The consequences of Japan's defeat in World War II were catastrophic. Human casualties alone amounted to 8 million people (of which 1.5 million are listed as missing). Not to mention material destruction, reparations, colonial and territorial losses, the main thing for the Japanese nation was the moral and psychological consequences.
It was from here that the main task of the American occupation authorities followed: the eradication of militarism and the establishment of democratic transformations carried out by the American authorities in post-war society. The creation of two government bodies that could formally resolve issues with Japan. The Union Council Far Eastern Commission for Japanese Affairs with participation was located in Washington and the USA, USSR, China; consisted of 11 members. Representatives of Great Britain and the countries of the Commonwealth of the Pacific region were in Tokyo. But actual power belonged to the headquarters of the US occupation forces in Japan, led by General D. MacArthur. Changes in the economic sphere:
On October 11, 1945, agrarian reform was carried out;
in November 1945, the zaibatsu were dissolved and complete economic freedom was declared;
in 1946, a federation of economic organizations was founded to lobby the interests of Japanese business in politics;
On November 21, 1946, the law on trade unions was adopted.
Political reforms:
In October 1945, directives were adopted proclaiming political and religious freedoms in Japan;
in Oct. 1945 The Liberal, Progressive, Socialist and Communist parties were formed;
women received voting rights;
from Dec. 1945 The Directive on the democratization of the education system began to be implemented;
the headquarters of General D. MacArthur began to develop a new constitution (approved by parliament in September 1946, came into force on May 3, 1947).
the armed forces were disbanded, military production was prohibited;
01/01/1946 the emperor publicly renounced the divine origin of the ruling dynasty;
The International Tokyo Military Tribunal was organized.
At an international conference in San Francisco (1951), a peace treaty was signed between the victorious powers and Japan.
After it came into force in April 1952. the occupation regime was ended.
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More on topic 30. Japan during the years of American military occupation (1945-1952):
- 32. American occupation of Japan (1945-1952) and its role in the formation of the post-war Japanese political system.
- 24) Ideology and cultural life of the country in the post-war period (1945-1952).
- Chapter 38. POST-WAR RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE USSR (1945-1952)
After the Soviet Union entered the war with Japan and its troops defeated the Kwantung Army, the ruling circles of Japan accepted the terms of the Potsdam Conference on unconditional surrender. Following this, Japan was occupied by American troops acting on behalf of the Allied powers.
From this time until the entry into force of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1952, the supreme power in the country was in the hands of the United States.
The policy of the Allied Powers towards Japan was formulated in the Potsdam Declaration of July 26, 1945. The Declaration contained demands for the permanent eradication of militarism in Japan, the removal of all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies, the establishment of freedom of speech, religion and thought, as well as respect for human rights . It provided for the formation of a peace-loving, responsible government in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people.
Nevertheless, the United States largely retained the old state apparatus headed by the Japanese emperor, only slightly restructuring it. By purging the administrative apparatus, the Americans created a bureaucratic management machine obedient to them.
The United States has appropriated all the most important government functions to itself. They took control of finances, drawing up the state budget, foreign trade, controlled the courts and police apparatus, and limited the legislative power of parliament. The Japanese government was deprived of the right to establish relations with other countries; all foreign policy functions were in the hands of the occupation authorities.
Already in September 1945, the army, punitive authorities, and nationalist organizations were dissolved. This was followed by granting workers the right to create trade unions, democratization of the education system, the elimination of absolutism, equalization of women's rights, and democratization of the economy. Zaibatsu (industrial and financial concerns) were dissolved, land reform was carried out, and landownership was destroyed. The Shinto religion was separated from the state, and on January 1, 1946, the emperor publicly renounced the myth of the divine origin of the ruling dynasty.
As a result of the purges, over 200 thousand people were removed from public and political activities, and 28 major war criminals were arrested and tried by an international tribunal. More than 3 thousand political prisoners were released from prison.
After the surrender of Japan, instead of the resigned Suzuki cabinet, a government was created headed by a member of the imperial family, Pritz Higashikuni. It was supposed to preserve the attributes of old Japan as much as possible and minimize the measures of the Allied powers. This government lasted only until early October 1945 and was replaced by the cabinet of Shidehara, known for his pro-American orientation. During the reign of this cabinet, major reforms were carried out on the directives of the Americans, including elections to the first post-war parliament. Some newly formed parties took part in them, including the left wing parties - the Communist Party of Japan and the Socialist Party of Japan, which later began to play a significant role in the political arena.
An important positive measure to change the state structure of Japan was the adoption on November 3, 1946 of a new constitution, which came into force on May 3, 1947 (in force to the present day). She abolished the absolute monarchy and effectively removed the emperor from political power, declaring him only a “symbol of the unity of the nation.” The sovereign power of the people was proclaimed. What was new in the practice of bourgeois state law was the declaration that Japan renounced “war as the sovereign right of the nation, as well as the threat or use of armed force as a means of resolving international disputes.”
According to the new constitution, both men and women began to be considered citizens and received equal voting rights with men. Universal suffrage was introduced, the patriarchal family system was abolished, and civil rights were declared.
The upper house of parliament became elected and was called the House of Councillors. The lower house (house of representatives) was endowed with greater powers than the upper.
The political party with the majority of deputies in the House of Representatives could appoint the prime minister. If it had a majority in both houses, it could submit proposals to parliament to change laws. Opposition parties and trade unions were supported by the Americans in the early years of the occupation in order to strengthen democratic institutions. However, with the proclamation of the Truman Doctrine (1947), which marked the beginning of the Cold War, they set out to turn Japan into a bastion of anti-communism, their ally in the fight against the CCCP and communist China. Under these conditions, all left-wing organizations (and due to the difficult economic situation in Japan, trade unions actively fought the government policy to curb the income of the population) became objects of repression.
After 1947, and especially after the outbreak of the Korean War (1950), the Americans began to pursue the so-called “reverse course.” It boiled down to three main points: the suppression of the opposition, primarily trade union and communist, movement; review of the policy regarding the dissolution of the zaibatsu; the beginning of Japanese rearmament. Repressive measures were taken against radical movements (dismissal from work, closure of print media, etc.), and strikes were prohibited. The Americans switched to a policy of strengthening the Japanese economy. In 1950, in a New Year's message to the Prime Minister of Japan, the commander of the occupation forces, General MacArthur, noted that the pacifist Article 9 of the constitution does not prohibit Japan from having self-defense forces. After this, a program was adopted to create a 75,000-strong national police corps, which became the basis for the formation of a new army.
The recovery of the Japanese economy was extremely slow. In 1948, three years after the end of the war, the industrial production index of Japan in relation to 1937, taken as 100, was only 52, while in other defeated countries it reached - in West Germany - 100, in Italy - 98 The most pressing problem was inflation, which not only hampered the recovery of industrial production, but also caused social unrest. Another reason was unemployment, since the demobilization of the army and navy and the return of hundreds of thousands of immigrants from former colonies led to the emergence of a huge number of “extra” workers.
Economic recovery until 1949 was mainly through government subsidies to large monopolies and American aid. However, these measures could only be temporary, since they created a situation in which the more funds were invested in industry to increase production. the more inflation grew. Japanese business circles showed no interest in changing this mechanism, which provided them with large inflationary profits through the use of public funds.
Therefore, in December 1948, the American government issued a categorical order to the headquarters of the occupation forces to put into effect a stabilization plan. It consisted of nine points, according to which the Japanese government was obliged to: 1) balance the state budget, 2) increase tax revenues, 3) strictly limit the issuance of subsidies, 4) stabilize wages, 5) establish price controls, 6) strengthen control over foreign trade and foreign exchange, 7) improve the supply system for materials necessary for export production, 8) increase the production of local raw materials and goods to limit imports, 9) improve the food supply system.
"In May 1949, the United States canceled the plan to levy reparations from Japan, then revised the law against monopolies, opening the way for the concentration of production and capital. Severe measures to curb inflation, stabilize monetary circulation, and balance exports, called the “Dodge Line” (named after chief economic adviser at the headquarters of the occupation forces) as well as huge American military orders associated with the Korean War laid the foundation for the accelerated restoration and development of Japan's heavy and chemical industries and ensured high rates of economic growth in the future.
San Francisco Peace Conference was held in September 1951. It was organized by an agreement between the ruling circles of the USA and England with the aim of establishing
implementation of the formal procedure for signing the version of the peace treaty they presented with Japan. Many interested countries were not invited to it or refused to participate (like India and Burma) as a sign of disagreement with the Anglo-American draft treaty. During the conference, the Soviet delegation put forward a number of proposals and amendments to the treaty, including those related to a clear definition of the ownership of the territories that seceded from Japan. After refusing to take into account the objections and amendments of the Soviet delegation, she refused to sign the peace treaty, classifying it as a separate agreement between the governments of the United States and Japan.
In accordance with the Cairo and Potsdam Declarations, the Yalta Agreement and the decisions of the Far Eastern Commission, the San Francisco Peace Treaty formalized Japan's renunciation of South Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, Taiwan, the Penghuledao Islands and some other territories, but did not indicate their current nationality.
Simultaneously with the peace treaty in San Francisco, a “security treaty” was signed between the United States and Japan, according to which the United States received the right to keep its troops in Japan even after the conclusion of the peace treaty. According to the “security treaty,” the Americans assumed obligations not only for the defense of Japan, but also for the suppression of internal unrest in it, and also stipulated the need to develop Japanese self-defense forces.
The period of reform in Japan actually began on August 15, 1945, when the country accepted the Potsdam Declaration and thereby capitulated. The signing of the corresponding act on board the Missouri on September 2, 1945 put an end to World War II and opened a new page in Japanese history.
The period of occupation that followed the defeat in the war lasted a little less than seven years, until April 28, 1952, i.e. until the San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed by 48 countries of the capitalist bloc on September 8, 1951, began to be implemented.
It was during this period that radical economic reforms were carried out in Japan, allowing it to develop efficiently and dynamically, firmly taking its place as the second economic power in the world. During this period, reforms took place in three key areas of the Japanese economy - agriculture, industry and finance.
Carrying out radical reforms in the agricultural sector of Japan in the early post-war years it was extremely important not only for Japanese agriculture, but also for the entire economy as a whole.
Successful reforms in the agricultural sector have allowed millions of citizens to find work and income. Thus, unemployment was minimized and the excess supply of labor in the labor market was eliminated. Agricultural production absorbed a huge labor force - up to half of the total employed population (49.4% in 1950).
The key point for the start of reforms was that by 1946, almost half (46%) of all cultivated land in Japan was leased and, therefore, was cultivated not by the owners, but by tenants under difficult, sometimes difficult, conditions, namely on the basis of mandatory rent amounted to 50 to 70% of the harvest.
There were two land reforms in post-war Japan.
The first (1945–1946) was a dead-end solution to the agrarian question. The situation was heating up: the number of rental disputes increased sharply: if for the entire 1945 there were 5,171 of them registered, then in just over five months of 1946 there were already about 20 thousand.
The second land reform (1946–1950) was able to truly radically change the agricultural sector.
It consisted of the following two provisions:
- – transfer of land ownership rights to farmers actually working on the land;
- – improving the situation of those who wish to remain tenants.
Thanks to the reform, the government managed to radically change the situation in the village. The number of owner-operated farms increased by 77%, increasing by almost 1.7 million units, and their share rapidly increased from 36 to 62% of the total number of farms. As a result of the reform, great positive affect was achieved in the sphere of social relations.
Reforms 1946–1950 laid a solid foundation so that agriculture would not subsequently become a brake on the development of the entire economy.
Antimonopoly measures , carried out by the Japanese government together with the headquarters of the occupation forces, had even more serious consequences for Japan. Essentially, the backbone of Japanese industry was reformed, the entire system of corporate governance was transformed, the securities market was modified, and the role of banks increased.
The dissolution of the zaibatsu began with the fact that at the end of 1945 - beginning of 1946, under pressure from the occupation authorities, the Shidehara government froze the property of the zaibatsu and created a commission to streamline holding companies.
In the period from October 1946 to September 1947, with the participation of the new cabinets of ministers Yoshida and Katayama, the procedure for dissolving the zaibatsu began to be carried out.
Firstly, the parent holding companies were dissolved, which, owning controlling stakes, managed a concern consisting of many diversified companies. At that time (1946), the zaibatsu holding companies owned 167 million shares worth 8.1 billion yen, while the total number of all shares of all companies in the country was 443 million yen. Thus, 38% of the shares of the entire country were concentrated in the hands of holding companies.
The entire procedure was led by a liquidation commission specially created by the SCAP headquarters.
The shares of liquidated holdings, as well as all their remaining property and ownership rights in subsidiaries, were forced to be sold to liquidation commissions. Payment was made in government bonds with the right to sell them after 10 years.
After this, the liquidation commissions had to organize the sale to the public of the assets acquired from the zaibatsu through the issue of shares. The shares were subject to free sale on the stock market. As a result, of the 167 million shares owned by the zaibatsu, by 1951, 165 million were sold for a total of 7.57 billion yen.
A total of 83 holding companies were subject to dissolution, but in reality only 16 holding companies were dissolved. 26 companies were dissolved with subsequent reorganization, 11 holding companies were reorganized without dissolution, and the remaining 30 companies were retained altogether on the condition that they independently transfer their controlling stakes to other companies.
Second, antitrust legislation was passed, represented by the "Private Monopolies Prohibition and Fair and Fair Transactions Act" (April 1947) and the "Undue Concentration of Economic Power Act" (February 1948).
In addition to the antitrust laws passed, a fair trade commission was also created. She was charged with monitoring compliance with antitrust laws and suppressing dishonest, illegal methods of competition: such as price fixing, collusion and artificial limitation of production, participation in any monopolistic unions, the formation of cartels, syndicates, trusts, concerns led by holding companies . Acquisitions and mergers that led to the elimination of competition in the market were controlled and could be stopped. The right to purchase and own shares of other companies was limited.
As a result, by 1950, 42.7% of the shares were sold to employees of enterprises, as well as local residents of the territories in which the enterprises were located; 41.8 million shares were sold directly to employees (as of September 1, 1949), or 27.1 %. In total, individuals owned approximately 70% of the shares.
This was a radical transformation of property relations. Having received property titles in their hands, enterprise employees were able to fully experience the real fruits of the reform. This was the main meaning and the most valuable positive effect of the reform.
Reforms in the Japanese financial sector. The situation in Japan's monetary economy after the war was truly critical. After the surrender, Japan's finances were in a deplorable state.
In the pre-war years, when the whole world was experiencing depression, the Japanese government managed to maintain a relatively stable price situation: price increases from 1930 to 1937 averaged less than 3% per year. In subsequent years, maintaining price stability became more and more difficult. In general, prices in Japan increased 300 times during the 17 most difficult years (1936–1953). For comparison, in the US over the same period prices only doubled, and in the UK - threefold.
Under leadership from Washington, Japan developed a stabilization program in December 1948, officially called " "Economic Stability Program to be Implemented by the Japanese Government" or "Nine Point Economic Stabilization Program" ". It formulated the main goals and objectives of the new financial reform:
- – balance the state budget;
- – increase tax revenues;
- – strictly limit the issuance of government subsidies;
- – stabilize wages;
- – establish control over prices;
- – strengthen control over foreign trade and foreign currency;
- – improve the supply system for materials necessary to expand exports;
- – increase the production of the most important types of local raw materials and goods;
- – improve the food supply system.
This program was assigned to the American banker Joseph Dodge. His mission was entrusted with getting to the bottom of Japan's economic problems and combating inflation, since in this regard the headquarters of Commander-in-Chief MacArthur had lost control of the situation.
First of all, Dodge's mission radically reformed foreign trade activities. Instead of multiple exchange rates for various types of goods, which were associated with an increase in the budget deficit, a single exchange rate of 360 yen per dollar was established.
The Dodge Mission eliminated or significantly reduced most of the Japanese government's subsidies to the private sector, which were thought to be contributing to rising prices. The source of financing for the industry was the funds received by the Japanese government from the resale of American food aid, which previously went to support exporters. Thus, exporters found themselves self-sufficient, and the funds they received in the form of subsidies were now redirected to long-term investment projects.
In organizational terms, the so-called "equivalent fund" from which long-term loans for industrial development began to be issued. This helped to significantly relieve the state budget, which had previously been forced to finance industry by inflating the money supply.
A certain order was introduced into such an important area of financial policy as control and direction of bank lending flows.
In order to introduce greater rationality into the routine market process of lending to enterprises by incorporating macroeconomic analysis and long-term government planning, in other words, in order to supplement the practical tactical knowledge of bankers with a strategic vision of national tasks, the credit control board, created similar to the American control board under the Federal Reserve System.
The changes also affected the Japanese stock market. Exchanges that had been closed since the end of the war were reopened.
Chronic government budget deficits were overcome in 1949, when revenues exceeded expenditures for the first time in the postwar era.
In 1952, the period of occupation ended, more and more functions passed into the hands of the Japanese government, the intensity of post-war discussions decreased, and the country gradually entered a long period of high economic growth.
The most important events of this time were the processes of restoring the power of the former zaibatsu in the form of new structures aimed at leading banks. The keiretsu system was developed, which was the recreation of large corporate conglomerates and holdings.
Keiretsu was a form of network organization in which formally independent firms are united into a single whole thanks to a strong system of connections based on cross-shareholding, mixed directorates, and presidential councils. Keiretsu are associations of industrial, commercial and financial organizations. The keiretsu includes subsidiaries and partner companies, part of the shares of which belong to the parent company, and may also include independent companies connected with the concern by much stronger production ties.
Keiretsu has no analogues in any other developed country.
The lifetime employment system is rightfully considered the main characteristic of the Japanese labor market.
Elements of the lifetime employment system began to be used in the heavy and chemical industries during the economic depression after the First World War. These industries were in particular need of a permanent, skilled workforce, and the scale of activity in this sector and the prospects for the development of the corresponding markets made it possible to confidently plan the expansion of production without fear of an oversupply of labor.
Subsequently, this technique spread to other important industries. This was due not only to private initiative to use this method of organizing labor as more effective, but also to the fact that in 1940–1941. The government introduced a system of military control over industry and forced assignment of labor to facilities allocated for military production.
In the post-war period, when there was a clear shortage of qualified labor and competition between Japanese companies sharply intensified, the lifelong employment system began to be actively used at leading enterprises, allowing them to provide their production with permanent workers on a voluntary economic basis. This introduced additional motivation to the work of the staff, who had guarantees of lifelong employment, subject to high-quality work and the viability of the company itself.
Emergence in the early 1950s. Quality circles - operational production groups aimed at solving specific issues related to improving the quality of products - have become one of the most characteristic forms of participation of ordinary enterprise employees in innovation activities for the Japanese economic system.
All this became the foundation on which highly efficient Japanese production was subsequently built.
The policy of the Allied powers towards defeated Japan was formulated in the Potsdam Declaration of June 26, 1945. The Declaration contained demands for the eradication of militarism, the removal of all obstacles to the development of democratic tendencies, the establishment in the country of freedom of speech, religion and respect for basic human rights. The Declaration was the general program of the anti-fascist coalition of the Allied powers. It reflected the goals that the democratic forces of the whole world set for themselves in the Second World War. In some of its sections, in particular, the following was said. The power and influence of those who deceived and misled the people of Japan into pursuing the path of worldwide conquest must be eliminated forever, for we firmly believe that a new order of peace, security and justice will not be possible until irresponsible militarism expelled from the world.
Until such a new order is established, and until there is conclusive evidence that Japan's ability to wage war has been destroyed, points on Japanese territory which are designated by the Allies will be occupied in order to ensure implementation of the main goals that we set out here. The Japanese armed forces, after they are disarmed, will be allowed to return to their homes with the opportunity to lead a peaceful and working life. We do not seek to see the Japanese enslaved as a race or destroyed as a nation, but all war crimes, including those who committed atrocities against our prisoners, must be severely punished. The Allied occupation forces will be withdrawn from Japan as soon as these objectives have been achieved and as soon as a peaceful and responsible government has been established in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people. There is no doubt that this Declaration was fair and, above all, met the aspirations of the Japanese people themselves...
Questions of the post-war system. After the Soviet Union entered the war and defeated the Kwantung Army, the ruling elite of Japan accepted the terms of the Potsdam Declaration of unconditional surrender. Following this, Japan was occupied by American troops acting on behalf of the Allied powers. Immediately after the surrender of Japan, a struggle began regarding the issues of its post-war structure. On the one hand were the ruling circles of the United States, who feared the strengthening of the movement of the Japanese masses in defense of their rights and insisted on certain limited reforms that did not affect the foundations of the existing system. Opposite positions were taken by some international democratic forces, which demanded broad progressive changes to ensure the transformation of Japan into a modern democratic state.
At the same time, from the very beginning of the occupation, the US ruling circles sought to circumvent the principle of unanimity of the four great powers (USSR, USA, China and England) in resolving Japanese problems. In October 1945, the United States unilaterally created the Far Eastern Advisory Commission on Japan in Washington, which caused sharp protest from the Soviet Union and other countries. Finally, in December 1945, at the Moscow meeting of foreign ministers, convened at the initiative of the USSR, after lengthy negotiations, the United States was forced to agree to the dissolution of the Far Eastern Commission and adopt a plan according to which a Far Eastern Commission was established in Washington, consisting of representatives of 11 countries. This commission was proclaimed a decision-making body that determined the basic principles of occupation policy and, in theory, was placed above the commander-in-chief of the American occupation forces. However, due to the aggravation of relations between the USSR and the USA, the Far Eastern Commission did not play its assigned role in practice.
American occupation policy began in conditions of a sharp aggravation of the general crisis of capitalism and the collapse of the colonial system. At this time, the peoples of the whole world, including the American people, as a result of the victory in the war, which was of an anti-fascist, liberation nature, experienced a democratic, revolutionary upsurge. Under these conditions, the United States could not ignore the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and was forced to proclaim a policy of democratization and demilitarization of Japan. At the same time, they pursued their own goals - to weaken their yesterday's competitor in the world market, to establish political, economic and military control over it.
However, in order to eliminate the danger of a revival of the Japanese threat to America, it was necessary, first of all, to undermine the positions of the absolutist monarchy, the military, the landowners, and the bureaucracy, and to weaken the influence of monopoly capital. The United States understood that it was impossible to carry out such important tasks with the forces of an occupying army alone, and therefore tried to use social and political forces within Japan itself - pacifists, representatives of the middle and petty bourgeoisie, workers and peasants, liberals, etc. The first steps of the occupation authorities. Unlike the occupation of Germany, as a result of which its government was completely dissolved and the country was administered directly by the Allied powers, who created the Allied Military Administration for Germany, in Japan the United States largely retained the old state apparatus led by the Japanese emperor, only slightly rebuilt and updated in during the purge, and entrusted this apparatus with the implementation of American directives on post-war reforms. At the same time, the United States has appropriated a number of government functions to itself. They completely took control of the area of finance and foreign trade, put under their control all the organs of justice, police power, drawing up the state budget, and limited the legislative power of parliament. In the field of diplomacy, the Japanese government was deprived of the right to establish and maintain relations with foreign powers. Immediately after the surrender, the United States took a number of measures aimed at reviving in the country some democratic norms that were either completely absent in Japan or were limited during the world war. The dissolution of ultranationalist societies, secret right-wing organizations whose activities contributed to limiting the freedoms of the Japanese people, was officially announced. Already in September 1945, in accordance with the Potsdam Declaration, the occupation authorities issued directives on the dissolution of the country's armed forces, on the prohibition of military production, and on the arrest of the main war criminals. On October 4, 1945, the secret police (Tocco), similar to the German Gestapo, was liquidated, and political prisoners were released at the same time.
In order to weaken the cult of the emperor, on January 1, 1946, he publicly renounced the myth of his divine origin. On January 4, the occupation authorities issued a decree purging the state apparatus and political organizations of persons associated in the past with fascist and militaristic activities and dissolving 27 chauvinist organizations. As a result of these purges, more than 200 thousand people were removed from public and political activities. They were arrested and betrayed. The International Military Tribunal names 28 major war criminals, including former prime ministers Tojo, Koiso, Hirota, Hiranuma, generals Araki, Doihara, Itagaki, Kimura, Minami, Matsui, and some diplomats. Although the occupation authorities thus intended to get rid of people they disliked and pursued only their own interests, nevertheless, a serious blow was dealt to the old bureaucratic system on which the imperial regime relied.
In December 1945, the Trade Union Law was published, which for the first time in Japanese history gave all workers, including employees of state-owned enterprises and institutions, the right to organize trade unions, collective bargaining and strikes. The law also provided for the participation of trade unions in discussing issues of personnel, hiring and dismissal, and the payment of wages to released trade union workers.
On October 22, 1945, a memorandum of the occupation authorities regarding public education was issued. It provided for the prohibition of the cultivation of militaristic ideology and the teaching of military disciplines in ordinary schools. It was indicated that the upbringing of children should be carried out taking into account the education in children of respect for the dignity of the individual, his rights, respect for the rights and interests of other peoples. The memorandum also provided for the rehabilitation of educators who had been fired for liberal or anti-war views. At the same time, any discrimination against teachers, students and educators on the basis of race, religion or political opinion was prohibited. Until new textbooks were published, teaching Japanese history in schools was prohibited.
Economic situation. The production and technical base of Japanese industry suffered relatively little from the war. The greatest reduction in production capacity occurred only in the light industry - food, textiles - which satisfied the consumer demand of the population for essential goods.
As for the capacities of heavy industry, they have remained at a fairly high level. While destroying and setting fire to unprotected peaceful cities and villages, the Americans almost completely did not affect Japan’s main coal and metallurgical base on the island of Kyushu. In particular, Japan's largest metallurgical plant, Yawata, has been completely preserved. However, production in Japan fell sharply. The import of raw materials, fuel and food has essentially ceased as a result of the ban on maintaining trade relations with other states. During the first two years of the occupation, Japan ranked last in the world in the rate of industrial recovery. Nevertheless, the United States was forced to provide economic assistance to Japan during the initial period of occupation. This was done more for political than for economic reasons - in order to prevent acute social conflicts, as well as to achieve self-sufficiency of the Japanese economy. As a result of the cessation of military production, the demobilization of the army and navy, and the repatriation of the Japanese from former colonies and occupied territories (Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan, the South Sea Islands), mass unemployment arose. About 10 million unemployed people were abandoned to their fate.
In order to somewhat smooth out the impending financial crisis, the government took the path of mass issuance of paper money to pay off its numerous obligations to monopolies, to pay benefits to officers of the army and navy, and to cover the state budget deficit. These measures resulted in severe inflation and a sharp decline in real wages, which were already very low. Formation of political parties. Immediately after the surrender of Japan, old parties began to be restored and new parties emerged.
- On October 10, 1945, communists, including party leaders, who had been imprisoned for 18 years, were released from prison. For the first time, the Japanese Communist Party received the opportunity to exist legally and immediately began its work among the masses. On December 1, 1945, the 1st Congress of the Communist Party of Japan opened its work - the first legal congress of Japanese communists. It adopted a program and charter. In their program documents, the communists called for deep democratic reforms in the country, the elimination of the imperial system and the formation of a democratic republic, agrarian reform and the eradication of militarism.
- On November 2, 1945, at the founding congress, the creation of the Socialist Party of Japan (JSP) was proclaimed. It included Social Democrats of all shades. The party program put forward slogans of democracy, peace and socialism. Moreover, by socialism the SPY did not mean the destruction of capitalist relations, but the implementation of deep social reforms within the framework of the capitalist system.
- On November 9, 1945, the Liberal Party (Jiyuto) was formed, the main core of which was made up of members of the pre-war bourgeois-landowner Seiyukai party. This party will in the future reflect the interests of the big monopoly bourgeoisie.
- On November 16, 1945, the Progressive Party (Simpoto) was born. It reflected the interests of a certain part of the big bourgeoisie, landowners and the elite of the Japanese peasantry.
Dissolution of Japanese monopolies - zaibatsu. The economy of pre-war Japan was dominated by large monopolistic associations called "zaibatsu". They were usually closed or secluded and controlled by one family. Using the “personal union” system and other means. The zaibatsu's parent companies controlled dozens and hundreds of subsidiary joint-stock companies engaged in industry, trade, credit, transport and other sectors of the economy. These subsidiaries, in turn, dominated various other companies, etc. In this way, a relatively small number of powerful zaibatsu - Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda - with the support of the government apparatus supporting them, covered literally all sectors of the Japanese economy with their tentacles. In addition, the zaibatsu were the main inspirers and organizers of Japan's imperialist aggression and during the war they further strengthened their role.
The issue of dissolving these associations was put forward by democratic forces as a priority task. They considered the elimination of the zaibatsu's omnipotence as a necessary prerequisite for the true democratization and demilitarization of Japan. The situation was made easier to some extent by the fact that they had long since discredited themselves in the eyes of the public and were preventing the restoration of the position of the big Japanese bourgeoisie. In the directive of the American government of September 6, 1945, transmitted to MacArthur, in addition to some economic problems, it also indicated the need to “develop a program for the dissolution of large industrial and banking associations that exercise control over most of Japan’s industry and trade,” and about replacing them with organizations of entrepreneurs who can ensure “a wider distribution of income and ownership of the means of production and trade.” In February 1946, the rights to hold leadership positions in companies were limited to 56 family members of the zaibatsu's leading figures, which was supposed to help eliminate the zaibatsu's dominance over other companies through personal union. In accordance with the instructions of the occupation authorities, the Japanese government developed a plan to dissolve the parent concerns Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo and Yasuda, and their assets were frozen.
True, the zaibatsu received full compensation for the securities in the form of government bonds that were due in 10 years. Subsequently, the parent companies of these large concerns announced their dissolution. Somewhat later, the occupation authorities and the Japanese government itself adopted several legislative acts that provided for a number of economic and legal measures that were supposed to prevent the revival of the zaibatsu in the future...
Agrarian reform. The agrarian question has long been one of the most pressing social problems in Japan. Before the war, the Japanese countryside was dominated by feudal landownership, which was formed after the Meiji reforms in the 70s and 80s. Х1Х century More than half of the cultivated land belonged to landowners, who rented it out to peasants under enslaving conditions. The rent reached 60% of the harvest and was mainly collected only in kind. The bonded rental system led to the formation of an agrarian overpopulation, which served as a reservoir of cheap labor. All this had a negative impact on the general standard of living, both in the city and in the countryside. The existing system of feudal land tenure hampered the development of productive forces in agriculture and prevented an increase in the production of food and agricultural raw materials. At the same time, the feudal appearance of the village had a negative impact on the development of capitalist relations in the urban production system. The elimination of these relations, undoubtedly, could have a positive impact on the democratization of the entire political system of Japan. The surrender of Japan opened a new page in the peasants' struggle for their rights. The sharp rise of the peasant movement and its unification in the form of the All-Japan Peasant Union aroused serious concerns among both the occupation authorities and the ruling circles of the country. In an effort to prevent the democratic transformation of agriculture by the people themselves, the ruling circles of the United States and Japan were forced to carry out land reform from above, through legal, parliamentary means.
In November 1945, the Japanese government itself introduced a land law bill into parliament. This document was drawn up by the Japanese ruling circles and reflected the interests only of the landowners themselves.
In December 1945, in the midst of parliamentary debates, the headquarters of the occupation forces published the “Memorandum on Land Reform.” This law caused acute discontent among Japanese democratic forces. The same criticism of the law was made by the CPJ and the All-Japan Peasant Union. The land reform law was severely criticized by representatives of the Soviet authorities. The Soviet administration proposed its own rather radical version of the law, which took more into account the interests of the peasants. Ultimately, the Japanese parliament approved the third version of the law proposed by England, which was less radical than the Soviet one, but more positive than the American one. This land reform was based on the following general principles. Land, in excess of a certain norm, was purchased by the state from landowners and then sold to peasants. When selling land, preference was given to those peasants who previously cultivated this land as tenants. After the reform (1949-1950), private peasant farming became the predominant form of farming. From now on, rent payments could only be collected in cash and should not exceed 25% of the harvest.
Mountain forests and most of the virgin lands still remained in the hands of the landowners. Forests that previously belonged to the imperial family were declared state property. Although the land reform led to a significant change in class relations in the countryside, it did not completely solve the agrarian question. Small peasant farming could not ensure a significant increase in productive forces and technical progress in agriculture. The simple transformation of tenants into independent landowners ultimately made them dependent on the transformed capitalist economy. Many former landowners, who retained forests, pastures, and meadows in their hands, exercised control over local authorities, cooperatives and various societies and largely retained economic and political positions in the village.
Education reform. In March 1947, the Law on School Education and the Basic Law on Education were issued. Using the recommendations of American experts, Japanese educators created a public education system that basically complied with the provisions of the new constitution. The period of compulsory and free education was increased from 6 to 9 years. Teaching methods and programs have undergone significant changes. Nationalist and chauvinist propaganda was eliminated from school education. Similar transformations were carried out in the university education system. School management was decentralized. Municipal and rural authorities were given greater autonomy in this area. Decentralization of education management facilitated the creation of a wider network of specialized colleges and institutes and significantly accelerated the pace of training and the quality of new personnel. Labor Law. In April 1947, the Labor Standards Act was passed. It established an 8-hour working day, an hour-long lunch break, a 25% increase in wages for overtime work, paid leave, employer responsibility for labor protection and sanitary conditions, payment of compensation for work-related injuries, labor protection for teenagers, etc.
And although after the release of this Law some negative phenomena remained in production, this Law itself had a very great progressive significance. Adoption of a new Constitution. A sharp struggle between democratic and reactionary forces unfolded around the draft of a new Japanese constitution. The American occupation authorities believed that the imperial system could be a convenient instrument for implementing US policy. Such projects have drawn sharp criticism both abroad and within Japan. Several countries, including the Soviet Union, were inclined to abolish the imperial system altogether and create a system of parliamentary bourgeois democracy in Japan. In the end, the headquarters of the occupation forces in February 1946 proposed a new compromise option, according to which the emperor was preserved, but only as a national symbol, following the example of England. MacArthur later admitted that he was forced to make concessions only due to the position of the Soviet Union. The democratic movement of the Japanese people themselves had a great influence on the nature of the project. Several very important articles and corrections were made to the previously completed project. In particular, an article was added on the renunciation of war as a method of conflict resolution. Japan was prohibited from having its own armed forces. The emperor's prerogatives were limited to representative functions as a symbol of Japan. The House of Peers was abolished.
Democratic tendencies were also contained in the section “Rights and Duties of the People,” which solemnly declared “that the people enjoy without hindrance all fundamental human rights, that the right of people to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness should be the supreme subject of concern in the field of legislation and other public affairs " The Constitution proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law and, in connection with this, the abolition of the privileged aristocratic class. In addition - “the inalienable right of citizens to elect public officials and to remove them from office”; “freedom of thought and conscience, freedom of assembly, speech and press”; “freedom of scientific activity”; “the right of workers to create their own organizations and collective agreements.”
International Military Tribunal. An important link in the post-war development of Japan was played by issues related to the problem of the Japanese army, police, officer cadres and issues of bringing political and military figures of the country to trial. The Japanese ruling circles, already on the eve of the capitulation, foreseeing future consequences, tried to maintain control over the situation and not bring it to an outcome they did not want. On August 17, 1945, the Higashikuni government rapidly demobilized the Japanese army. The armed forces at that time numbered 7 million people, of which 4 million were in Japan proper.
On August 28, 1945, many mobilization documents and lists of officers were destroyed or hidden. The Guards Division was reorganized into the imperial police department, retaining its core in case of restoration. The main leadership and most experienced personnel of the army and navy were distributed among government agencies and military-industrial companies. All this was done in order to preserve officer cadres and remove them from possible negative consequences in the event of Japan's defeat. However, these plans and the actions of the last Japanese government did not materialize. In accordance with the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, as well as at the insistence of the international community and the peoples of Asian countries, the International Military Tribunal was created, which met in Tokyo. It included representatives of 11 countries - the USSR, USA, Great Britain, China, France, Australia, New Zealand, Holland, India and the Philippines. It attracted the close attention of millions of honest people around the world, who saw in it a manifestation of the struggle for peace and the eradication of fascism. 28 representatives of the ruling elite of Japan were brought before the International Tribunal, among whom were former prime ministers, senior military leaders, diplomats, ideologists of Japanese imperialism, economic and financial figures. In November 1948, the International Tribunal in Tokyo, after trials that lasted more than 2.5 years, delivered its verdict in the case of 25 major war criminals. The tribunal sentenced eight to death. 16 defendants were sentenced to life imprisonment. The tribunal's verdict was met with great approval by the world democratic community.
In addition, the Tribunal condemned Japanese aggression as an international crime and established that imperialist Japan, in close alliance with Nazi Germany, sought the conquest of entire countries and the enslavement of their peoples. It was also proven that Japan had been preparing aggression against the USSR for many years and in 1938-1939. carried out armed attacks on the USSR. In the section “Japanese Policy towards the USSR,” it said in particular: “The Tribunal considers that an aggressive war against the USSR was envisaged and planned by Japan during the period under review, that it was one of the main elements of Japanese national policy and that its goal was the seizure of territories USSR in the Far East". The verdict listed specific types of assistance that Japan provided to Germany in its war against the Soviet Union in violation of its obligations under the Neutrality Pact. In particular, it was indicated that Japan supplied Germany with military intelligence data about the Soviet Army, its reserves, the transfer of Soviet troops, and the industrial potential of the USSR.
