At the beginning of the 19th century. The initiator of broad reforms in the sphere of state power and social relations was Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825). A characteristic feature of his reign was the struggle between two currents: liberal and conservative-protective, and the emperor maneuvering between them. After ascending the throne, Alexander abolished restrictions on the import and export of goods and books, trips abroad, confirmed the Charter of the nobility, restored relations with England, returned from exile and lifted disgrace from all officers and officials who suffered under Paul.
To discuss state issues in 1801, the Permanent Council was formed under the emperor - an advisory body of 12 people. At the same time, under Alexander I, a Secret Committee was formed - a circle of young friends of the tsar, which included P. Stroganov, N. Novosiltsev, V. Kochubey, A. Czartoryski. They discussed issues of reforming Russia, the abolition of serfdom, and the constitution.
In 1803, a decree “On free cultivators” was issued. In accordance with it, landowners could free serfs with land for a ransom. Decrees of 1804-1805 limited serfdom in the Baltic states. The sale of peasants without land was prohibited.
In 1803, a new regulation “On the structure of educational institutions” appeared. During Alexander's reign, 5 new universities were opened. The university charter of 1804 established the autonomy of universities.
The Manifesto of 1802 established 8 ministries instead of collegiums. In 1808-1812. preparation of projects for the reorganization of the state management system was concentrated in the Ministry of Internal Affairs and was carried out under the leadership of M.M. Speransky. In 1809, he presented a draft reform "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." The project provided for the separation of powers. The highest legislative body was declared to be the State Duma, which led the network of volost, district and provincial dumas. The highest executive power was vested in the emperor, under whom the State Council was established as an advisory body. The Senate became the highest judicial body.
In 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body. In 1810, the “General Establishment of Ministries” developed by Speransky was introduced, which determined the composition, limits of power and responsibility of ministries.
The hatred of courtiers and officials was caused by the decree prepared by Speransky in 1809, according to which all persons who had a court rank had to choose some kind of real service, i.e. the court rank turned into only an honorary title and lost the status of a position. Speransky also implemented a number of measures aimed at improving finances. In 1812, Speransky was dismissed from government service and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm.
Russian foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century. was determined primarily by the situation that was developing in Europe.
In 1805, Russia again joined the anti-French coalition. The Russian army and its allies were defeated at Austerlitz. In 1806, the battles of Pułtusk and Preussisch-Eylau took place. Battle of Friedland in 1807 ended this war and completed the defeat of the Russian army.
In the summer of 1807, Russia and France signed the Treaty of Tilsit and the treaty of alliance against England. This was the first meeting between Alexander I and Napoleon. Russia agreed to mediate in negotiations between France and Great Britain, and France assumed the role of mediator in concluding peace between Russia and Turkey. Russia pledged to withdraw its troops from Moldova and Wallachia and recognized the sovereignty of France over the Ionian Islands. The parties agreed to conduct joint actions in the war against any European power. It was agreed that if Great Britain did not accept Russian mediation or did not agree to make peace, Russia would have to break off diplomatic and trade relations with it. Napoleon, for his part, took upon himself the obligation to act on the side of Russia against Turkey.
Great Britain refused Alexander I's offer of mediation. Remaining faithful to the newly signed treaty, Russia declared war on England. France, in violation of its treaty obligations in the Balkans, secretly encouraged Turkey to take military action against Russia. The war with England was not in Russia's interests. The cessation of trade and political ties with it had a detrimental effect on the country's economy. The formation of the Duchy of Warsaw was a springboard for France on the Russian border.
In 1804, the Russian-Iranian war began over disputed territories. During the campaign of 1804-1806. Russia occupied the khanates north of the Araks River (Baku, Kuba, Ganja, Derbent, etc.) The transfer of these territories to Russia was enshrined in the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813.
During the Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812) in the Dardanelles and Athos naval battles in 1807, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. In 1811, General M.I., newly appointed commander-in-chief. Kutuzov won a decisive victory at Rushchuk. In 1812, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed. Türkiye ceded Bessarabia to Russia, and an autonomous Serbian principality was created.
In 1808-1809 was the last Russian-Swedish war in the history of relations between these states. Its result was the signing of the Treaty of Friedrichsham, according to which all of Finland, together with the Åland Islands, became part of the Russian Empire as a grand duchy. The Russian-Swedish border was established along the Gulf of Bothnia and the Torneo and Muonio rivers.
The history of mankind is a continuous struggle for territorial dominance. Great empires either appeared on the political map of the world or disappeared from it. Some of them were destined to leave an indelible mark behind them.
Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire, 550 – 330 BC)
Cyrus II is considered the founder of the Persian Empire. He began his conquests in 550 BC. e. with the subjugation of Media, after which Armenia, Parthia, Cappadocia and the Lydian kingdom were conquered. Did not become an obstacle to the expansion of the empire of Cyrus and Babylon, whose powerful walls fell in 539 BC. e.
While conquering neighboring territories, the Persians tried not to destroy the conquered cities, but, if possible, to preserve them. Cyrus restored captured Jerusalem, like many Phoenician cities, facilitating the return of Jews from Babylonian captivity.
The Persian Empire under Cyrus extended its possessions from Central Asia to the Aegean Sea. Only Egypt remained unconquered. The country of the pharaohs submitted to the heir of Cyrus, Cambyses II. However, the empire reached its peak under Darius I, who switched from conquests to internal politics. In particular, the king divided the empire into 20 satrapies, which completely coincided with the territories of the captured states.
In 330 BC. e. The weakening Persian Empire fell under the onslaught of the troops of Alexander the Great.
Roman Empire (27 BC – 476)
Ancient Rome was the first state in which the ruler received the title of emperor. Beginning with Octavian Augustus, the 500-year history of the Roman Empire had a direct impact on European civilization and also left a cultural mark on the countries of North Africa and the Middle East.
The uniqueness of Ancient Rome is that it was the only state whose possessions included the entire Mediterranean coast.
At the height of the Roman Empire, its territories extended from the British Isles to the Persian Gulf. According to historians, by 117 the population of the empire reached 88 million people, which was approximately 25% of the total number of inhabitants of the planet.
Architecture, construction, art, law, economics, military affairs, the principles of government of Ancient Rome - this is what the foundation of the entire European civilization is based on. It was in imperial Rome that Christianity assumed the status of state religion and began its spread throughout the world.
Byzantine Empire (395 – 1453)
The Byzantine Empire has no equal in the length of its history. Originating at the end of antiquity, it existed until the end of the European Middle Ages. For more than a thousand years, Byzantium was a kind of connecting link between the civilizations of the East and West, influencing both the states of Europe and Asia Minor.
But if Western European and Middle Eastern countries inherited the rich material culture of Byzantium, then the Old Russian state turned out to be the successor to its spirituality. Constantinople fell, but the Orthodox world found its new capital in Moscow.
Located at the crossroads of trade routes, rich Byzantium was a coveted land for neighboring states. Having reached its maximum borders in the first centuries after the collapse of the Roman Empire, then it was forced to defend its possessions. In 1453, Byzantium could not resist a more powerful enemy - the Ottoman Empire. With the capture of Constantinople, the road to Europe was open for the Turks.
Arab Caliphate (632-1258)
As a result of Muslim conquests in the 7th–9th centuries, the theocratic Islamic state of the Arab Caliphate arose in the entire Middle Eastern region, as well as in certain regions of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, North Africa and Spain. The period of the Caliphate went down in history as the “Golden Age of Islam”, as the time of the highest flowering of Islamic science and culture.
One of the caliphs of the Arab state, Umar I, purposefully secured the character of a militant church for the Caliphate, encouraging religious zeal in his subordinates and prohibiting them from owning land property in the conquered countries. Umar motivated this by the fact that “the interests of the landowner attract him more to peaceful activities than to war.”
In 1036, the invasion of the Seljuk Turks was disastrous for the Caliphate, but the defeat of the Islamic state was completed by the Mongols.
Caliph An-Nasir, wanting to expand his possessions, turned to Genghis Khan for help, and unknowingly opened the way for the destruction of the Muslim East by a Mongol horde of thousands.
Mongol Empire (1206–1368)
The Mongol Empire is the largest state formation in history by territory.
During the period of its power, towards the end of the 13th century, the empire extended from the Sea of Japan to the banks of the Danube. The total area of the Mongols' possessions reached 38 million square meters. km.
Given the enormous size of the empire, managing it from the capital, Karakorum, was almost impossible. It is no coincidence that after the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the process of gradual division of the conquered territories into separate uluses began, the most significant of which became the Golden Horde.
The economic policy of the Mongols in the occupied lands was primitive: its essence boiled down to the imposition of tribute on the conquered peoples. Everything collected went to support the needs of a huge army, according to some sources, reaching half a million people. The Mongol cavalry was the most deadly weapon of the Genghisids, which not many armies could resist.
Inter-dynastic strife destroyed the empire - it was they who stopped the expansion of the Mongols to the West. This was soon followed by the loss of the conquered territories and the capture of Karakorum by Ming dynasty troops.
Holy Roman Empire (962-1806)
The Holy Roman Empire is an interstate entity that existed in Europe from 962 to 1806. The core of the empire was Germany, which was joined by the Czech Republic, Italy, the Netherlands, as well as some regions of France during the period of the highest prosperity of the state.
For almost the entire period of the empire's existence, its structure had the character of a theocratic feudal state, in which the emperors claimed supreme power in the Christian world. However, the struggle with the papal throne and the desire to possess Italy significantly weakened the central power of the empire.
In the 17th century, Austria and Prussia moved to leading positions in the Holy Roman Empire. But very soon the antagonism of two influential members of the empire, which resulted in a policy of conquest, threatened the integrity of their common home. The end of the empire in 1806 was marked by the strengthening France led by Napoleon.
Ottoman Empire (1299–1922)
In 1299, Osman I created a Turkic state in the Middle East, which was destined to exist for more than 600 years and radically influence the fate of the countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 marked the date when the Ottoman Empire finally gained a foothold in Europe.
The period of the greatest power of the Ottoman Empire occurred in the 16th-17th centuries, but the state achieved its greatest conquests under Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.
The borders of the empire of Suleiman I extended from Eritrea in the south to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north, from Algeria in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east.
The period from the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century was marked by bloody military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. Territorial disputes between the two states mainly revolved around Crimea and Transcaucasia. They were brought to an end by the First World War, as a result of which the Ottoman Empire, divided between the Entente countries, ceased to exist.
British Empire (1497¬–1949)
The British Empire is the largest colonial power both in terms of territory and population.
The empire reached its greatest scale by the 30s of the 20th century: the land area of the United Kingdom, including its colonies, totaled 34 million 650 thousand square meters. km., which accounted for approximately 22% of the earth's land. The total population of the empire reached 480 million people - every fourth inhabitant of the Earth was a subject of the British Crown.
The success of British colonial policy was facilitated by many factors: a strong army and navy, developed industry, and the art of diplomacy. The expansion of the empire significantly influenced global geopolitics. First of all, this is the spread of British technology, trade, language, and forms of government throughout the world.
The decolonization of Britain occurred after the end of the Second World War. Although the country was among the victorious states, it found itself on the verge of bankruptcy. It was only thanks to an American loan of $3.5 billion that Great Britain was able to overcome the crisis, but at the same time lost world dominance and all its colonies.
Russian Empire (1721–1917)
The history of the Russian Empire dates back to October 22, 1721, after Peter I accepted the title of All-Russian Emperor. From that time until 1905, the monarch who became the head of the state was endowed with absolute power.
In terms of area, the Russian Empire was second only to the Mongol and British empires - 21,799,825 square meters. km, and was the second (after British) in terms of population - about 178 million people.
Constant expansion of territory is a characteristic feature of the Russian Empire. But if the advance to the east was mostly peaceful, then in the west and south Russia had to prove its territorial claims through numerous wars - with Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and the British Empire.
The growth of the Russian Empire has always been viewed with particular caution by the West. The negative perception of Russia was facilitated by the appearance of the so-called “Testament of Peter the Great,” a document fabricated in 1812 by French political circles. “The Russian state must establish power over all of Europe” is one of the key phrases of the Testament, which will haunt the minds of Europeans for a long time.
Territory and population.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The territory of Russia was more than 18 million km2, and the population was 40 million people. The Russian Empire constituted a single territory.
The bulk of the population is in the central and western provinces; in Siberia – just over 3 million.
Human. And in the Far East, the development of which was just beginning, there were uninhabited lands.
The population differed in nationality, class and religion. Peoples of the Russian Empire: Slavic (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians); Turkic (Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts); Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Komi, Udmurts); Tungus (Evens and Evenks)…
More than 85% of the country's population professed Orthodoxy, a significant part of the peoples - Tatars, Bashkirs, etc. - were followers of Islam; Kalmyks (lower Volga) and Buryats (Transbaikalia) adhered to Buddhism. Many peoples of the Volga region, the North and Siberia retained pagan beliefs.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Russian Empire included the countries of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia), Moldova, and Finland.
The territory of the empire was divided into provinces, districts and volosts.
(In the 1920s, provinces in Russia were transformed into territories and regions, counties - into districts; volosts - rural territories, the smallest administrative-territorial units, were abolished in the same years). In addition to the provinces, there were several general governorates, which included one or more provinces or regions.
Political system.
The Russian Empire remained an autocratic monarchy throughout the 19th century. The following conditions had to be met: the Russian emperor was obliged to profess Orthodoxy and receive the throne as the legal heir.
All power in the country was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. At his disposal was a huge number of officials, who together represented a huge force - the bureaucracy.
The population of the Russian Empire was divided into classes: non-taxable (nobility, clergy, merchants) and taxable (philistinism, peasantry, Cossacks). Belonging to the class was inherited.
The most privileged position in the state was occupied by the nobility. His most important privilege was the right to own serfs.
Small-scale farmers (less than 100 peasants), the overwhelming majority;
Large estates (over 1 thousand peasant souls) numbered approximately 3,700 families, but they owned half of all serfs. Among them, the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs, Vorontsovs, Gagarins, and Golitsyns stood out.
At the beginning of the 1830s, there were 127 thousand noble families (about 500 thousand people) in Russia; of these, 00 thousand families were serf owners.
The composition of the nobility was replenished by representatives of other class groups who managed to advance in their careers. Many nobles led a traditional lifestyle described by Pushkin in the novel Eugene Onegin. However, many young nobles fell under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment and the sentiments of the Great French Revolution.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Free Economic Society, founded in 1765, continued to operate. It united large landowners-practitioners, natural scientists, involved them in solving economic problems, announcing competitive tasks (preparation of beets, development of tobacco growing in Ukraine, improvement of peat processing, etc.
However, the lordly psychology and the opportunity to use cheap serf labor limited the manifestations of entrepreneurship among the nobility.
Clergy.
The clergy was also a privileged class.
At the beginning of the 18th century. the nobility was forbidden to join the clergy. Therefore, the Russian Orthodox clergy in social terms - in the overwhelming majority - stood closer to the lower strata of the population. And in the 19th century. The clergy remained a closed layer: the children of priests studied in Orthodox diocesan schools and seminaries, married the daughters of clergy, and continued the work of their fathers - serving in the church. Only in 1867 were young men from all classes allowed to enter the seminaries.
Some of the clergy received state salaries, but most priests subsisted on the offerings of believers. The lifestyle of a rural priest was not much different from the life of a peasant.
A community of believers in small areas was called a parish. Several parishes made up the diocese. The territory of the diocese, as a rule, coincided with the province. The highest body of church government was the Synod. Its members were appointed by the emperor himself from among the bishops (leaders of the diocese), and at its head was a secular official - the chief prosecutor.
The centers of religious life were monasteries. The Trinity-Sergius, Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Optina Pustyn (in the Kaluga province), etc. were especially revered.
Merchants.
The merchant class, depending on the amount of capital, was divided into closed groups - guilds:
Merchants of the 1st guild had a preferential right to conduct foreign trade;
Merchants of the 2nd guild conducted large-scale internal trade;
Merchants of the 3rd guild were engaged in small-scale city and county trade.
The merchants were freed from taxes and corporal punishment; Merchants of the first two guilds were not subject to conscription.
Merchants either invested their capital in trade and production, or used it for “charitable deeds.”
Traders predominated among the Russian bourgeoisie: merchants - wealthy peasants who received special “tickets” for the right to trade. In the future, a merchant or a rich peasant could become a manufacturer or manufacturer, investing his capital in industrial production.
Craftsmen, small traders, shop and tavern owners, and hired workers belonged to the unprivileged class - the philistinism. In the 17th century they were called posad people. The townspeople paid taxes, provided recruits for the army, and could be subjected to corporal punishment. Many tradespeople (artists, singers, tailors, shoemakers) united in artels.
Peasants.
The most numerous class was the peasantry, which included more than 85% of the country's population.
Peasants:
State (10 - 15 million) - state-owned, that is, belonging to the treasury, considered “free rural inhabitants”, but performing in-kind duties in favor of the state;
Landowners (20 million) – landowners, serfs;
Appanage (0.5 million) - belonged to the royal family (paying quitrents and state duties).
Half of all peasants were landowners (serfs). The landowner could sell them, donate them, pass them on by inheritance, impose duties on them at his own discretion, dispose of the property of the peasants, regulate marriages, punish, exile to Siberia, or hand them over as recruits out of turn.
Most of the serfs were in the central provinces of the country.
There were no serfs at all in the Arkhangelsk province; in Siberia, the number barely exceeded 4 thousand people.
The majority of landowner peasants in the central industrial provinces paid quitrents. And in the agricultural regions - the black earth and Volga provinces, in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine - almost all landowner peasants worked corvée.
In search of income, many peasants left the village: some were engaged in crafts, others went to manufactories.
There was a process of stratification of the peasantry. Gradually, independent peasants emerged: moneylenders, buyers, traders, entrepreneurs. The number of this village elite was still insignificant, but its role was great; A wealthy village moneylender often kept an entire neighborhood in bondage. In the state-owned village, the stratification was more pronounced than in the landowner village, and in the landowner village, it was stronger among the quitrent peasantry and weaker among the corvee peasantry.
At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. Among the serf peasants-handicraftsmen, entrepreneurs emerged who later became the founders of the dynasties of famous manufacturers: the Morozovs, Guchkovs, Garelins, Ryabushinskys.
Peasant community.
In the 19th century, primarily in the European part of Russia, the peasant community was preserved.
The community (world) rented the land, as it were, from the owner (landowner, treasury, appanage department), and the communal peasants used it. Peasants received equal field plots (according to the number of eaters in each household), while women were not given a land share. In order to maintain equality, periodic redistributions of land were carried out (For example, in the Moscow province, redistributions were made 1-2 times every 20 years).
The main document emanating from the community was the “verdict” - the decision of the peasant gathering. The gathering, at which male community members gathered, resolved issues of land use, choosing a headman, appointing a guardian for orphans, etc. Neighbors helped each other with both labor and money. Serfs depended on both the master and the corvee. They were "tied hand and foot."
Cossacks.
A special class group was the Cossacks, who not only performed military service, but also engaged in agriculture.
Already in the 18th century. The government completely subjugated the Cossack freemen. The Cossacks were enrolled in a separate military class, to which persons from other classes were assigned, most often state peasants. The authorities formed new Cossack troops to guard the borders. By the end of the 19th century. in Russia there were 11 Cossack troops: Don, Terek, Ural, Orenburg, Kuban, Siberian, Astrakhan, Transbaikal, Amur, Semirechensk and Ussuri.
Using the income from his farm, the Cossack had to fully “get ready” for military service. He came to duty with his horse, uniform and bladed weapons. At the head of the army was a mandated (appointed) ataman. Each village (village) elected a village ataman at the assembly. The heir to the throne was considered the ataman of all Cossack troops.
Socio-economic development of the country.
By the end of the 18th century. a domestic market is emerging in Russia; Foreign trade is becoming more and more active. Serfdom, being drawn into market relations, is changing. As long as it was natural, the needs of landowners were limited to what was produced in their fields, vegetable gardens, barnyards, etc. The exploitation of peasants had clearly defined limits. When a real opportunity arose to turn manufactured products into goods and receive money, the needs of the local nobility began to grow uncontrollably. Landowners are rebuilding their farm in such a way as to maximize its productivity using traditional, serf-based methods.
In the black earth regions, which produced excellent harvests, increased exploitation was expressed in the expansion of lordly plowing at the expense of peasant plots and an increase in corvée labor. But this fundamentally undermined the peasant economy. After all, the peasant cultivated the landowner’s land, using his own equipment and his livestock, and he himself was valuable as a worker insofar as he was well-fed, strong, and healthy. The decline of his economy also affected the landowner's economy. As a result, after a noticeable rise at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. the landowner's economy gradually falls into a period of hopeless stagnation. In the non-chernozem region, the products of the estates brought less and less profit. Therefore, landowners were inclined to curtail their farming. The increased exploitation of the peasants was expressed here in a constant increase in the monetary dues. Moreover, this quitrent was often set higher than the real profitability of the land allotted to the peasant for use: the landowner counted on the earnings of his serfs through trades, otkhodniki - work in factories, manufactories, and in various spheres of the urban economy. These calculations were completely justified: in this region in the first half of the 19th century. Cities are growing, a new type of factory production is taking shape, which widely uses civilian labor. But the attempts of the serf owners to use these conditions in order to increase the profitability of the farm led to its self-destruction: by increasing the monetary dues, the landowners inevitably tore the peasants off the land, turning them partly into artisans, partly into civilian workers.
Russian industrial production found itself in an even more difficult situation. At this time, the decisive role was played by inherited from the 18th century. industry of the old, serf type. However, it had no incentives for technical progress: the quantity and quality of products were regulated from above; the established volume of production strictly corresponded to the number of assigned peasants. The serf industry was doomed to stagnation.
At the same time, enterprises of a different type are appearing in Russia: they are not associated with the state, they work for the market, and use civilian labor. Such enterprises arise primarily in light industry, the products of which already have a mass buyer. Their owners become wealthy peasant farmers; and peasant otkhodniks work here. There was a future for this production, but the dominance of the serf system constrained it. Owners of industrial enterprises were usually themselves in serfdom and were forced to give a significant part of their income in the form of quitrents to the landowners; the workers legally and essentially remained peasants who, having earned their quitrent, sought to return to the village. The growth of production was also hampered by the relatively narrow sales market, the expansion of which, in turn, was limited by the serf system. Thus, in the first half of the 19th century. The traditional economic system clearly hampered the development of production and prevented the formation of new relations in it. Serfdom turned into an obstacle to the normal development of the country.
To the question Help! Russian Empire in the first half of the 19th century. given by the author Insufficient salting the best answer is 1. Social movements in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century.
The first years of the reign of Alexander I were marked by a noticeable revival of public life. Current issues of the state's domestic and foreign policy were discussed in scientific and literary societies, in circles of students and teachers, in secular salons and in Masonic lodges. The focus of public attention was on the attitude towards the French Revolution, serfdom and autocracy.
The lifting of the ban on the activities of private printing houses, permission to import books from abroad, the adoption of a new censorship statute (1804) - all this had a significant impact on the further spread of the ideas of the European Enlightenment in Russia. Educational goals were set by I.P. Pnin, V.V. Popugaev, A.Kh. Vostokov, A.P. Kunitsyn, who created the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts in St. Petersburg (1801-1825). Strongly influenced by Radishchev's views, they translated the works of Voltaire, Diderot, and Montesquieu, and published articles and literary works.
Supporters of various ideological trends began to group around new magazines. The “Bulletin of Europe”, published by N. M. Karamzin and then by V. A. Zhukovsky, was popular.
Most Russian educators considered it necessary to reform autocratic rule and abolish serfdom. However, they constituted only a small part of society and, moreover, remembering the horrors of the Jacobin terror, they hoped to achieve their goal peacefully, through education, moral education and the formation of civic consciousness.
The bulk of the nobility and officials were conservative. The views of the majority were reflected in N. M. Karamzin’s “Note on Ancient and New Russia” (1811). Recognizing the need for change, Karamzin opposed the plan for constitutional reforms, since Russia, where “the sovereign is the living law,” does not need a constitution, but fifty “smart and virtuous governors.”
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army played a huge role in the development of national identity. The country was experiencing a huge patriotic upsurge, hopes for broad changes revived among the people and society, everyone was waiting for changes for the better - and they did not receive it. The peasants were the first to be disappointed. Heroic participants in battles, saviors of the Fatherland, they hoped to gain freedom, but from the manifesto on the occasion of the victory over Napoleon (1814) they heard:
“Peasants, our faithful people, may they receive their reward from God.” A wave of peasant uprisings swept across the country, the number of which increased in the post-war period. In total, according to incomplete data, about 280 peasant unrest occurred over a quarter of a century, and approximately 2/3 of them occurred in 1813-1820. The movement on the Don (1818-1820) was especially long and fierce, in which more than 45 thousand peasants were involved. Constant unrest accompanied the introduction of military settlements. One of the largest was the uprising in Chuguev in the summer of 1819.
2. Russian foreign policy in 1801 - early 1812
After ascending the throne, Alexander I began to adhere to the tactic of refusing political and trade agreements concluded by his father. The foreign policy position he developed together with his “young friends” can be characterized as a “free hands” policy. Russia tried, while maintaining its position as a great power, to act as an arbiter in the Anglo-French conflict and, by achieving concessions related to the navigation of Russian ships in the Eastern Mediterranean, to reduce military tension on the continent.
Reply from twig[master]
1) The theory of official nationality - state ideology during the reign of Nicholas I, the author of which was S. S. Uvarov. It was based on conservative views on education, science, and literature. The basic principles were set out by Count Sergei Uvarov upon assuming the post of Minister of Public Education in his report to Nicholas I “On some general principles that can serve as a guide in the management of the Ministry of Public Education”
Later, this ideology became briefly called “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality.”
According to this theory, the Russian people are deeply religious and devoted to the throne, and the Orthodox faith and autocracy constitute the indispensable conditions for the existence of Russia. Nationality was understood as the need to adhere to one’s own traditions and reject foreign influence. The term was a kind of attempt to ideologically substantiate the government course of Nicholas I in the early 1830s. Within the framework of this theory, the head of the III department, Benkendorf, wrote that Russia’s past is amazing, the present is beautiful, and the future is beyond all imagination.
Westernism is a direction of Russian social and philosophical thought that emerged in the 1830s - 1850s, whose representatives, unlike the Slavophiles and Pochvenniks, denied the idea of the originality and uniqueness of the historical destinies of Russia. The peculiarities of the cultural, everyday and socio-political structure of Russia were considered by Westerners mainly as a consequence of delays and lags in development. Westerners believed that there was only one path for human development, in which Russia was forced to catch up with the developed countries of Western Europe.
Westerners
In a less strict understanding, Westerners include everyone oriented toward Western European cultural and ideological values.
The most notable representatives of the Westernizing trend in Russian literature and philosophical thought are considered to be P. Ya. Chaadaev, T. N. Granovsky, V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, N. Kh. Ketcher, V. P. Botkin, P. V. Annenkov, E. F. Korsh, K. D. Kavelin.
The Westerners were joined by such writers and publicists as N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev, A. F. Pisemsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Slavophilism is a literary and philosophical movement of social thought that took shape in the 40s of the 19th century, whose representatives affirm a special type of culture that arose on the spiritual soil of Orthodoxy, and also deny the thesis of Westerners that Peter the Great returned Russia to the fold of European countries and it must go through this path in political, economic and cultural development.
The trend arose in opposition to Westernism, whose supporters advocated Russia's orientation towards Western European cultural and ideological values.
2)
P.S. The Decembrists would have approached the first question
To the question: Please tell me which territories were annexed to the Russian Empire in the 19th century. given by the author Separate the best answer is At the beginning of the 19th century. The territory of Russia was 16 million km2.
During the first half of the 19th century. were included in Russia
Finland (1809),
Kingdom of Poland (1815),
Bessarabia (1812),
almost all of Transcaucasia (1801-1829),
Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (from the mouth of the Kuban River to Poti - 1829).
In the 60s The Ussuri region (Primorye) was assigned to Russia, and the process of incorporating most of the Kazakh lands into Russia, which began back in the 30s, was completed. XVIII century
By 1864, the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus were finally conquered.
In the mid-70s - early 80s. A significant part of Central Asia became part of the territory of the Russian Empire, and a protectorate was established over the rest of its territory.
In 1875, Japan recognized Russia's rights to the island of Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands were transferred to Japan.
In 1878, small lands in Transcaucasia were annexed to Russia.
Russia's only territorial loss was the sale to the United States in 1867 of Alaska along with the Aleutian Islands (1.5 million km2), as a result of which it “left” the American continent.
In the 19th century The process of forming the territory of the Russian Empire was completed and the geopolitical balance of its borders was achieved.
By the end of the 19th century. its territory was 22.4 million km2
Reply from Eurovision[guru]
Finland, Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Bessarabia.
Reply from novels[newbie]
yeah
Reply from Drill[guru]
Please tell me which territories were annexed to the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
answer:
THEY WERE CONQUERED
Reply from AK-61[active]
CONQUEST and ACCESSION are not always the same thing. So, for example, following the results of the Spanish-American War of 1898, the territories conquered (conquered) by the United States from Spain were arranged as follows:
1. Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines - ANNEXED to the US as colonies/possessions.
2. Cuba - came under the temporary CONTROL of the USA, since 1902 - transformed into a formally “sovereign” state.
3. Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands - sold to Germany.
Louisiana, Alaska, etc. - annexed to the USA, but not CONQUERED, but PURCHASED.
Hawaiian Islands - annexed to the USA, but not CONQUERED, but ANNEXED. There was no war AT ALL.
Egypt was conquered and occupied by Britain in 1882-1953, but did not join the British Empire, remaining formally independent. Only in 1914-22 Egypt was given the status of a temporary protectorate of Great Britain.
As for the Russian Empire, there are also a couple of examples:
1. Manchuria and Outer Mongolia were CONQUERED by Russia, but not annexed, formally remaining part of China.
2. The Kwantung Peninsula (with Port Arthur) was annexed to Russia as a POSSESSION, but not conquered, but PURCHASED (rented).
Reply from Daniil Zenikov[newbie]
Antony and Octavian divided the empire between themselves: the first took the eastern provinces, married the Egyptian queen Cleopatra and began to live in Alexandria, the second remained in Rome. There was never friendship between them; each of them sought autocracy. Octavian, more prudent, forced the Senate to declare Antony an enemy of the fatherland, defeated Antony's fleet off the coast of Greece and followed him to Egypt. Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide, and the Ptolemaic kingdom was annexed to the Roman Empire in 30 BC.
Octavian achieved the same goal as Caesar. He seemed less talented, was homely, shy, secretive, he did not have military talent like Caesar. The state of affairs itself helped him a lot.
The long war in all areas around the Mediterranean Sea tired most people: many were looking for peace and crowded around a strong man, hoping for his protection. Thus, the poet Horace, who fought for the last time for the republic under the command of Brutus and Cassius, joined Octavian. In one poem, Horace later recalled that he “threw his shield badly,” that is, he fled from the battlefield; but he warmly advised his friends to leave the war and participation in unrest in order to get away from all dangers. At the same time, most of the people who died in the struggle were independent, proud nobles who did not want to see any master over them. The inhabitants of the provinces were accustomed to submit to Rome; they did not care whether the Roman Senate or the military ruler from Rome sent them a commander. The population of Rome itself put up with the ruler who was ready to give him the most.
But Octavian also achieved power through his patience and skill. He did not accept the title of dictator, which recalled the triumph of Sulla and Caesar; he did not want anything in the title or in the setting that would resemble a king, so as not to irritate the old habits and concepts of the Romans. By the way, he accepted the title of tribune. At the same time, Octavian constantly repeated that his main concern was to restore the ancient order in Rome. He tried to surround himself with the remnants of ancient aristocratic families. In his palace, the historian Titus Livia was well received, who in his huge work exalted the republic, depicting its fate from ancient times in a sublime oratorical style.
Octavian called himself princeps, that is, the first person in the state. This meant that he was, as it were, considered authorized to exercise his power by the people. He decided not to frighten the population of Italy with military forces: the soldiers were taken away and placed along the borders. Finally, Octavian shared with the old gentlemen, the nobles. On important occasions, the princeps consulted with the senate, as consuls had previously done.
It was decided that, as before, the Senate would dispose of the ancient provinces: the Senate would send there governors from its midst. The newly annexed border regions remained with Octavian: Gaul, the former possession of Caesar, and rich Egypt, which Octavian himself captured. In these areas the entire Roman army, about 250,000, was stationed to keep the newly conquered inhabitants in line and to guard the border. The troops were subordinate to Octavian, the soldiers swore an oath only to him. He appropriated the old title of military emperor to himself alone; it now meant the power of the supreme commander-in-chief. They called him Emperor in the provinces. Octavian sent his officers and clerks to his regions to govern.
Princeps and people
They stopped calling people to meetings. However, the new ruler also had to please the capital's population, as the popular leaders or the Senate had previously done. He only took into his own account all the expenses, as had previously been done for the benefit of the people by various individuals. The princeps took upon himself the feeding of the capital's proletarians with bread: his officials prepared, brought by sea the required amount of grain, stored it in huge stores that occupied an entire city.
Reply from Mikhail Basmanov[expert]
In 1867, according to documents, under Tsar Alexander 2, Russia sold Alaska to the United States. In fact, documents on the sale of Alaska covered payment for the services of Russian military sailors (military assistance) to the US government. Russia sold Alaska in 1867 because it was territory captured by Russia from Great Tartary. Great Tartaria previously occupied, on the Eurasian continent, a territory larger than the territory of the USSR. It was difficult for Russia to control such remote territories and Tartaria could return them back. After all, Tartary existed, according to maps, in 1867, but already as the remnants of Great Tartary in Central Asia. And with the help of the United States, there was no need to worry about Russian America. And it was then that the Russian government was more important than the people and natural resources of Alaska.
Reply from DimaMister13[expert]
Territories of Georgia, Abkhazia, Armenia, Moldova.
Russian Empire on Wikipedia
Russian Empire
Rowan rotundifolia on Wikipedia
Look at the Wikipedia article about Rowan roundifolia
Formation of the territory of the Russian Empire on Wikipedia
Look at the Wikipedia article about Formation of the territory of the Russian Empire
