Colonial wars of the second half of the 19th century. Colonial wars of the 19th century

COLONIAL WARS - wars for the seizure of countries and territories in order to turn them into colonies and maintain dominion in them, and also for the re-deal of the number.

Colonial wars are the most important element in the formation of the world's capital system. They arose during the period of great geo-graphic discoveries, when lands were previously unknown has become the object of armed occupation of European states and the establishment of a number of co-l-nation of them has begun riy. Colonial wars unfolded, as a rule, on overseas territories, for their conduct first-in-step-pen- no-no significance for the presence of large IUDs.

In the 1st half of the 16th century, the Spanish occupied a significant part of Central and South America, Port-tu-Gal-tsy ov-la-de-li ob- wide territory in Asia and Africa; Spanish and Portuguese colony empires were formed. Since the end of the 16th century, the Netherlands, having taken over the dominant position in the world market, have become the most st-vom port-Tugal colonies, but, in turn, there were no co-lo-ni-al-noy ge-ge-mo-nii in re-zul-ta-te eng -Lo-Dutch wars of the 17th-18th centuries. In the 18th century, the main struggle for co-lo-nii was between Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and France (see Se-mi- summer war of 1756-1763). In the 19th century, there was an intensive seizure of the remaining free countries and territories. We-li-ko-bri-ta-nia fought colonial wars in South Asia and other areas. France has conquered a significant part of India and Eastern Africa. Colonial wars in Africa began in the 2nd half of the 19th century in Germany and Italy. The Caucasian War of 1817-1864, the Ko-Kand campaigns, the Khi-Vin campaigns and a number of other wars of the Russian Empire.

To wage colonial wars, the armies of state-states-met-ro-po-liys were used, the colonies were created troops, which, as a rule, had a decisive superiority in the military and in the war in your terri-to-ri-yah they often waged war to exterminate entire peoples. According to the forces and means involved, the colonial wars were considered “ma-ly-mi howl-na-mi.”

By the end of the 19th century, a co-lo-ni-al-naya system had developed, oh-va-tiv-shay 54.9% of the territory and 35.2% of the whole -lands of the Earth. Colonial wars became a means of preserving and re-distributing colonial territories and spheres of influence -nia of im-peria-listical powers (see Is-pa-no-ame-ri-kan-skaya war-on 1898, Boer-war-on 1899-1902 and etc.). In the 20th century, the co-lo-ni-za-tion of individual countries continued [for example, the Ita-lo-efi-op war of 1935-1936 (see Ita-lo-efi-op- sky wars); is-pa-no-reef war in Ma-rok-ko 1921-1924, French-is-pa-no-reef war 1925-1926]. Colonial wars were fought with the aim of developing new sources of raw materials and sales markets, expanding the sphere of -lo-zhe-niya ka-pi-ta-lov. In many ways, these are the reasons why you were called the First World War of 1914-1918 and the Second World War of 1939 -1945.

After the Second World War, the nation-wide struggle intensified, and the collapse of the co-lo-ni-al began -noy system. During this period, the go-su-dar-st-va-met-ro-po-li fought colonial wars for the preservation of their colonies (France - in Al-zhi-re, Ka-me-ru-ne, Ma-rok-ko, Tu-ni-se, on Ma-da-ga-ska-re - Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niya - in Bur-ma, Malaya and Ke-nia; Por-tu-ga-lia - in An-go-le, Gwi-nee-Bi-sau, Mo-zam-bi-ke - in Na-mi; -bii, etc.) or for the restoration of the co-lo-ni-al-no-go re-zhi-ma in young national states-su-dar-st-vah ( France - in the countries of In-do-ki-tai, Nether-land-dy - in In-do-ne-zia). With the li-k-vi-da-qi-ey co-lo-ni-al-noy system, by the end of the 20th century, over 90 non-vi-si-si-my national states arose -gifts With their active participation, would you work among the national norms that impose and prohibitors of colonial wars. Nevertheless, with the collapse of the traditional co-lo-nia-liz-ma, former metropolises and other developed countries and at the end of the 20th century in the frame -kah po-li-ti-ki neo-ko-lo-nia-liz-ma more than once came to the armed inter-sha-tel-st-vu for us-ta-nov-le -niy in the os-bo-div-shih go-su-dar-st-vah to please them with the political regime, to ensure their his dominion over the other co-maintain-shi-mi-sya for-vi-si-we-mi ter-ri-to-ria-mi (for example, the US ag-res-sia against Gre -na-dy in 1983).

Using this advantage in military equipment, they inflicted great damage on the troops of Asian countries, while suffering relatively small losses. For example, an expedition to China in 1860-1861. cost the lives of 841 French soldiers and officers, of whom only 28 died in battle *;
from expeditions to Cochin China in 1861 -1862. 907 French people died (including those who died from disease).
France's attempts to settle on the American continent also cost it victims. These were expeditions to Mexico in 1838 and 1839, to the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti in 1844 and 1846, to Argentina and Uruguay in 1845. A few decades later, Napoleon III made an attempt to strengthen French influence in North America. To this end, in 1861 he undertook an expedition of a 25-3,000-strong army to Mexico. In 1863, French troops entered the capital of Mexico, destroyed the republican system in the country and established a monarchy. However, a few years later, the Mexican people threw off the yoke of the interventionists and expelled them from the country. In this war, French losses amounted to 1,180 people killed and died from wounds.
Total for 1830-1870 the French colonial army lost 411 officers killed; Taking into account the ratio between the losses of officers and soldiers, we find that about 10 thousand soldiers died.
During the period of the Third Republic, France's colonial expansion did not stop; it captured Madagascar, Tonkin, Tunisia and Morocco and expanded its colonial possessions in Senegal and Cochin China. In 1871, an uprising broke out again in Algeria, which resulted in 340 battles between the Algerians and the 86,000-strong French army. In total, according to Bodard's calculations, during the period of the Third Republic, 146 French officers were killed in colonial expeditions in Africa, which corresponded to approximately the loss of 3 thousand soldiers. During the war, over 1 thousand soldiers were killed in Tonkin. The remaining captures cost the French few casualties. For example, in 1895, during the capture of Madagascar, only 2 people were killed, in 1890, during the expedition to Dahomey -31, in 1892 - 77 soldiers and officers. Total losses of France in colonial expeditions for the period 1815-1897. amounted to approximately 15 thousand killed.
England. Back in the 18th century. England tried to penetrate the African continent, but its expeditions were not limited to

large areas and were accompanied by minor military operations. Only in the 19th century, when Portugal and Spain were already completely pushed aside, England took active steps to capture a significant part of the African continent. Attempts by the British to settle in 1824-1826. on the western coast of Africa they encountered stubborn resistance from the black Ashanti tribes (who occupied the current territory of the state of Ghana), and the British were forced to recognize their independence. It was only in 1896 that the British finally subjugated this part of Africa. Subsequent military operations of the British were more successful for them, and gradually they captured one part of Africa after another.
Throughout the 19th century. The British had a large number of armed clashes with the indigenous population in Africa, but the British losses were insignificant, since the British had a great superiority in weapons. We do not have complete data on the number of killed soldiers and officers of the British colonial troops. But based on materials on individual military operations, one can get an approximate idea of ​​the final figures.
It is known, for example, that in one battle with the Ashanti tribes in 1824, 42 English soldiers and officers were killed; in the war against Egypt in 1840, the total number of killed and wounded British soldiers and officers did not exceed 100 people. The expedition to Egypt in 1882 was also not accompanied by significant losses (a total of 93 soldiers and officers died). In 1846-1853. The British waged a war in Africa with the Kaffir tribes (the so-called war over the ax).
In 1868, the British tried to penetrate Abyssinia. In battles with the Abyssinians, 2 officers and 28 soldiers were wounded from an army of 3,909 people. In 1873, during an expedition against the Ashanti tribe, only 10 British were killed. The British suffered significantly greater losses in the war with the Kaffirs and Zulus tribes. From August 1878 to October 3, 1879, 33 officers and 777 soldiers from the regular British army were killed during military operations.
The British also suffered losses in operations in eastern Sudan. To seize these lands, in 1898 they deployed an army of 25,000, armed with the latest weapons. The insignificance of losses during other British military expeditions in Africa is also indicated by data on the number of troops participating in them. For example, in the last wars with the Ashanti tribe in 1895-1896 and 1900. 1.5-2 thousand soldiers took part
and officers; in the first war with the Boers - 1.5 thousand; on an expedition to Sudan in 1884-1885. - 13 thousand; in operations in East Africa and Uganda in 1897-1901. - 600-1500 soldiers and officers, etc. The size of English losses will be even smaller if we consider that England has always tried to fight with the wrong hands. There were a significant number of Indians in the British troops. The British first used Indian troops in Africa during the expedition to Sudan in 1884-1885, when the Indian Brigade was formed.
In the wars with the Kaffirs in 1878-1879. The British lost more than 1 thousand people killed. In other wars in Africa, British losses were measured in only tens of thousands of people in each of them. On this basis, we can assume that the total number of British killed in the colonial wars in Africa for the years 1815-1897 probably did not exceed 2 thousand people.
On the Asian continent, English invaders in the 19th century. consolidated and expanded their colonial possessions. The British suffered considerable losses in battles with the Indians, who bravely fought for their national independence.
Throughout almost the entire first half of the 19th century. The British did not stop seizing new lands. The war with Nepal lasted more than two years (1814-1816). Ten years later, the British began a war in Burma, which also lasted two years. In 1843 Sindh was conquered. In 1845-1846 and 1848-1849. There were wars with the Sikhs, as a result of which the British conquered Punjab. By the middle of the last century, the capture of India by the British imperialists was completed, but the resistance of the Indian people was not broken. It found particularly vivid expression in the Indian national uprising of the sepoys, which began in 1857 and embraced the millions of peasants who joined them. This uprising was suppressed by the British in 1859.
Despite the large number of military operations, the British combat losses due to the sharp superiority of their military equipment were small. So, for example, in the main battle during the conquest of Sindh, the British lost 275 people, while the Indians lost 6 thousand people].
In the war with the Sikhs, the British suffered significantly greater losses. Thus, in one battle of Chilianwala in 1849, the British lost 2,338 people killed and wounded 2. In the second half of the 19th century. British military operations in India were insignificant, but they brought significant losses to the British. The English military historian Sheppard provides the following data on military operations on the northwestern borders

India. “It cannot be denied,” he writes, “that the cost of holding our northwestern borders in the period 1847-1913. was very high. During this period there were 66 punitive expeditions - an average of one per year - involving from a few soldiers to several thousand. In six cases, military formations equal to a division took part in the battles, and in 1897 even the army corps was practically mobilized... In total, during this period, about 300 thousand people took part in military campaigns, of which 4,500 were killed and wounded." .
Unfortunately, we do not have any data on British losses during other military operations in India. Some idea of ​​them can be obtained from the figures for losses in individual battles and the size of the English army as a whole. For example, in the battle with the Indians on October 23, 1864, the British lost 847 people killed and wounded. In the largest battles, British losses were expressed in hundreds of killed. However, during the entire campaign, the total loss of the British did not exceed several thousand people killed. This is also evidenced by the total strength of the British army in India: in 1821 it amounted to 20 thousand people, in 1854 - 30 thousand, in 1857 - 38 thousand people.
Based on the data presented, it can be assumed that the number of Englishmen killed in India during the period 1815-1897 is unlikely to have exceeded 10 thousand people.
The conquest of Burma, although accompanied by long wars, did not cost the British large losses. During the first war with Burma in 1824-1826. British losses amounted to 2 people wounded. During the Second Burma War
h 1852-1853 Only 500 British soldiers took part in the battles, and only for three weeks. Finally, during the war of 1885-1886. The British lost 91 people killed in battle. Thus, the capture of Burma cost the British only a few hundred people killed.
Attempts to seize Afghanistan cost England more. The First Afghan War of 1838-1842, which ended with the complete expulsion of the British from Afghanistan, led to the death of a significant number of British soldiers. For example, the retreat of the English garrison in Kabul in 1842 was accompanied by its almost complete destruction. On January 8, 1842, while passing through the Khurd-Kabul Gorge, the rebels met the English column with fierce fire, from which, according to

According to eyewitnesses, about 3 thousand people died. This number also included Indian troops used by England in its colonial expeditions. In the second Anglo-Afghan war of 1878-1880. The British army lost 1,623 people killed, including 528 British. \
The Anglo-Chinese wars (the first opium war of 1839-1842, the second opium war of 1857-1860 together with France, the Yihetuan uprising of 1900) cost the British minor losses, as did the war between England and Persia in 1856-1857.
Even in the absence of wars, English colonial troops suffered losses in constant armed clashes with the indigenous population. So, for example, in 1830-1836. 79 British soldiers and officers died from wounds and injuries.
Based on the data presented, it can be assumed that the number of British killed during the colonial wars in Asia amounted to approximately 15 thousand people during the period under review.
During the same period, England waged long wars with the Maori tribes inhabiting New Zealand. Armed clashes began back in 1845, when 70 British soldiers and officers were killed. In the first Maori war, which began in 1860, 42 British soldiers and officers were killed. During the second war with the Maori, in 1863-1866, over 200 British were killed. The third war with the Maori was in 1868-1870. In total, the British lost 560 people killed in the wars with the Maori. Maori losses, according to official data, amounted to 2 thousand people; in reality they were, of course, much larger. It is known that as a result of these wars, the indigenous population of New Zealand was almost completely exterminated.
The total number of British killed in the colonial wars of this period was approximately 18 thousand people.
Spain. The 19th century was the century of the final decline of the once great Spanish Empire. By the end of the first quarter of the 19th century. after stubborn wars that lasted over 15 years, Spain lost all its possessions on the American continent. The losses of the Spaniards in these wars, according to Gausner, amounted to a thousand people killed and dead.
The liberation war of the South American peoples against Spanish colonial exploitation was very stubborn and
/>¦was accompanied by quite significant battles. W. Foster notes that this war “was much bloodier than the revolutionary war for the independence of the United States,” in which over 4 thousand American soldiers and officers were killed. Meanwhile, in the war with the South American colonies in only one, however, the most In the major battle on the Ayacucho plain in 1824, over 2 thousand Spaniards were killed. This battle is called the “Spanish Waterloo”. Based on Gausner’s figure, on the one hand, and Foster’s instructions, on the other, it can be assumed that the Spaniards fought in these wars. Lost about 20 thousand people killed.
After defeat on the American continent, the Spanish colonialists tried to secure their island possessions - Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Retaining Cuba required a lot of military efforts on the part of the mother country. Cubans rebelled in 1823, 1826, 1844, 1849, 1868-1878 and 1895. When suppressing the uprising, the Spaniards lost tens of thousands of soldiers. The Spaniards suffered some losses in the war with Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia in 1865-1866.
Another major military operation of this period was the expedition to Morocco. During this expedition in 1859-1860. from an army of 33-43 thousand people, 786 soldiers and officers were killed and 366 died from wounds. The total number of Spaniards killed in the colonial wars of the 19th century. can be considered equal. 25 thousand people.
Italy. Italian colonialists have long chosen Abyssinia (Ethiopia) as their target for capture and robbery. Back in 1885, having occupied Eritrea, Italian troops attempted to penetrate deep into Abyssinia. In 1887, the Italians suffered a serious defeat from the Abyssinians, who heroically defended their independence. 7 years later, Italy resumed attempts to capture Abyssinia and at the end of 1894 began military operations, having a well-armed 20,000-strong army. However, this did not save the Italians, and they were completely defeated in the battle of Adua (11 thousand were killed and seriously wounded, 3.6 thousand were captured and only 2.5 thousand soldiers returned). Since almost half of the killed and seriously wounded were African troops in the Italian army, the number of Italians killed in the Battle of Adua can be determined at 3 thousand people (385 Italian officers were killed). 4-5 thousand Abyssinians were killed. This battle, shameful for the Italian imperialists, ended in the 19th century. their attempts to conquer the brave Abyssinian people, attempts which they renewed 40 years later.

Considering that even before the Battle of Adwa, the second Italian infantry brigade lost a quarter of its strength, and the first infantry brigade - a sixth, and also taking into account the losses during the war with the Bedouins after the capture of Libya, the total losses of Italians killed during the colonial wars in Africa can be take equal to 5 thousand people.
Netherlands. Long wars were also waged by the Dutch colonialists, who penetrated Indonesia at the end of the 16th century. In 1825, a Javanese uprising broke out, which took the Dutch army 5 years to suppress. During the hostilities, about 250 thousand Javanese were exterminated. In addition, the Dutch fought long wars to capture the island of Borneo. But the resistance of the inhabitants of the Sultanate of Atye (the northern part of the island of Sumatra) was especially stubborn. The war with Atye, which began in J873, ended only 30 years later. In this war, the Dutch army suffered quite a few losses. In just 20 days of the first expedition in 1873, which ended in the defeat of the colonialists, the Dutch lost 466 soldiers and officers killed and wounded. In other expeditions that followed, losses also amounted to hundreds of soldiers and officers. In total, over the course of 15 years, the Dutch sent 60 thousand soldiers and officers to the islands. Considering, on the one hand, that there were many Asians in the Dutch troops and, on the other hand, significant mortality from disease, it can be assumed that the number of killed Dutch soldiers and officers in the colonial wars during the period under review did not exceed 10 thousand people.
Russia. Moving on to the analysis of the losses of Tsarist Russia in the wars for the annexation of the Caucasus and Central Asia, it should be noted that, despite the colonialist policy of tsarism, this annexation played a positive role in introducing the peoples of the outskirts to the Russian economy and culture. This was noted by F. Engelsov back in 1851 in a letter to Marx: “Russia really plays a progressive role in relation to the East... The dominance of Russia plays a civilizing role for the Black and Caspian Seas and Central Asia, for the Bashkirs and Tatars... »
The Caucasian wars required quite significant sacrifices. The mountaineers, taking advantage of the mountainous terrain, stubbornly resisted the tsarist troops. The history of the conquest of the Caucasus is a history of continuous skirmishes that caused significant damage to the Russian army. The number of Russian soldiers killed in the main 10 military operations exceeds 4 thousand people. But, in addition to these major battles, the history of the Caucasian wars knows hundreds of small skirmishes, the losses in which were expressed in dozens of people killed.

To characterize the losses of Russian troops in the Caucasian wars, we will use monographs on the history of individual regiments. So, for example, in the Tengin regiment for 1820-1845, according to our calculations made on the basis of lists, 429 soldiers were killed." But the Tengin people were not the only ones who participated in military operations. In four military operations about which there is information, one was killed 21 Tenginians with a total number of killed 114 people. If we consider that approximately a quarter of all losses fell on the Tenginians, this means that in the military operations in which the Tenginsky regiment participated, a total of about 2 thousand people died.
The Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment also took a significant part in the Caucasian wars. According to our calculations, made according to the regimental combat synod, in the Caucasian wars for 1815-1864. 14 officers of the regiment were killed.
The Kabardian Infantry Regiment took a particularly active part in the Caucasian wars. In the regimental garden in Khasav-Yurt (the former residence of the regiment in peacetime) there is a monument with the following inscription: “The Kabardian regiment in affairs with the mountaineers in the Caucasus from 1839 to 1860 of all ranks killed 2131, wounded 3084.” During the same period, 51 officers were killed or died from their wounds, i.e., there was 1 officer for about 40 soldiers. In 1816-1838 6 officers died, which roughly corresponded to the death of 250 soldiers. Taking into account the losses since 1860 beyond the Kuban, in Chechnya and Dagestan - during the suppression of the uprisings of the Caucasian peoples - we can assume that during the Caucasian wars, starting in 1815, the Kabardian regiment lost about 3 thousand people killed. In a number of campaigns, the Kabardian regiment accounted for about 10% of all losses of Russian troops. So, in 1845, 53 officers were killed in battle, including 5 officers of the Kabardian regiment. A total of 1,391 soldiers and officers were killed in the 1845 campaign in the Caucasus, but it was a particularly difficult year. The historian of the Kabardian regiment speaks of it as a year that cost “enormous sacrifices,” which “will be very memorable for the Caucasus.”
The figure for Russian losses in the Caucasian wars was established by Ghisetti. Total for 1801-1864 24,946 soldiers and officers were killed, and excluding losses in 1801-1815. - 23135 soldiers and

officers. Average annual casualties for 1801-1864. were 361 people.
During the conquest of Central Asia, although it lasted for decades, the losses could not have been particularly large, since the number of all expeditionary forces was usually expressed in thousands of people. During the occupation of Tashkent, Russian losses amounted to only 125 people killed and wounded. During the capture of Khojent in 1866, 140 Russian soldiers and officers were killed, wounded and shell-shocked, and during the capture of Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh, 224 people were killed and wounded. In 1868, during the conquest of the Zeravshan district, 350 people were killed and wounded. This figure was considered very significant for Central Asian expeditions, and the authors of the text immediately point out that “this year’s campaign cost our troops dearly.” Of the 350 killed and wounded, no more than 100 were killed. But there were expeditions with a large number of dead. Thus, during one assault during the Ahal-Tekin expedition, the Russians lost 185 soldiers and officers killed. In total, in 1879-1881, according to Terentyev’s calculations, 523 Russian soldiers and officers were killed.
The total number of those killed is, according to the materials provided, 1.5 thousand people. If we also take into account other operations not listed here, we can assume that during the entire period of the Central Asian campaigns, starting in 1815, about a thousand Russian soldiers and officers were killed.
The total number of soldiers and officers of European armies killed in the colonial wars between 1815 and 1897 was 106 thousand people.
The number of those killed in colonial wars will be especially significant if we consider that the above figure of 106 thousand people killed refers to only one side, that is, to the armies of the colonial powers. The other side's losses were much greater, as the poorly armed indigenous population died in the thousands from the well-armed armies of the European "civilizers." For example, in 1898, in the Battle of Omdurman in Sudan, the indigenous troops, against whom the British used Maxim machine guns, lost 20 thousand people killed, while the losses of the British themselves were negligible. “A wave of death swept away the advancing enemy before our eyes,” wrote an English correspondent about this battle. During the Afghan wars, in the Battle of Kandahar, the British lost 40 people killed, and the Afghans lost 1 thousand people.

The indigenous population of Africa suffered great losses in the fight against the German imperialists. In 1904, when suppressing the uprising of the black Herero tribe, the German colonialists showed completely unheard-of cruelty and exterminated about 30 thousand people; they themselves lost only 127 people killed.
The French colonialists also exterminated many people in Africa. In 1895, during the capture of the city of Marowey (on the island of Madagascar), the losses of the local Hovas tribe amounted to 600 people, while the French themselves lost only 6 people
The indigenous people of Latin America suffered enormous losses in the war for liberation from the yoke of the Spanish colonialists (1810-1826). During this period, the population of Venezuela decreased by 316 thousand people, New Granada - by 172 thousand, Ecuador - by 108 thousand, Mexico - by almost 200 thousand people.
After the examples given, there can no longer be any doubt that if the European armies lost 106 thousand people killed in the colonial wars of this period, then the number of those killed among the conquered peoples was measured in millions of people.
Died from wounds in the wars of the 19th century. For this period there are data on deaths from wounds for most wars. We have summarized all these materials in the following table (see pp. 127-130).
The percentage of the number of deaths from wounds to the number of killed varied within fairly wide limits depending on the degree of lethality of the wounds. In most wars of the 19th century. the number of those who died from wounds was half and even three-quarters of the number killed. In four cases, the number of deaths from wounds even exceeded the number killed in battle. This happened in the Crimean War in three armies (French, Turkish, Piedmontese) and in the Italian War of 1859 in the French army.

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In the first war of the 20th century. - Russian-Japanese - this ratio changed significantly: the number of deaths from paradise was 4 times less than the number of those killed. This was the result of the widespread application of the principles developed by Pirogov, Lister and Pasteur.
Speaking about the ratio of the number of deaths from wounds to the number of wounded, it should be noted that when those who died from wounds are included in the number of wounded, the figures given can be considered as the percentage of mortality from wounds. In those cases where this is not the case, the mortality rate can be determined if the number of deaths from rads is taken as a percentage of the sum of the wounded and those who died from wounds. As a result, the mortality rate will decrease slightly.
The ratios of the number of deaths from wounds to the number of wounded given in the table above can be presented in the following form:
The percentage of deaths from wounds to the number of wounded varies considerably. The best indicator is typical for the Russian army in the Russo-Japanese War, when the mortality rate was only 4%, the worst - for the French army in the Crimean War - 29% mortality. However, this high figure is very doubtful, and it is not known on what primary materials it was based on. Morash. Even the fact that the number 29 is so sharply separated from all other numbers in the series (the numbers closest to it give only 21% mortality) already raises doubts about its reality.
The median and mode of the series are 11-12% mortality, the arithmetic mean is 13%. If we exclude one dubious indicator (29%), then the arithmetic mean will drop to 12%, and the mode and median will remain unchanged. On this basis, we can assume that for the wars of the 19th century. the average mortality rate of the wounded was 11-12%. We used the established mortality rate to calculate the number of deaths from wounds in the absence of direct data.

Having agreed to grant independence to one part of the colonies, the Western powers tried to retain the other part by force of arms. Long colonial wars began, which the ruling circles of Holland, England and France waged in their former possessions: Indonesia, Malaya, Indochina.

Having verbally recognized the independence of Indonesia, the Dutch colonialists presented it with an ultimatum in the summer of 1947, demanding the formation of a joint “federal” Dutch-Indonesian government, in which Holland would play a decisive role, as well as the immediate return of previously nationalized enterprises. When Indonesia rejected the ultimatum, Dutch troops stationed in Indonesia began hostilities that lasted more than two years. Only in November 1949, as a result of massive opposition from the Indonesian people and the support of world public opinion, Holland recognized Indonesia as an independent state, but until 1963 it continued to hold under its rule part of the Indonesian territory - West Irian (on the island of New Guinea).

In Malaya, British troops disarmed the people's anti-Japanese army and restored the rule of the colonialists. Having separated the largest port and city of Singapore from Malaya, the British proclaimed it an independent territorial unit, which since 1959 has turned into a self-governing state. Malay patriots began a guerrilla war against the colonialists. It continued intermittently until 1955. Only in the spring of 1956 did the British government declare that it was ready to recognize the independence of Malaya. The official declaration of independence followed in August 1957.

On June 25, 1950, the offensive of the troops of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea began a war between North and South Korea, which further aggravated the international situation. The US government accused the Democratic People's Republic of Korea of ​​aggression and sent its armed forces to Korea, which took part in hostilities on the side of South Korea. The American troops were joined, albeit in small numbers, by troops from England, France, Canada and some other US allies. American diplomats passed a resolution at the UN General Assembly that condemned the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and declared US and allied troops operating in Korea to be UN troops.

The Korean War lasted more than three years. At first, the People's Army of the DPRK established control over 90% of the territory of South Korea, but the American command landed a large force in Korea and went on the offensive. By October 1950, US troops occupied a significant part of the DPRK, occupied its capital, Pyongyang, and approached the borders of China. Then military units of the People's Republic of China, officially acting as volunteers, came to the aid of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Together with the Korean People's Army, they pushed their opponents back to the borders of the DPRK. The commander of American troops in Korea, General MacArthur, proposed using the atomic bomb, but the US government rejected this proposal, which threatened the most dangerous consequences. In the summer of 1951, peace negotiations began, which two years later, on July 27, 1953, ended with the signing of an armistice. The forces of the warring parties remained on the front line, which ran in areas close to the 38th parallel, i.e. almost on the same lines from which the war began.

The longest and bloodiest of all the colonial wars of this period was the war of the French colonialists in Indochina, which includes Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. It lasted almost 8 years, from 1946 to 1954. During this war, rightly called the “dirty war,” the colonialists resorted to torture and murder of patriots, and mass repressions against civilians. At the same time, they made extensive use of political maneuvers, creating puppet governments in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia under their control. In 1949, the French government announced the granting of independence within the French Union to South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. These states received the right to self-government, but French troops remained on their territory and controlled the armed forces and foreign policy.

The war of the French colonialists against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ended in their defeat. In March 1954, units of the Vietnamese People's Army surrounded the fortified area of ​​Dien Bien Phu, where the main forces of the French expeditionary force were located. The US government, to which France turned for help, offered to drop an atomic bomb on Dien Bien Phu, but the French government refused such an offer, one of the immediate results of which would be the death of the French garrison. After a two-month siege, the Dien Bien Phu garrison capitulated.

In July 1954, at a meeting of the foreign ministers of the USSR, USA, England, France, the People's Republic of China and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Geneva, agreements were signed to cease hostilities in Indochina. The territory of Vietnam was temporarily divided by a demarcation line along the 17th parallel: troops of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam were to be concentrated north of this line, and troops of the South Vietnamese government were to be concentrated to the south. Subsequently, it was planned to hold free elections throughout Vietnam under the supervision of an international commission. However, the holding of free elections was disrupted, and the demarcation line for a long time turned into the border between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and South Vietnam.

The Geneva agreements were not fully implemented. However, they put an end to the Indochina War and contributed to the achievement of independence by the countries of the Indochina Peninsula. France finally recognized the independence of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia and withdrew its troops from there.

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1. COLONIAL WARS OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The countries of Europe, having carried out modernization, received enormous advantages compared to the rest of the world, which was based on the principles of traditionalism. This advantage also affected the military potential. Therefore, following the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, associated mainly with reconnaissance expeditions, the colonialist expansion of the most developed countries of Europe began already in the 12th-13th centuries. Traditional civilizations, due to the backwardness of their development, were not able to resist this expansion and turned into easy prey for their stronger opponents.

At the first stage of colonization of traditional societies, Spain and Portugal were in the lead. They managed to conquer most of South America. In the mid-18th century, Spain and Portugal began to lag behind in economic development and were relegated to the background as maritime powers. Leadership in colonial conquests passed to England. Beginning in 1757, the English East India trading company captured almost the entire Hindustan for almost a hundred years. In 1706, active colonization of North America by the British began. At the same time, the development of Australia was underway, to whose territory the British sent criminals sentenced to hard labor. The Dutch East India Company took over Indonesia. France established colonial rule in the West Indies as well as in the New World (Canada).

However, at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, North and South America won independence, and the colonial interests of European powers focused on the East and Africa. It was there that colonialism reached its greatest flowering and power, and it was there that the collapse of the colonial system began and ended.

In the 40s XIX century The British East India Company, after a bloody war, conquered the principality of Punjab and other still independent parts of India, thereby completing its complete subjugation. Active colonial development of the country began: the construction of railways, reforms of land ownership, land use and the tax system, which were aimed at adapting traditional methods of farming and way of life to the interests of England.

The subjugation of India opened the way for the British to the north and east, to Afghanistan and Burma. In Afghanistan, the colonial interests of England and Russia collided. After the Anglo-Afghan wars of 1838-1842 and 1878-1881. The British established control over the foreign policy of this country, but were unable to achieve its complete subordination.

As a result of the first (1824-1826) and second (1852-1853) Anglo-Burmese wars, which were waged by the East India Company, its army, consisting mainly of mercenary Indian sepoy soldiers under the command of English officers, occupied a large part of Burma. The so-called Upper Burma, which retained its independence, was cut off from the sea in the 60s. England imposed unequal treaties on her, and in the 80s. completely subjugated the entire country.

In the 19th century British expansion in Southeast Asia intensified. In 1819, a naval base was founded in Singapore, which became England's main stronghold in this part of the world. The long-standing rivalry with Holland in Indonesia ended less successfully for the British, where they managed to establish themselves only in the north of Borneo and small islands.

In the middle of the 19th century. France captured South Vietnam and made it its colony in the 80s. ousted weakening China from North Vietnam and established a protectorate over it. At the end of the 19th century. The French created the so-called Indochina Union, which included Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. The French governor-general was placed at the head of the union.

In the 19th century Colonization of Australia ended. On the territory of New South Wales, the colonies of Tasmania, Victoria (named after the Dutch explorer Tasman and the English Queen Victoria) and Queensland were separated, and new independent settlements of Western and South Australia were formed. The influx of free migrants increased. In the middle of the 19th century. they achieved an end to the deportation of convicts to Australia. In the 50s Gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria. This attracted not only thousands of new colonists to Australia, but also capital. Moving into the interior of the continent, the settlers subjugated or mercilessly destroyed the local population. As a result, a century later, in the 30s. XX century, out of approximately 7.8 million inhabitants of Australia, 7.2 million were Europeans and only 600 thousand were its indigenous inhabitants.

In the second half of the 19th century. all colonies in Australia achieved self-government at the beginning of the 20th century. they united to form the Commonwealth of Australia, which received dominion rights. At the same time, the colonization of New Zealand and other nearby islands took place. In 1840, New Zealand became a colony, and in 1907 - another white dominion of England.

In the 19th century Most of Africa was subjugated. The methods of subjugation were varied - from direct military seizures to economic and financial enslavement and the imposition of unequal treaties. Control over the countries of North Africa and Egypt gave the colonial powers enormous economic benefits, dominance in the Mediterranean Sea, and opened routes to the south of the continent and to the East. From the 16th century North African countries, with the exception of Morocco, and Egypt were part of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the 18th century, when the military superiority of the Ottomans over Europe had already been lost, France tried to conquer Egypt and create a stronghold there for advancing to India, but Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798-1801. was defeated. In 1830, France invaded Algeria and by 1848 had completely conquered it. Tunisia was subjugated “peacefully” in the intense competition between England, France and Italy, which in 1869 established united financial control over Tunisia. Gradually, the French ousted their competitors from Tunisia and in 1881 declared their protectorate over it.

In the 70s It was the turn of Egypt, which, while remaining part of the Ottoman Empire, sought to pursue an independent policy. The construction of the Suez Canal (1859-1869) brought enormous benefits to Europe (the shortest route from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean opened) and devastated the Egyptian treasury. Egypt found itself in financial bondage to France and England, which established control over it in 1876-1882. so-called dual control. The country was robbed in the most merciless way; more than two-thirds of state revenues were spent on paying off foreign debts. The Egyptians joked bitterly about dual control: “Have you ever seen a dog and a cat taking a mouse for a walk together?” In 1882, Egypt was occupied by British troops, and in 1914 England established its protectorate over it. In 1922, the protectorate was abolished, Egypt was declared an independent and sovereign state, but this was independence on paper, since England completely controlled the economic, foreign policy and military spheres of its life.

By the beginning of the 20th century. over 90% of Africa belonged to the largest colonial powers: England, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Spain

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was subjected to strong pressure from the developed countries of Europe. The countries of the Levant (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), which were officially considered part of the Ottoman Empire during this period, became an area of ​​active penetration by Western powers - France, England, Germany. During the same period, Iran lost not only economic, but also political independence. At the end of the 19th century, its territory was divided into spheres of influence between England and Russia. Thus, in the 19th century, almost all countries of the East fell into one form or another of dependence on the most powerful capitalist countries, turning into colonies or semi-colonies. For Western countries, colonies were a source of raw materials, financial resources, labor, as well as sales markets. The exploitation of the colonies by the Western metropolises was of a cruel and predatory nature. At the cost of merciless exploitation and robbery, the wealth of the Western metropolises was created and the relatively high standard of living of their population was maintained.

It should be noted that in the first three quarters of the 19th century, continental countries did not particularly bother about acquiring colonies. By the way, in the middle of the last century, as already mentioned, the doctrine of free international trade prevailed, which was indifferent to the issue of colonies, but when, after the Franco-German war of 1870-1871, the continental powers returned to protectionism in trade policy, the desire to acquire colonies. By the way, Germany and Italy wished to possess them, which, being politically fragmented until the sixties and seventies of the 19th century, were deprived of the actual opportunity to establish their own colonies in other parts of the world. The intensification of protectionist aspirations and the appearance on the historical stage of the German Empire and the Kingdom of Italy led to the fact that by the end of the 19th century the policy of the major European powers acquired an imperialist character. Competition began between the great powers to acquire overseas territories. England only continued its previous conquests, but in France, in the ministry of Jules Ferry, the task was first assigned, and the implementation of this task began: the transformation of this state into a large colonial empire. The beginning of colonial policy in Germany, as well as in Italy, dates back to the same time. Even the United States, at the very end of the century, took a position among the colonial powers, taking from Spain many of its islands in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, which was the end of Spain's colonial power.

On the basis of colonial relations, conflicts arose between some European powers, especially England, both with France and with Russia, which in the mid-sixties began to make conquests in Central Asia towards English possessions in India. England never came to the point of military clashes with either France or Russia, and at the beginning of the 20th century. between the latter, on the one hand, and the first two, on the other, special agreements were even concluded regarding their colonial possessions. In general, the entire colonial policy of the late 19th century was constantly settled by international agreements. During this era, a real “division of Africa” was even carried out. At the end of 1884 and the beginning of 1885, a conference of representatives of fourteen states met in Berlin, which created the “independent state of Congo” in Africa, which later became the property of Belgium. The Berlin conference was followed by a number of other, now private, agreements between individual states on colonial affairs. At the very end of the 19th century, events occurred (the Sino-Japanese and American-Spanish wars, and the uprising of the Chinese against the Europeans) that made the Far East and the Great Ocean the center of political attention. To the six great powers in Europe, two new ones were added in international politics: Japan and the United States, and international politics literally took on a global character. The weakness of China revealed at this time led to something like its division between the European powers, which in turn caused an uprising in China against the Europeans and the intervention of a united Europe in Chinese affairs, when military contingents of different states made a campaign against the capital of Bogdykhan under the command of a German field marshal (1901). This campaign took place only thirteen years before the outbreak of the World War, one of the main reasons for which, as we know, lay in the sharply imperialist character that European foreign policy took on in these years.

For the great European powers of the late 19th century, colonial expansion was an economic necessity. The ever-growing industry demanded overseas raw materials (cotton, rubber); the invention of internal combustion engines created a colossal need for oil and a struggle for its limited natural sources. Finally, victorious capitalism, by its nature incapable of being satisfied with internal markets, begins the pursuit of external ones. Political domination becomes the form, instrument and armor of economic exploitation. The old colonial Empires of England and Holland are waking up from their centuries-long slumber for new feverish work. The latecomers are hastily building their new Empires overseas: France, Belgium, Italy, Germany. However, sero venientibus ossa. For Germany, there was no longer a “place in the sun” of Africa and Asia that was sufficiently profitable, and it turned the main axis of its expansion to the Middle East. Here it penetrated into the imperialist zone of forces of England and Russia, which was one of the main reasons for the first great war.