surfaces and alpine-type high-mountain relief with sharp ridges, deep steep slopes, often merging into vast multi-chamber circuses, with valleys transformed into troughs.
Over the territory of the Altai mountainous country, glaciers are distributed very unevenly, which is associated with the height, dissection and orientation of mountain ranges relative to the main direction of moisture transfer. The vast majority of Altai glaciers have an exposure with a northern component, which is determined both by the conditions and conditions of snow accumulation, and by insolation features. According to the degree and regime of modern glaciation within the Altai Mountains, three regions are distinguished: Central, Southern and Eastern. In each of them there are more or less isolated centers of glaciation. The Central Altai includes the highest ridges - Katunsky, North Chuysky and South Chuysky with spurs extending from them. Most of the Altai glaciers are concentrated on these ridges. The glaciation areas in these areas are 283.1, 177.7 and 222.8 km2, respectively. Central Altai is characterized by alpine-type glaciation with a predominance of valley and cirque-valley glaciers. The largest glaciation site is the Belukha mountain massif (4506 m). A “constellation” of large valley glaciers descends from Mount Belukha and its spurs: Big and Small Berelsky, Katunsky, Sapozhnikov, Rodzevich, Tronov Brothers. To the west and east of the Belukha mountain massif, the heights of the Katunsky ridge and its spurs decrease, glaciation becomes more dispersed, and the predominance of typical valley glaciers passes to cirque-valley and cirque glaciers.
Kamchatka ranks first in the subarctic zone of Russia in terms of glaciation area: 405 glaciers with a total area of 874 km2. Perhaps the area of glaciation is more significant, since many glaciers are covered with products of volcanic eruptions and are poorly recognized on aerial and satellite images. Kamchatka is located in mid-latitudes (its northern part is at latitude , and its southern part is at latitude Saratov), but the climate is much more severe and intense cyclonic activity. This is an area of subarctic maritime climate. Precipitation comes here from the Pacific Ocean. in the mountains, at altitudes above 1500 m, established in September. The main areas of glaciation are located on the Sredinny and Eastern ridges, separated by the vast Kamchatka depression, occupied by the Kamchatka River valley. Glaciation in these areas is approximately the same in area, but differs in morphological features and glacier regime. In the northern part of the Sredinny Range there are quite large nodes of cirque-valley glaciation. Its main centers are concentrated on the extinct volcanoes of the Sredinny Range and on the active volcanoes of South-Eastern Kamchatka. Volcanic forms of glaciation are developed there - glaciers of volcanic cones, often existing in combination with crater and caldera glaciers, as well as with Barrancos glaciers.
There are many high volcanoes in the southeast of Kamchatka, most of which are active. This area is closer to the main source of moisture that feeds the glaciers. Glaciation here is also associated with high absolute heights of volcanic cones. In active areas, the existence and regime of glaciers depend not only on climate and topography, but also on volcanic activity. Craters, calderas, and explosive circuses are good containers for the accumulation of snow and ice, but the glaciers that occupy these niches can be partially or completely destroyed during volcanic eruptions. On the Klyuchevskaya Sopka volcano, the highest on the planet, during quiet periods between eruptions the peak is covered with an ice cap, the lower edge of which is controlled by climatic conditions. During periods of volcanic activity, the ice cap is destroyed, but the glacier does not completely disappear; it encircles the volcanic cone in the form of a ring, limited by ice-free surfaces at an altitude of 2400 to 3500 m. From the lower edge of this ring, ice tongues descend along the slopes of the volcano to 1200–1300 m. The glacial mass has a layered structure: layers of ice alternate with layers of ash and other products of volcanic eruptions. The surface of the glaciers of the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes, like others, is covered over large areas with pyroclastic material, the thickness of the layer of which increases so much towards the ends of the glaciers that surface melting practically stops and the ends of the glaciers turn into areas of buried dead ice. At Klyuchevskaya Sopka, side craters are formed on its slopes with lava flows pouring out of them, which with their heat affect the glaciers located there. The influx of heat causes an increase in melt water in the ice column, which, in turn, leads to the movement of the glacier and an increase in its area. The result of the interaction of volcanoes with glaciers and snow cover are powerful mud-pyroclastic flows - lahars, spreading down the valley for several tens of kilometers. Lahars can be both hot and cold, and sometimes they destroy glaciers or parts of them.
Over the past 60–70 years, the area of glaciation in the Klyuchevsky massif has increased by 5%. During the same period, glaciation in other (non-volcanic) areas of Kamchatka decreased in accordance with changing climatic conditions.
The Greater Caucasus is the Caucasus mountain system. Its length is more than 1100 km, width up to 180 km. In its axial part rise the Main Caucasus, or Watershed Range and, located to the north, the Side Range, on which the highest peak of the Caucasus and the highest point of Russia are located - Mount Elbrus - 5642 m.
Moist air masses brought by southwestern and western air currents and cyclones serve as the main sources of precipitation on the ridges of the Greater Caucasus. The mountains here receive from 750 to 3000 mm of solid precipitation per year. The greatest amount of them falls on the southwestern slopes and gradually decreases to the northeast. As altitude increases, more and more of the precipitation falls in solid form, providing food for glaciers along with blown snow. with altitude it decreases by an average of 0.6°C for every 100 m of rise. In the glacial zone of the Greater Caucasus there is often cloudy weather, more cloudiness in the winter-spring months and less in the summer-autumn months. Due to the high transparency of the atmosphere in the mountains, the influx of direct solar radiation is very high, especially on glaciers.
In total, there are 2050 glaciers in the Greater Caucasus, with a total area of 1424 km2. There are more glaciers on the northern slope than on the southern slope, and they occupy more than twice the area there. Small glaciers predominate in number, with an area of less than 1.1 km2 each, accounting for 85% of the total number of glaciers and 40% of the glaciated area. Glacial complexes and almost all large complex valley glaciers are located in the Central Caucasus. More than three-quarters of the entire glaciated area of the Caucasus is concentrated there: 1,123 glaciers with a total area of 1,037 km2. In the Western Caucasus, due to the low altitude of the mountains (on average 2800 - 3000 m), modern glaciation is small. There are 567 glaciers with a total area of 278 km2. There are almost three times more glaciers on the northern slope of the Western Caucasus than on the southern slope. Glaciation in the Eastern Caucasus, despite the fact that it is higher than the Western Caucasus, is even less significant due to the drier climate: 360 glaciers with a total area of 109 km2. Of these, 332 glaciers with an area of 101 km2 are located on the northern slope.
The Elbrus glacier complex is the largest massif of modern glaciation in the Caucasus. Its basis is a firn-ice cap with a diameter of about 10 km, which covers the double-headed peak of the volcano and feeds the glacial streams radiating from it. They end with outlet glaciers, which look like ordinary valley glaciers, sometimes hanging glaciers. Most of them are characterized by a peculiar shape: narrow at the top, they expand within the relatively flat volcanic base, and descending along its steep slopes to the surrounding valleys, they take on the appearance of narrow glacial tongues. Ice divisions in the area of glacier feeding are often unclear, and in some places it is possible for ice to flow from one glacier to another. The longitudinal profiles of glaciers are steep in the upper and lower parts, and flat in the middle. On the steep bends of the slopes from the volcanic plateau to the valleys there are many icefalls with an abundance of cracks and seracs. In some places, the sources of the glacier and the tongue, located in a deep valley, are separated by areas of exposed rock, and in this case the tongue is fed by snow avalanches and ice collapses. The thickness of Elbrus glaciers is small, from 50 to 100 m. On the eastern side the ice is almost twice as thin as on the rest of the complex, where feeding conditions are better. Currently, some glaciers, and there are quite a lot of them, are shrinking at varying rates, others are in a stationary state, and others are advancing. Elbrus glaciers feed the rivers: Kuban, Malka and Baksan.
According to the results of instrumental surveys carried out in 1887–1890, 1957–1959, 1979 and 1997, the glaciation area of Elbrus was 145.7 km2, 132.5 km2, 127.8 km2 and 124.9 km2, respectively. This indicates the uniformity of its decrease since the end of the 19th century. and almost throughout the 20th century. The average annual rate at which the glaciation area is decreasing is 1.9 km2 per year. The largest reductions in both area and volume are observed in the southeastern part. The average decrease in surface height is 14 m, the maximum is 60–80 m on the frontal parts of the tongues. In the northwestern part, on the contrary, glaciation increases in size. The maximum increase in the frontal part of the Ulluchiran glacier is 40 m. Firn accumulation for 1957–1997. 20–40 m thick was also noted on the southwestern slope of Elbrus in the area of accumulation of the Bolshoi Azau glacier. The average change in surface height of the entire Elbrus glacial system for the specified period is 5.4 m.
East of Elbrus, on the northern slope of the Main Caucasus Range and its spurs, forming the basins of the Chegem, Cherek and Urukh rivers, there are many large complex valley glaciers. Among them, the largest in the Caucasus is the Bezengi glacier. Its length is 17.6 km, area 36.2 km2. A significant share of its nutrition comes from avalanches from the Bezengi wall. The lower 5 km of the glacial tongue are covered with moraine. From 1888 to 1966 its end has retreated more than 1 km.
The Kazbek-Dzhimaraya glacier complex is the second largest after Elbrus, its area is 70.6 km2. Precipitation here is distributed unevenly: snow from convex relief forms is blown away by strong winds into depressions. Therefore, on the glaciers occupying cirques and cirques, snow accumulates by about 40% more than precipitation falls. Avalanches play a significant role in feeding valley and cirque glaciers. Of particular interest here are glaciers, which periodically advance rapidly, causing catastrophic mudflows and floods. This is the Devdoraki glacier, which became famous at the end of the 18th century. in connection with catastrophic blockages on the Georgian Military Road, and the Kolka glacier, the last catastrophic movement of which occurred in September 2002.
The Kolka Glacier is the most unusual pulsating glacier in the Caucasus, located on the northern slope of Mount Kazbek, in the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania.
It is known for its repeated movements at intervals of about 70 years (in 1835, 1902 and 1969). In 1902, a catastrophic ice outburst occurred, it covered the bottom of the valley with ice and stones for 8 miles and killed many people and thousands of livestock. In 1969–1970 in three months the tongue advanced 4 km, without catastrophic consequences. The last movement of the Kolka glacier occurred on September 20, 2002 and caused a catastrophe on a large scale. The glacier completely left its circus; a gigantic mass of ice, water and stones rolled along the valley of the Genaldon River with a terrible roar, destroying everything in its path, tearing off forest and loose sediments on the slopes to a height of 100 m from the bottom of the valley. It was stopped by the entrance to the narrow gorge of the Rocky Ridge, and further down the valleys of the Genaldon and Gizeldon rivers a water-mud mudflow with ice fragments passed, causing destruction for another 12 km. The entire bottom of the Karmadon Basin was under a pile of ice and stones about 4 km long and up to 100 m thick. A dammed lake arose in a side valley near the village of Staraya Saniba, the level of which rose over the course of a month, and the volume of water in the lake reached 5 million m3.
The ice-rock avalanche was prepared by a large accumulation of water in and under the Kolka glacier. This played a major role in the loss of stability of the glacier, in its separation from the bed and ejection. The abundance of water was caused by a sharp rise in summer air temperatures and an increase in annual precipitation in the several years before the disaster. In the years before the last movement of the glacier, the volcanic activity of Kazbek intensified, which apparently caused additional melting at the bottom of the glacier, new stresses and destruction in the glacial body. The tectonic structure of the region plays an important role in the movements of the pulsating Kolka glacier: the glacier valley is located in a zone of large faults, where displacements of individual blocks and frequent earthquakes are possible.
I would be grateful if you share this article on social networks:
The area of glaciers in Russia is about 60 thousand km 2. These are mainly the cover glaciers of Novaya Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and other islands of the Arctic Ocean. Only about 5% of the total area is covered by mountain glaciers of the Caucasus, Altai, Kamchatka and other mountain systems.
The bulk of Russia's glaciers are concentrated on the Arctic islands and mountainous regions. Mountain glaciers are common in temperate latitudes. They begin to form well below the climatic snow line. The climatic snow limit is considered as “level 365” (G.K. Tushinsky), at which snow lies on an unshaded horizontal surface all 365 days a year. Due to different slope exposures and blizzard redistribution of snow, glaciers in the mountains begin to appear at the “220–260 level.” The difference between the climatic and real snow limit is usually measured in hundreds of meters, but in some places it exceeds 1500 m (Kamchatka - 1650 m). The largest mountain glaciers in area are located in the Caucasus (over 1400; however, their area rarely exceeds 30 km 2 and their length is 10 km), in Kamchatka, Altai, in the northern and northeastern parts of Siberia.
The largest ice sheet in Russia is located on the Severny Island of Novaya Zemlya. Its length is 340 km with a width of 70 km (according to other sources - 400 km in length and up to 75 km in width); The area of the ice sheet is about 20,000 km2. The edge of the shield is partially afloat, so it is difficult to accurately determine the coastline of the Arctic islands. The average thickness of ice in the ice sheets ranges from 100 m on Franz Josef Land to 300 m on Novaya Zemlya. In some places (Novaya Zemlya) there are valley and cirque glaciers of the Alpine type.
About 5 million km 2 of Russian territory are areas with permafrost (permafrost), where ice dams are formed as a result of groundwater reaching the surface.
The glaciers contain 39,890 km 3 of fresh water, approximately 110 km 3 is formed annually. They contain large reserves of fresh water; they are the most important sources of nutrition for many rivers in arid regions. The main area of modern glaciation (56,970 km2) falls on the islands of the Russian sector of the Arctic. The volume of ice in Arctic glaciers in terms of water is about 16,500 km 3, which is almost four times the annual flow of Russian rivers. The feeding limit of Arctic glaciers lies low, at an altitude of 200–700 m. Cover glaciation predominates in the form of ice sheets and domes with outlet glaciers.
Toll Glacier is divided into two branches: eastern and western, or left and right. The western branch has a length of two kilometers. The eastern branch stretches for 3.9 kilometers. The height of the glacier reaches 2441 meters. In the western part the glacier is heavily eroded by sediments. The Tolla glacier is located in close proximity to two rivers: Tsaregradka and Lyunkide.
Smirnov Glacier(named in honor of the scientific mineralogist S. S. Smirnov) stretches for three kilometers. This is a glacier with small cracks. Its peculiarity is red spots in the ice. In some places on the glacier there are rocks up to 250 meters high. It has the Kaunas pass.
Glacier Double Satostobustsky under the influence of positive temperatures, it formed two glaciers: the left and right Satostobust glaciers. The left glacier is 3.5 kilometers long and its area reaches 2.6 square kilometers. There are three passes on it: Volga, Kapugina and Ural. The right glacier stretches 3.2 kilometers in length. The area of the glacier is 2 square kilometers. On this glacier there are the Zalgiris and Satostobustskiy passes.
Looks like a horseshoe. The glacier is also called Egelyakh glacier. It stretches for 5 kilometers. The width of the glacier is 1.5 kilometers. There are cracks at the top of the glacier. The glacier is steep – up to 20–23 degrees. The Omsky and Zenit passes are located on the glacier. The southern part of the glacier is rocks.
Atlasov Glacier – This is a glacier with steep slopes. The top of the glacier at the Sovetskaya Yakutia pass reaches 2885 meters. In the south of the glacier there is the Kazansky pass. This glacier has no cracks .
Tsaregradsky Glacier located near the Tsaregradka River. It stretches 8.9 kilometers in length. The total area of glaciation is 12 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is 3030 meters. The lowest point of the glacier is at an altitude of 1600 meters.
Very close to the Tsaregradsky glacier is located Oyunsky glacier. The Oyunsky glacier was named after the Yakut writer P. A. Oyunsky. The glacier is forked in its northern part, two kilometers from the center of the glacier. There are many cracks on the glacier. Some of them are up to 1.5 kilometers. There are rock formations on the slopes of the glacier. Sometimes there is a rockfall here. Stones can fly from a height of 3029 meters.
Schneiderov Glacier It is not located in a very wide gorge. It stretches 3–4 thousand meters in length. There are a lot of rocks on the glacier. Some slopes of the glacier are steep – up to 25 degrees. On the slopes of the glacier the steepness drops to 13 degrees. There are several passes on the glacier: Avangard, Slavutich, Krasnoyarsk passes and Surprise 2 pass.
Selishchev Glacier has a length of 5.1 kilometers. At the very bottom the glacier is heavily cluttered with stones. There is a step on the glacier at an altitude of 1.5 kilometers (an open, flat space). There are four passes on the glacier: Moskovsky, Oyunsky, the Omsk Tourists Club Pass and the Murmansk Pass.
Obruchev Glacier.
The glacier is located next to the Lyunkide River and stretches for 8.6 kilometers. The total area of ice masses is 7.6 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is the peak - 3140 meters. The glacier is quite steep to climb - 20 degrees on the left side of the glacier. On the right side the glacier is not so steep - 10 degrees. There are passes on the glacier: Leningradsky, Kyuretersky and Kazansky. The northern part of the glacier has steep slopes (up to 40 degrees).
Sumgin Glacier the length is 6.8 kilometers, the total area of the glacier is 37 square kilometers. The highest point of the glacier is a snow-rock cover at an altitude of 3140. The lowest altitude is 1500 meters, there is more rock here. This glacier borders the Obruchev glacier. Almost everywhere on the glacier the elevation is 20 degrees.
Isakov Glacier stretches for 2.5 kilometers. The glacier is divided by two bends. The left bend is not very steep - it is 20 degrees. The right bend is steeper - 35–40 degrees. On the glacier there is the UPI pass and the Blue Bird pass. Next to the glacier there is a spring - Scout, which forms a small lake only in the warm season.
Schmidt Glacier, named after the scientist O. Yu. Schmidt, stretches for 2 kilometers. The glacier's steepness varies from 10 to 30 degrees. The glacier is divided in the north into two parts. In one part there is the Podarok pass. In the other - Chernivtsi and Kuvaev pass.
Glaciation on the islands of the Russian sector of the Arctic
On the Arctic islands there is mainly cover glaciation: ice sheets and domes with outlet glaciers. The thickness of the ice sheets of the Arctic islands reaches 100–300 m. The most extensive ice sheet is on the North Island Novaya Zemlya(Arkhangelsk region). The length of the glacier here is 400 km, and its greatest width reaches 90 km. The total area of glaciation on Novaya Zemlya is about 24 thousand km 2, of which 20 thousand km 2 are in Severny.
Glaciation of the Urals
Climatic and orographic features contribute to the development of small forms of modern glaciation in the Polar and Subpolar Urals, between 68° and 64° N latitude. There are about 140 glaciers here. Their total area is about 30 km2. The main morphological types of glaciers are: carts(⅔ of the total) and slope, There are also hanging And carovo-valley glaciers. The largest are the glaciers of IGAN (Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences) and Moscow State University on the western border of the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. The area of distribution of modern glaciation is the highest part of the Urals.
Glaciation of the Caucasus
Caucasus – the largest center of mountain glaciation within Russia. There are more than 2,000 glaciers in the Russian Caucasus; the total area of glaciation is more than 1400 km 2. The relief of the Caucasus is favorable for the development of glaciation. Almost three-quarters of the glaciers in the Caucasus are small glaciers with an area of less than 1 km2. Among them prevail hanging on mountain slopes and in the bottoms of carts, or circuses. The greatest glaciation is in the Central Caucasus, on the northern slope. Valley glaciers predominate here. The peaks of the extinct volcanoes Kazbek and Elbrus are covered with ice caps. The largest massif of modern glaciation in the Caucasus is the Elbrus ice complex (area 122.6 km 2). On the double-headed Elbrus there is a firn-ice cap with a diameter of about 10 km.
Glaciation of Northern and Northeastern Siberia
On the Taimyr Peninsula, in the north of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, in Byrranga mountains is the northernmost region of continental glaciation in Russia. Within the highest, northeastern part of the mountains, more than 90 small glaciers with a total area of 30 km 2 were discovered, the largest being the Unexpected glacier (4.3 km 2). Valley glaciers predominate; there are cirque, hanging, and slope glaciers. IN Chersky mountain system scattered and isolated centers of modern glaciation have a total area of slightly more than 150 km 2. The USSR Glacier Catalog names 372 glaciers here. Most of them, and the largest ones, are concentrated in the central part of the mountain system, in the Buordakh massif, in the northeast of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The largest glacier, Obrucheva, has an area of 7.6 km2.
Glaciation of Southern Siberia
Altai– the largest area of terrestrial glaciation in southern Siberia. In total, there are 1,500 glaciers in Altai with a total area of more than 900 km 2. The largest centers of glaciation in Altai are the Katunsky ridge (about 400 glaciers with a total area of 280 km2), the South Chuya ridge (240; 220 km2), the North Chuya ridge (200; 180 km2), the Kara-Alakhinsky ridge (25; 220 km2). 12.5 km 2). The Big Taldurinsky glacier, located within the South Chuya ridge, is the largest (28 km 2) glacier in Altai. A large glaciation center, already within the Katunsky Range, is on the Belukha Mountain massif. Several large valley glaciers descend from it.
In the Sayan Mountains the total area of glaciation is about 33 km 2, small cirque glaciers predominate. In the Western Sayan, 52 very small glaciers with a total area of just over 2 km² were discovered, and within the Eastern Sayan - 107 glaciers (30 km 2). Only 4 glaciers have an area of more than 1 km2, the largest (Avgevich glacier in the southwestern part of the Republic of Buryatia) reaches 1.4 km2.
Glaciation of the Baikal region and Transbaikalia
The bulk of the glaciers of the Baikal region and Transbaikalia, in addition to the scattering of small glaciers of the Baikal (on the border of the Irkutsk region and the Republic of Buryatia) and Barguzinsky ridges (Republic of Buryatia), are confined to the Kodar ridge, which is in the north of the Transbaikal region. Currently, within the range. About 40 glaciers with a total area of about 20 km 2 are known in Kodar. These are mainly cirque glaciers, there are also cirque-valley glaciers, saddlebags and near-slope, lying below the climatic boundary of the snow line.
Glaciation of the Far East
Within Koryak Highlands(Chukchi Autonomous Okrug and Kamchatka Territory) glaciers are scattered over a large area; the main glacial area is in the northeast. More than 1,330 glaciers with a total area of about 300 km2 have been discovered here, among them cirque glaciers predominate (80% of the total number and 50% of the area), but there are also cirque-valley, valley and complex valley glaciers. Within the Yanranai, Yakanu and Koryaksky (Mainopilginsky mountain cluster) ranges there is the most powerful of the centers of modern glaciation in the north-east of Russia. The feeding boundary of glaciers in the Koryak Highlands runs everywhere below the climatic snow line.
On Kamchatka Peninsula About 450 glaciers with a total area of 900 km 2 were taken into account. More than 80% of glaciation is confined to the Sredinny Range (more than 240 glaciers, about 470 km 2) and the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes (about 50 glaciers, a little more than 270 km 2).
The Caucasus occupies the isthmus between the Black and Caspian seas. It is located in the south of the USSR (38°25" - 47°15" N and 36°37" - 50°22" E). The axial part of this isthmus is occupied by the Greater Caucasus mountain system, rising in the form of a jagged wall that protects Transcaucasia from the influence of northern cold air flows coming from the Russian Plain. The northern border of the Caucasus is drawn along the Kuma-Manych depression, which in Quaternary times was a strait connecting the Caspian Sea with the Sea of Azov. The recent existence of a sea strait on the site of the Kuma-Manych lowland is evidenced by mollusk shells found on the terraces of this strait.( Cardium edule), whose habitat is the Caspian Sea. The southern border of the Caucasus follows the state border of the USSR and is located along the river.
Akhuryan, and then along a large natural boundary - the erosion-tectonic valley of the river. Araks. From the lower reaches of the river. The Araks border runs along the crest of the Talysh ridge and goes to the coast of the Caspian Sea at the Astara point. The area of the Caucasus is about 440 thousand. The Araks border runs along the crest of the Talysh ridge and goes to the coast of the Caspian Sea at the Astara point. km 2, Of these, 250 thousand are in the North Caucasus.
and in Transcaucasia - 190 thousand.
km 2.
Orography. The Caucasus is divided into the following orographic units: 1) Ciscaucasia;
2) Greater Caucasus; 3) the plains of Transcaucasia, 4) the Lesser Caucasus and 5) the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands.. I Ciscaucasia - a foothill plain, in the middle part of which the Stavropol Upland is located, dividing the Ciscaucasia into Western and Eastern. Western Ciscaucasia (Prikubanskaya, or Priazovskaya, lowland) is a flat, monotonous plain with a slight slope to the west. The heights of the plain do not exceed 50 m.
Eastern Ciscaucasia,
or Kumo-Tersk lowland, is a continuation of the Caspian lowland. - a foothill plain, in the middle part of which the Stavropol Upland is located, dividing the Ciscaucasia into Western and Eastern. Western Ciscaucasia (Prikubanskaya, or Priazovskaya, lowland) is a flat, monotonous plain with a slight slope to the west. The heights of the plain do not exceed 50 A significant part of the surface of the Eastern Ciscaucasia, lying below ocean level, is a sea plain and therefore is almost not dissected by erosion. The climate here is so dry that most rivers do not reach the Caspian Sea. The Stavropol Upland reaches 600-800
It is deeply dissected by erosion, but its western, eastern and northern slopes gradually merge with the surrounding Kuban and Caspian lowlands, and only the southern slope, washed away by the Kuban River, has. pronounced ledge. II Greater Caucasus consists of several ridges that make up one mountain system. The width of this system is different in different parts: on the meridian of Novorossiysk, the Greater Caucasus reaches a width of 32 km; on the Elbrus meridian the greatest expansion is observed, reaching 180 km, and on the Ordzhonikidze meridian - 110 km, km. On the meridian of Dagestan, the Greater Caucasus has a width of 160 The axial part of the Greater Caucasus is formed by the Main Caucasian, or Watershed, ridge. North of the Main Caucasian Ridge, parallel to it, at a distance of 10-15 km from its axial part, the Side Range is located, reaching greater heights than the Main Caucasian Range. It contains Elbrus, Kazbek and about ten peaks with a height of more than 5000 km m km(Dykh-Tau, Koshtan-Tau, etc.).Further north there are three lower asymmetrical ridges (cuestas): Rocky Ridge, reaching an altitude of 3300
, Pasture - 1500
When considering the orographic structure of the northern and southern slopes of the Caucasus, one can note large differences in it. The northern slope has a longitudinal dissection and consists of a number of ridges parallel to the axial part of the Main Caucasus Range, the southern slope has a transverse, rather pinnate, dissection, since the ridges extend from it at an acute angle.
Along the center line of the Main Caucasus Range, the following five parts are distinguished (from west to east):
1) from the city of Anapa to the top of Mount Fisht - Medium-altitude mountains (forested Black Sea Caucasus). This section of the Caucasus reaches a height of 600 in the Novorossiysk region m, and in the Tuapse area - 900 - a foothill plain, in the middle part of which the Stavropol Upland is located, dividing the Ciscaucasia into Western and Eastern. Western Ciscaucasia (Prikubanskaya, or Priazovskaya, lowland) is a flat, monotonous plain with a slight slope to the west. The heights of the plain do not exceed 50 It is crossed by the railway from Armavir to Tuapse in small tunnels under the Goytkh Pass (334m);
2) from the top of Mount Fisht to the Elbrus meridian (5633 m) The Abkhazian Alps are located, having distinct alpine landforms. The highest point of this section of the ridge - Dombay-Ulgen - reaches 4047 m, and the passes lie at an altitude of approximately 2800 - a foothill plain, in the middle part of which the Stavropol Upland is located, dividing the Ciscaucasia into Western and Eastern. Western Ciscaucasia (Prikubanskaya, or Priazovskaya, lowland) is a flat, monotonous plain with a slight slope to the west. The heights of the plain do not exceed 50 Height of the Klukhor Pass - 2786 - a foothill plain, in the middle part of which the Stavropol Upland is located, dividing the Ciscaucasia into Western and Eastern. Western Ciscaucasia (Prikubanskaya, or Priazovskaya, lowland) is a flat, monotonous plain with a slight slope to the west. The heights of the plain do not exceed 50 Through this pass, back in the last century, Russian military units built one of the three important strategic roads at that time - the Sukhumi Military Road. Within this segment, the ridge reaches such a great height that on its slopes there are glaciers up to 4-5 meters long.km;
3) from the Elbrus meridian to the Kazbek meridian lies the Central Caucasus, reaching altitudes of 5000 km and more. This jagged mountain range, covered with snow and large glaciers, has many peaks rising above 5000 m. The high mountainous part of the Caucasus is crossed by the Ossetian Military Road, passing through the Mamisson Pass and connecting Alagir with the city of Kutaisi, and the Georgian Military Road, passing through the Cross Pass and connecting the city of Ordzhonikidze with Tbilisi. The remaining passes are suitable only for pack or walking summer movement from one slope to another. In winter, communication along the Military-Ossetian road stops, and along the Military-Gruzinskaya road occurs with frequent interruptions due to snow drifts and avalanches;
4) from the Kazbek meridian to the peak of Babadag there is a segment that resembles the Abkhaz Alps in its marks, but with a less pronounced alpine relief and with less development of glaciation. This area includes the Alazani and Samur Alps and is called the high-mountain Eastern Caucasus. Here the northern slope widens significantly;
5) from the top of Babadag to the river. Sumgayit is surrounded by medium-high mountains, and due to the continental climate, they are treeless.
A review of the orographic division of the axial part of the Greater Caucasus in the longitudinal direction allows us to point out the symmetry in the structure of the ridge: medium-altitude mountains are located along its edges, and the central part is adjacent to mountain ranges that are less high than the central, high-mountain part.
In addition to this division, the Greater Caucasus is very often divided into the Western Caucasus, which includes the Mid-Altitude Black Sea Caucasus and the Abkhaz Alps, the Central Caucasus and the Eastern Caucasus, including the Alazani and Samur Alps, as well as the Mid-Altitude Mountains of the Eastern Caucasus.
All existing schemes for subdividing the Greater Caucasus into orographic units were compared and analyzed in detail by N. A. Gvozdetsky.. III Plains of Transcaucasia.
To the south of the Greater Caucasus, two lowlands are located in the form of huge triangles: the Rio, or Colchis, and Kura-Araks, separated by the Suram ridge. km; The Rioni, or Colchis, lowland occupies the lower reaches of the river. Rioni from the mouth (Poti) to Kutaisi; in the north the lowland reaches the city of Sukhumi, and in the south - to the city of Kobuleti (north of Batumi). From west to east its width is about 100 km, and the length reaches 160 km The lowland is a vast plain lying within the altitude range from 0 to 50
above sea level. km The Kura-Araks lowland is located east of the Suram ridge. Its eastern part lies significantly below sea level. The highest parts (50-75 On the meridian of Dagestan, the Greater Caucasus has a width of 160 above sea level) are in the west.The orographic continuation of the Kura-Araks lowland is the Lenkoran, or Talysh, lowland, stretching in the form of a narrow coastal strip 100
at the eastern foot of the Talysh ridge; the width of the lowland varies from 5 to 30. km. IV
Lesser Caucasus.. The Rioni and Kura-Araks lowlands separate the system of the Lesser Caucasus mountains from the Greater Caucasus, which are the marginal ridges of the Armenian Highlands, and the Suram ridge is a connecting link between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus. The arc of the Lesser Caucasus ridges, which has a highly dissected erosional relief, consists of: Adzhar-Imereti, Trialeti, Somkhet, Shahdag, Ginaldag, Murovdag, Karabakh and other ridges. km VJavakheti-Armenian Highlands
is located south of the Lesser Caucasus and has an average altitude of about 1500 km, and systems of basins, the bottoms of which are located at different heights: for example, the Lori steppe -
1450 km, Leninakan Basin - 1500 m, Yerevan Basin - 920 m, Karabakh Highlands - 2600 - a foothill plain, in the middle part of which the Stavropol Upland is located, dividing the Ciscaucasia into Western and Eastern. Western Ciscaucasia (Prikubanskaya, or Priazovskaya, lowland) is a flat, monotonous plain with a slight slope to the west. The heights of the plain do not exceed 50 The relief of the highlands is dominated by volcanic cones formed during fissure eruptions.
Geological structure. 2) Greater Caucasus; 3) the plains of Transcaucasia, 4) the Lesser Caucasus and 5) the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands.The Caucasus consists of a complex system of folds of different ages, with a northwestern strike. The folds are broken by longitudinal breaks into separate blocks of the same direction. K. N. Paffengolts (1959) identifies the following structural complexes within the boundaries of the Caucasus accepted by us: All existing schemes for subdividing the Greater Caucasus into orographic units were compared and analyzed in detail by N. A. Gvozdetsky.. at the eastern foot of the Talysh ridge; the width of the lowland varies from 5 to 30Ciscaucasia (foredeep of the Middle Paleozoic time, currently the Epihercynian platform). P. Greater Caucasus (anticlinorium). Lesser Caucasus..
2) Greater Caucasus; 3) the plains of Transcaucasia, 4) the Lesser Caucasus and 5) the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands.Rioni-Kura depression (intermountain trough).
. km, Lesser Caucasus (anticlinorium).
It is deeply dissected by erosion, but its western, eastern and northern slopes gradually merge with the surrounding Kuban and Caspian lowlands, and only the southern slope, washed away by the Kuban River, has.
The Greater Caucasus is a complex folded mega-anticlinal structure that experienced a geosynclinal regime during the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Lower Paleogene.
The role of the geological structure of the Greater Caucasus in the formation of modern relief is very pronounced. This is especially noticeable when comparing the geological map of the Greater Caucasus with the hypsometric one.
The mid-altitude mountains of the Western and Eastern Caucasus correspond to outcrops of Cretaceous and Paleogene strata, the high-mountainous Caucasus - outcrops of Precambrian strata, the Rocky Range - Jurassic deposits, the Pastbishchny Range - Cretaceous, and the Lesisty Range - Paleogene deposits.
The following tectonic zones are distinguished in the Greater Caucasus: 7) Central uplift of the Main Range (eastern and western parts), 8)
block-folded zone of the Northern slope of the Main Range, 9) zone of northern Dagestan, 10) Southern slope of the Main Range, 11) Kakheti-Nukha-Vandam zone, 12) zone of subsidence of the western part of the Main Range and 13) zone of subsidence of the eastern part of the Main Range.
Let us dwell on a brief description of the selected zones:
7) The western part of the Central Uplift of the Main Range is composed of crystalline schists of the Lower Paleozoic and Precambrian and partially slate schists of the Liassic. Anticlinal folds coincide with the maximum uplift of the Main Range. The folds of the Lower Jurassic deposits are overturned to the south;
the eastern part of the central uplift of the Main Range (from the Daryal gorge in the Terek River valley to the east) represents a strip of development of symmetrical folds of Lower and Middle Jurassic sand-shale strata;
8) a block-fold zone separates the central part of the Main Range from the North Caucasus monocline. The zone is composed of Middle and Upper Paleozoic deposits and is characterized by intense block movements and penetration of ultrabasic magma along deep faults; the zone of the eastern part of the northern slope of the Main Range, composed of folds of the Upper Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene, is located in central Dagestan and separates the central part of the Main Range from northern Dagestan, or the Dagestan Klin;
10) The Rachinsko-Trialetsky zone is composed of Lower and Middle Jurassic clayey-sandy deposits and Upper Jurassic Lower Cretaceous flysch strata. The folds are isoclinal, overturned to the south; the western part of the folded system of the southern slope (Abkhazian, Svaneti and Sukhumi-Dushetian) is composed of thick Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, collected in folds with a large number of breaks;
11) The Kakheti-Nukha-Vandam zone is characterized by intense dislocation of Cretaceous, Upper Jurassic and Lower Paleogene deposits, the folds of which are overturned to the south;
12) the subsidence zone of the western part of the Main Range is located to the west of the extreme outcrops of granites of the Main Range. It is composed of the Mesozoic from the Lower Jurassic inclusive to the Upper Cretaceous. The deposits are represented by a large thickness of flysch, collected in steep anticlines and synclines with discontinuities and thrusts;
13) the subsidence zone of the eastern part of the Main Range, the western border of which is drawn along the contact of Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, is composed of carbonate-flysch strata, forming long narrow anticlines overturned to the south.
On the Absheron Peninsula, the total thickness of Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments reaches 12-13 km, which indicates the geosynclinal nature of this zone.
All existing schemes for subdividing the Greater Caucasus into orographic units were compared and analyzed in detail by N. A. Gvozdetsky..
The Riono-Kura depression separates the folded structures of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and represents an intermountain trough filled with a thick layer of Meso-Cenozoic sediments lying on an ancient hard substrate (block), which protrudes in the crystalline Dzirula massif, composed of pre-Paleozoic crystalline rocks, schists, gneisses and phyllites
The southern border of the Rioni-Kura depression runs approximately through the cities of Notanebi (a point on the Black Sea coast north of Batumi), Samtredia, Borjomi, Tbilisi, Kirovabad, Agdam, Lankaran. The folds of the Greater Caucasus are thrust onto the northern border of the depression, and conditionally the northern border can be drawn through the cities: Sochi, Oni, Dusheti, Sighnaghi, Shemakha, Kilazi.
In the Rioni-Kura depression, K. N. Paffengoltz identifies five zones (14, 15, 16, 17, 18);
15) Dzirula zone - the most elevated part of the Georgian block, where a crystalline basement emerges on the surface;
16) The molasse zone is composed of thick strata of conglomerates, sandstones, and clays that accumulated in the regional intermountain depression, within the Tirinon and Mukhrani valleys and between the Kakheti and Adzhar-Trialeti ridges. The rigidity of the substrate of the Molasse zone is proven by the thrust of the folded systems of the southern slope and folds of the Adzhar-Trialeti ridge onto it;
17) The Sagarejo-Shirak-Ajinaur zone is the northwestern part of the Azerbaijan block. The zone is composed of Upper Paleogene And Miopliocene shallow-water sediments. At shallow depths there are protrusions of hard substrate; K.N. Paffengolts believes that the entire Sagarejo-Shirak-Ajinaur zone belongs to the Georgian block;
18) Kura depression.
at the eastern foot of the Talysh ridge; the width of the lowland varies from 5 to 30Crystalline basement rocks approach the surface of the Kura Basin close to the surface.
. km, The Lesser Caucasus represents a complex anticlinorium, including six zones (19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24):
19) The Adzhar-Trialeti zone is located latitudinally from the Black Sea coast to the middle reaches of the river. Iori. The zone is composed of sedimentary strata from the Upper Cretaceous to the Oligocene inclusive and reaches a total thickness of 7-8
It consists of highly compressed folds of limestone, flysch, and volcanic-sedimentary strata. The folds are overturned to the north, on the Georgian block, and to the south, on the Artinsky-Somkheti block;
20) The Somkhet-Ganja-Karabakh zone is characterized by calm gentle folding. In the north, the zone borders on the Kura depression, and in the south on the Armenian tectonic zone.
23) Talysh zone - a direct continuation of the Lesser Caucasus - a large anticlinorium consisting of volcanogenic tertiary deposits;
24) The Nakhichevan zone is composed of Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic strata, represented by carbonate dacites and volcanic-sedimentary deposits of the Eocene and Oligocene. Large thrusts of Carboniferous limestones onto Lower Eocene deposits are observed (Village of Yaidzhi).
Lesser Caucasus..
Depression of the middle reaches of the river. Araks (25) belongs to the northern edge of the Anatolian-Iranian intermountain trough. Tectonically, this is a large graben. History of geological development.
In Precambrian times, a sea basin was located on the site of the Caucasus; this can be proven by the fact that Precambrian rocks are represented by gneisses and crystalline schists that arose from sedimentary rocks. The geosynclinal regime was replaced by the Caledonian orogeny, accompanied by the intrusion of igneous rocks. On the meridian of Dagestan, the Greater Caucasus has a width of 160 Cambrian deposits in the Caucasus were found in the river basin. Malki and in the Dzirula massif.
Silurian strata are represented by phyllites and limestones. The first orogenic (Ancient Caledonian) phase in the Caucasus dates back to the end of the Lower or the beginning of the Upper Silurian. In the Devonian, thick strata of conglomerates, volcanic rocks and sandstones were deposited. These strata, found in the area of the Front Range for 160
, indicate that at the site of the Front Range there was a depression into which debris was carried from the land located to the north of the depression (K.N. Paffengolts). During the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, geosynclinal sediments (sandstones, shales, conglomerates and limestones) accumulated, and in Pre-Visean time, gray biotite granites were intruded. Sediments of the Middle and Upper Carboniferous (sandstones, shales with interlayers of coal) lie with sharp angular unconformity on rocks of the Lower Paleozoic, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, which indicates large movements of the Sudeten phase of folding.
At the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, the Greater and Lesser Caucasus experienced a major ancient Cimmerian orogenic phase, which is confirmed by the fact that the Liassic lies unconformably on Precambrian crystalline rocks. The Cimmerian Caucasus reached very high altitudes.
K. N. Paffengoltz points out that the zone of greatest uplift of all folds and tectonic elements of the ancient Cimmerian orogeny coincided mainly with the Main Range of the Greater Caucasus and the Sevan zone of the Lesser Caucasus.
In the Lias, the Greater and Lesser Caucasus sank and at this time the outpouring of lavas and the appearance of porphyrites and quartz porphyries were observed in the Prikazbek region, North Ossetia, Digoria, Cherek and in the basins of the Malka and Kuban rivers. In the Middle and Upper Jurassic, folding was observed in the Caucasian geosyncline. During the Cretaceous period, marine carbonate sediments continued to accumulate in the Caucasus. In the Paleogene, in place of the Greater Caucasus, an island land arose, which was covered with tropical vegetation (Poltava flora). This land continued to rise gradually. In the Neogene, the geoanticlines of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus continued to rise, remaining islands. At this time, endemic flora and fauna were created in the Caucasus.
Thanks to uplifts in the Neogene, the Greater Caucasus was connected with Transcaucasia and Western Asia.
By the end of the Neogene, leveled surfaces and wide valleys arose in the Greater Caucasus and the Transcaucasian Plateau. Volcanism was widespread on the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands. Due to the cooling of the climate, representatives of the Poltava flora were replaced by deciduous tree species. During the Quaternary, continued uplift and erosion gave rise to the deeply dissected modern topography. Volcanism was widespread in the Javakheti-Armenian Plateau in Quaternary times. In the Greater Caucasus, lava outpourings on Elbrus and Kazbek occurred even in the Holocene.
Of great importance in shaping the climate of the Caucasus is its geographical location on the border of two latitude zones - temperate and subtropical - and between two vast bodies of water - the Black and Caspian seas. Due to the position of the Caucasus at low latitudes, the annual radiation balance of the northern regions of the Caucasus reaches 40 kcal/cm 2,
i.e., the same size as in the southernmost regions of Central Asia. Transcaucasia is the only region of the European part of the USSR where the radiation balance in winter is positive. In the summer, the radiation balance approaches the balance values in tropical latitudes, as a result of which the transformation of air masses into tropical ones occurs here.
Features of the circulation of air masses in the summer season are the displacement of subtropical areas of high pressure and the removal of tropical air from them!
Iran and Asia Minor.
In winter, the passage of Mediterranean cyclones is observed, bringing heavy rainfall to the Western Caucasus. km The northern slopes of the Caucasus and Ciscaucasia, in relation to the circulation of air masses, are under the predominant influence of northern and northeastern air flows that form over the flat part of the European territory of the USSR.
Relief plays a very large, and in some areas decisive, role in climate.
The climatic zoning of the Caucasus is closely related to the varying degrees of influence of all the climate-forming factors considered. We will point out the climate features of the regions, without dwelling on the digital characteristics, since we give all climatic indicators in regional physical and geographical characteristics.
2) Greater Caucasus; 3) the plains of Transcaucasia, 4) the Lesser Caucasus and 5) the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands.. Ciscaucasia. The climate of the western part of Ciscaucasia is humid with warm summers and moderately mild winters, and the climate of the eastern part belongs to the zone of insufficient moisture with very warm summers and moderately mild winters (M. I. Budyko). In the foothills of the Caucasus (up to altitudes of 1000 m)
Winter is cloudy with fog and frequent ice and frost.
Within the Ciscaucasia, the following climatic regions should be distinguished: 1. Western Ciscaucasia (Azov and Kuban steppes) has a warm, moderate continental climate, determined by both large amounts of radiation and the heterogeneous influence of cold, northern and warm, southwestern air currents. The Black and Azov Seas moderate the climate: in the coastal zone it is the most humid and is characterized by the smallest annual temperature amplitudes compared to other regions of the Ciscaucasia. m, 2. The Stavropol Upland is characterized by a more continental climate compared to the climate of Western Ciscaucasia: continental air, which forms over the southern part of the Russian Plain, prevails here, determining the average temperature level in both the winter and summer seasons. The negative temperatures of the winter months contribute to the preservation of snow cover in the Stavropol region. The amount of precipitation in the region decreases to the east.3. In terms of climatic characteristics, the Eastern Ciscaucasia occupies a middle position between the Stavropol region and the semi-deserts of the Caspian lowland. The role of cold continental air in winter and dry heated air masses in summer is very great; The temperature regime is characterized by an increase in annual amplitudes, mainly due to an increase in summer temperatures. Precipitation decreases to the northeast to 300
at the same time, for the Eastern Ciscaucasia the evaporation rate is more than 1000 mm. 4. The foothills, covered with deciduous forests, are characterized by a milder and more humid climate compared to the areas adjacent to them from the north. The amount of precipitation as the height of the mountains increases in the western part to 700-1200 mm,
It is deeply dissected by erosion, but its western, eastern and northern slopes gradually merge with the surrounding Kuban and Caspian lowlands, and only the southern slope, washed away by the Kuban River, has.
High mountain Caucasus. The climate of the high-mountain zone of the Greater Caucasus, which belongs to the zone of excess moisture (M. I. Budyko), is formed under the influence of westerly currents of the free atmosphere and is characterized by a general increase in precipitation and a decrease in air temperature with height.
The western part of the high mountain zone has fairly uniform moisture throughout the year and an insignificant winter maximum precipitation, while the eastern part of the high mountain zone is characterized by the predominance of summer precipitation. In this zone, depending on the degree of moisture, two climatic subregions are distinguished: the western - humid - and the eastern - drier (B.P. Alisov). km Vertical climatic zonation is manifested very clearly in the highlands of the Caucasus. In the lower zone of the Greater Caucasus, starting from an altitude of 600 km and ending with a height of up to 2000 km, there is a zone of moderately cold climate of the Western European type with relatively warm, snowy winters and cool summers. From about 2000 altitude km and up to 3000-3500
The climate zone of alpine meadows is located. The climate of this zone is cold with short and cool summers. A long, snowy winter is accompanied by snow drifts and avalanches. There are a lot of snowfields here in the summer. From about 3000 altitude m km(in the west) and 3500
All existing schemes for subdividing the Greater Caucasus into orographic units were compared and analyzed in detail by N. A. Gvozdetsky.(in the east) there is a climate of eternal snow. This is a belt of development of firn and ice fields.
.
Western Transcaucasia (Black Sea coast, Colchis lowland, southern foothills of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus). This area is characterized by a humid subtropical climate. The northern border of the subtropical zone runs along the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. Winter here is very warm, and the amount of precipitation is the highest compared to all other regions of the USSR. The climate here is humid with very warm summers and mild winters.
at the eastern foot of the Talysh ridge; the width of the lowland varies from 5 to 30.
Eastern Transcaucasia. The Kura Lowland has a dry subtropical climate, characterized by less warm than in the Colchis Lowland and drier winters and hot summers. Western air currents, crossing the Suramsky ridge, experience subsidence, heat up adiabatically and do not produce precipitation.
Most of the Eastern Transcaucasia lies, according to M.I. Budyko, in a zone of insufficient moisture, and the lower reaches of the river. Kura and the Caspian Sea coast are located in a dry climate zone.. The orographic continuation of the Kura Lowland is the Lenkoran Lowland, the climate of which differs sharply from the dry climate of the lower reaches of the river. Kuri and has the climate features of the Colchis Lowland, te
Lesser Caucasus..
humid subtropics. The amount of precipitation in the Lenkoran lowland increases sharply as air rises along the slopes of the Talysh ridge.
The maximum precipitation falls here, in contrast to the Colchis Lowland, in the fall. . Javakheti-Armenian Highlands. The climate of the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands is largely determined by the characteristics of its orography. The marginal ridges protect the highlands from wet winds; in addition, intermountain basins have a significant influence, which warm up strongly in the summer, and in winter cold air accumulates in them, as a result of which the characteristic features of the highland climate appear: low cloudiness and dryness. Armenia is largely a treeless area with a sharply continental climate. The Araks border runs along the crest of the Talysh ridge and goes to the coast of the Caspian Sea at the Astara point. Depression of the middle reaches of the river. The Araks and Yerevan basin have a dry climate with very warm summers and moderately mild winters (I.M. Budyko). Javakheti-Armenian Highlands. The climate of the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands is largely determined by the characteristics of its orography. Modern glaciation.
The area occupied by glaciation in the Caucasus was calculated at the end of the last century, when topographic surveys of the Caucasus were completed on a scale of 1: 42,000. Based on these surveys, a catalog of glaciers was compiled. The total area of glaciation in the Caucasus at the end of the last century was 1967 km 2.(P. A. Ivankov). Significant changes have also occurred in the thickness of glaciers: currently, not only the length of glacial tongues is decreasing, but also the thinning of glaciers and firn fields.
The largest centers of glaciation are the glaciations of Elbrus and Kazbek. The size of the glaciation areas on these extinct volcanoes is 144 and 135 Javakheti-Armenian Highlands. The climate of the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands is largely determined by the characteristics of its orography. By 1958 (over the period from 1887 to 1958), the area of Elbrus glaciation decreased by 13.8 Javakheti-Armenian Highlands. The climate of the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands is largely determined by the characteristics of its orography. Glaciation is decreasing not only in its peripheral parts: the entire icy surface of Elbrus is experiencing thinning. Glaciers retreat unevenly, passing through an inevitable stage of dead ice.
The following types of glaciers are observed in the Caucasus: Scandinavian, tree-like, valley, hanging and cirque. Many valley glaciers reach significant lengths (for example, Dykh-Su - 15.3 km; Karaugom - 15 km; Bezengi - 12.6 On the meridian of Dagestan, the Greater Caucasus has a width of 160).
The position of the snow line in the Caucasus depends on its climatic features, as well as on the position of the ridges relative to the snow-wind flow. Due to the fact that the continental climate in the Caucasus increases as you move from west to east, in this direction the snow limit increases and glaciation decreases. On the southern slope of the Caucasus, the snow limit lies at 200-300 km higher than on the northern slope, which is due to more intense ablation on the southern slope.
If you move along the Main Caucasian ridge from west to east, the first glaciers (tar glaciers) appear in the area of the Oshten and Shift peaks, further to the east, in the area of the Marukhsky pass, the first valley glacier - Marukhsky.
A significant area of glaciation is the Teberda Nature Reserve, where there are glaciers 4-5 On the meridian of Dagestan, the Greater Caucasus has a width of 160(Alibeksky, Amanauzsky, Ptysh*sky, etc.).
The largest glaciers lie between Elbrus and Kazbek. To the east of Kazbek, due to the increasing continentality of the climate, glaciation developed sporadically and is confined to the highest massifs (Tebulos-Mta, Diklos-Mta). The last small glaciers are located on the Shagdag massif.
glaciations. In addition, a number of researchers believe that the Würm - Byul, or Karakel, glaciation stage was expressed in the Caucasus. Traces of more ancient glaciations are not clearly expressed. In addition, some researchers mistakenly attribute loose strata deposited by glacial mudflows to moraines and therefore exaggerate the extent of ancient glaciation in the mountains and on the foothill plains.
The size of glaciers during the Würm glaciation of the Caucasus was proportional to the size of its modern glaciation, i.e., greater glaciation was observed in the Western and Central Caucasus, and to the east of the Kazbek meridian, traces of ancient glaciation were less pronounced. The Würm glacier retreated in 8 stages, which are marked by terminal moraines. The ancient Teberda glacier reached a length of 77 in the valley of Teberda km; and along the river Terek, the length of the Würm glacier was only 29 km, The ends of the Würm glaciers on the northern slope were at altitudes of 900-1100Javakheti-Armenian Highlands
In the Caucasus, avalanche activity is widespread, i.e., a kind of runoff of moisture in solid form from the slopes. The slopes of the valleys are dotted with avalanche chutes. Alluvial cones are located everywhere on the valley bottom, overlying moraine deposits and fluvioglacial terraces. Studies of modern and ancient avalanche fans consisting of clastic material have established the existence of some proportionality between the size of avalanche activity in the past and the size of ancient glaciers. The great development of glaciers was due to better nutrition by solid sediments. Consequently, avalanche activity was ensured by a large amount of solid precipitation. In parts of the valleys that have long been freed from glaciers, there are huge ancient avalanche fans, now partially overgrown with forest.
When designing and constructing industrial, residential and sports facilities, as well as when routing roads, it is necessary to carefully consider avalanche danger in order to prevent disasters, as well as ensure year-round uninterrupted operation of transport facilities.
It should be noted the great importance of mudflows in the formation of relief and loose sediments in the valleys of the Caucasus. Mudflows occur both during rainfall and during intense melting of glaciers. Mudflow deposits are often mistaken for moraines. Apparently, this is explained by the fact that the deposits consist of moraines of small dying glaciers or glacial branches, which provide a lot of water and saturate the moraines. Mudflows are facilitated by dry weather for a long time, causing increased melting of glaciers, and the flow of huge amounts of water to the bottoms of small steep valleys, in which a lot of moraine has accumulated.
Rhythms in glaciation and snow cover in the Caucasus over historical time. Rhythms in the variability of glaciation and snow cover in the Caucasus in historical time, i.e., for the period from the middle of the first millennium BC to the present day, are proven by studying traces of changes in the size of glaciers, the stratigraphy of glacial, avalanche and scree deposits, as well as archaeological data.
As is known from the works of Petterson, B. Multanovsky, A.V. Shnitnikov, there is “multi-century” and “intra-century” (according to Brickner) variability in moisture content, and therefore snow content, “multi-century” variability and its influence on the behavior of glaciers provide very interesting material for studying issues of glacier dynamics in historical times. “Intra-century” variability in moisture quickly affects the snow content of winters, a sharp increase in avalanche danger, as well as the dynamics of glaciers in the period of time from their maximum advance in the middle XIXV. Until now. “Multi-century” variability has a period of 1800-2000 years, and intra-century variability - 35-40 years.
From the middle to the end of the first millennium BC in the northern hemisphere there was an era of increased moisture and it corresponded to the mountain glaciation of the Egessen stage. In the Egessen stage, there are known cases of glaciers advancing onto high-mountain villages*, as well as storm tides and “Centuries of Terrible Winters” on the North Atlantic coast.
In the first millennium AD, a decrease in snow cover and a retreat of mountain glaciation, the so-called “Arkhyz hiatus,” were observed in the northern hemisphere. During this era, high mountain areas of valleys in the Alps and the Caucasus were inhabited. At the same time, due to the low ice coverage of the North Atlantic, settlements arose in Iceland and Greenland. The remains of buildings in the high mountain valleys of the Caucasus were discovered in the river basin. km Remains of Alan agricultural culture were found. Currently, the permanent population lives only in the village of Teberda at an altitude of 1323 m, in the river valley Zelenchuk (Arkhyz district). In the first millennium there were large settlements of the Alanian state.
The increase in humidity began in XIII- XIVcenturies n. e., as a result of which the snowiness of winters increased. Humidification led to increased glaciation in the Alps and Caucasus. Glaciers began moving down the valleys. In the Alps, this expansion of glaciers is called the “Little Ice Age” or the Fernau stage, and in the Caucasus - the mid-glaciation stage XIXV.
The increase in snowfall caused increased avalanche activity, as a result of which Alan villages in Arkhyz were destroyed. Somewhat later, when snow and ice accumulated in the feeding basins, glaciers penetrated far down the valleys into the forest zone and covered the soils that arose during the Arkhyz hiatus in the upper reaches of many valleys of the Caucasus. Solifluction processes, synchronous with cooling and wetting, created sections on the slopes in which soil horizons were buried under a horizon of loose sediments that experienced solifluction. The nature of the buried soils indicates a warmer and drier climate than the climate characteristic of the mountain valleys at present.
The upper boundary of the forest in the Caucasus was much higher during the Arkhyz hiatus than at present. This suggests that
During the Arkhyz break, glaciers in the Caucasus decreased very sharply, and many glaciers may have completely disappeared.
Rivers and lakes. The high-mountainous part of the Greater Caucasus is characterized by rivers of the alpine type, i.e., snow-glacial fed.
All rivers fed by snow and glacier have common features: their minimum levels are observed in winter, when the melting of glaciers provides an insignificant amount of water; The first flood coincides with the melting of snow in the foothills, and the maximum level occurs in July, when the ice and snow cover on the surface of the glaciers melt.
This type of river includes the upper reaches of the Kuban, Terek, Rioni, Enguri, Kodori and their tributaries. km In the Lesser Caucasus, rivers arise on the slopes of ridges at an altitude of 2000-3000
In areas of the Mediterranean climate (the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus in the area from Tuapse to Sochi), the river regime is associated with the winter maximum precipitation. This type of river is called Mediterranean.
In the steppe Ciscaucasia, rivers begin on the slopes of the Stavropol Upland. Floods on them are associated with the spring melting of snow. In summer, most of these rivers dry up completely or turn into chains of lake-like extensions separated by sections of dry channels.
The Caucasus is not rich in lakes. ( 2-3 Ciscaucasia. The climate of the western part of Ciscaucasia is humid with warm summers and moderately mild winters, and the climate of the eastern part belongs to the zone of insufficient moisture with very warm summers and moderately mild winters (M. I. Budyko). In the foothills of the Caucasus (up to altitudes of 1000 The most widespread are tarn lakes, as well as lakes that arose above the terminal moraine levees or above the alluvial cones blocking the valley. As a rule, these are shallow
and small lakes. A large tectonic lake is located in Armenia. Lake Ritsa (on the southern slope of the Western Caucasus) is tectonically dammed. Soils.
Chernozems are characteristic of the Western (steppe) Ciscaucasia, as well as the Stavropol Upland. To the east of the Stavropol Upland, due to a decrease in precipitation, there is a change in soils from chestnut (eastern slopes of the Stavropol Upland) to light chestnut (Tersk-Kuma Plain). Salt marshes appear in relief depressions.
In the Greater Caucasus Mountains, altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed. On the slopes there are mountain-forest, mostly brown, soils, which above the forest boundary are replaced by mountain-meadow subalpine and alpine soils.
In Transcaucasia, depending on moisture content, there are different types of soils. In the humid (subtropical) Western Transcaucasia (Adjara), red soils (laterites) rich in alumina with a high content of iron oxides are widely developed. The color of these soils ranges from brick red to crimson. Bog, alluvial podzolic-gley and subtropical podzolic soils are developed in the Colchis Lowland. Zheltozems are developed along the periphery of Colchis.
The soils of Armenia in its most arid parts - semi-deserts (along the middle course of the Araks River in the Yerevan Basin) are gray-brown with solonetzes and white soils, which arose on the carbonate weathering crust of igneous rocks.
In the central parts of Armenia (Leninakan Plateau), due to increased moisture, semi-desert soils are replaced by chestnut soils. At altitudes 1800-2000 km(Lori steppe, etc.) mountain chernozems are widespread.
The soils of the Caucasus are the most valuable natural resources: wheat and corn grow on black soils, and citrus fruits and tea are cultivated on red soils and yellow soils.
Vegetation. Due to the diverse physical and geographical conditions, the vegetation of the Caucasus is characterized by a rich species composition and diversity of plant communities. The number of plant species here exceeds 6,000 (in the European part of the USSR - about 3,500). The composition of the vegetation of the Caucasus indicates the complex history of the development of this mountainous country.
Since the Upper Tertiary time, under the protection of the Caucasus Range in the Caucasus, especially in the Colchis and Lankaran lowlands, a significant number of ancient relict plants have been preserved.
The expansion of glaciers and firn fields, as well as an increase in the area of stable snow cover during glacial times, caused significant changes in the composition of vegetation and its migration. Remains of Ice Age vegetation in the modern humid subtropics of Colchis are: sundew( Drosera rotundifolia) and sphagnum ( Sphagnum cymbifolium), found in swamps near the city of Kobuleti.
The xerophytic era that followed the glaciation contributed to the reduction of ancient mesophilic forests, which gave way to the xerophytic flora (shiblyak and frigana) of the Mediterranean, widespread in the Eastern Caucasus, Dagestan, and Armenia. Young speciation and mixing of European, Aral-Caspian, Asia Minor and Iranian floras are of great importance in the formation of the Caucasian flora.
In the Western Ciscaucasia and on the Stavropol Upland, vast spaces are occupied by steppes, which are currently almost completely plowed. Semi-deserts are widespread in the Terek-Kuma lowland.
The Greater Caucasus Mountains are dominated by forest zones, as well as vegetation of subalpine and alpine meadows. In Transcaucasia, within the Colchis lowland, areas of swampy alder forests are still found, while most of the forest vegetation of the Colchis type has been almost completely destroyed. On the hills surrounding the lowlands, relict broad-leaved forests with evergreen undergrowth grow.
In Eastern Transcaucasia (Kura Depression and Middle Araxes Basin) semi-desert and steppe types of vegetation are developed. In the low-mountain belt of the Talysh Mountains forests of the Talysh, or Hyrcanian, type grow. In Armenia, on the Javakheti-Armenian Highlands, mountain-steppe vegetation dominates, and on high ridges - mountain-meadow vegetation.
The distribution of vegetation in the Caucasus is so closely related to the physiographic regions that consideration of vegetation types is more convenient in a regional overview of the Caucasus.
The fauna of the Caucasus reflects both the penetration of the faunas of the adjacent territories of the Central Asian deserts and steppes, and the presence of endemic fauna.
Among the animals of the Caucasus there are representatives of the most diverse zoogeographical provinces.( The distribution of animals is confined to certain physical-geographical zones; for example, the forest zone is characterized by: bear), Ursus arctos ( boar), Sus scrofa attila ( deer), Cervus elaphus moral ( leopard), Felis tulliana ( roe), Capreolus capreolus capreolus ( marten), Martes martes ( badger), Meles meles ( otter); Lutra lutra( alpine zone - tour), Capra severtzovi( Caucasian chamois), Rupicarpa rupicarpa caucasica( snow vole), Microtus nivalis( Promethean mouse), Prometheomys schaposchnicovi( mountain turkey - snowcock), Tetraogallus caucasicus ( eagles), Aquila heliaca ( vultures). Gups fulvus( leopard), In Talysh and Lankaran - leopard( Indian porcupine), Hystrix hirsutirostris ( hyena), Hyaena hyaena ( jackalCanisai), reus( Sultan's chicken), Porphyrio poliocephalus( pink flamingo), Phoenicopterus roseus ( pelicans). Pelecanus crispus( In the steppes of Eastern Ciscaucasia there is a large admixture of Central Asian forms of animals: the long-eared hedgehog), Hemiechinus auritus ( corsac fox) Vulpes corsac ( and karaganka), Martes martes ( badger), Vulpes vulpes karagan ( jerboa), Allactaga williamsi ( saiga), Saiga tatarica( round-headed lizard), Phrynocephalus helioscopus persicus ( sand boa constrictor).
In those areas of the Caucasus where stable snow cover occurs, winter plays a great role in the lives of animals. The importance of snow in the life of ungulates was discovered thanks to the organization of state reserves in the Caucasus. Often many changes occurring in the composition of the fauna are explained by the Ice Age. At the same time, heavy snowfall in winter can lead to significant migrations of animals, as well as contribute to the complete disappearance of some species, since snow cover makes movement and feeding difficult, and also favors their pursuit by predators.
Ungulates fall into the snow, which largely depends on the physical and mechanical properties of the snow, as well as on the supporting area of the animals’ limbs. Great difficulties arise in obtaining food when the snow cover is high. European deer get acorns from under the snow only when the snow depth is up to 30 cm. In winters, when it is high (50-60 cm) snow cover lasts 3-4 weeks or more, many wild boars die from exhaustion (A. A. Nasimovich).
