Lecture Land as an element of the civil land reserves. Modern use of land resources in Ukraine

All land in our country is divided into agricultural and non-agricultural. Depending on climatic conditions, method of use and quality, subspecies of these two groups are also distinguished.

Definition

What is agricultural land? The definition of this concept is quite specific (unlike categories). Agricultural land is land intended for growing crops, raising livestock and performing related work. Each such area has closed boundaries and a specific location.

Agricultural land includes the following groups of plots: arable land, pastures, hayfields, perennial plantings, fallow land. One subspecies in the process of conducting economic activity can transform into another. But this happens very rarely.

Arable lands, fallow lands and perennial plantations

Most of the agricultural land consists of areas intended for sowing crops. Such plots are classified as arable land. But only if they are systematically processed. In addition to fields, this group includes crops of perennial grasses in crop rotation areas, hatchery fields and pure fallows. The total area of ​​all arable land on Earth today is about 1.3 billion hectares. This is about 3% of the land surface. The total area of ​​farmland in Russia is 2434.6 thousand hectares. At the same time, arable land accounts for 60% of all land.

The definition of “fallow land” includes areas that were previously plowed, but have not been used for growing plants for more than a year, and have not been prepared for fallow. Perennial plantings are areas artificially planted with trees, shrubs and perennial grasses. This group includes, for example, berry fields, orchards, vineyards, hop fields, tea plantations, etc.

Hayfields and pastures

Agricultural plots can be used not only for crop production, but also for livestock production. Thus, hayfields include those plots on which perennial grasses grow. The main purpose of this type of land is to feed livestock with mowed vegetation in the winter. Such lands, in turn, are classified into several more groups. Hayfields are distinguished based on their quality:

1. Clean. There are no hummocks, stumps, large stones, trees or bushes on such lands. Mowing on plots of this type can be done with maximum efficiency.
2. Scabbed. This group includes areas covered with hummocks by at least 10%.
3. Forested and bushy. Such areas are not uncommon in our country. Lands covered with trees and shrubs by 10-70% are included in this group. Mowing in such areas is difficult and time consuming.

There are about 10 million hectares of fodder land overgrown with forests and shrubs in Russia, and about 2.2 million hectares of grassland.

Depending on the degree of moisture, such agricultural land is classified into:

• aspic;
• upland;
• swampy.

From the first two groups, improved areas are additionally distinguished.

Pastures are lands intended for use in the warm season, not related to hayfields or fallow lands. There are only two types of such areas: wetlands and dry lands. The latter are usually located in the floodplains of rivers and streams and are flooded for a short time during spring floods. Wetland pastures are located in lowlands, on the edges of swamps and in poorly drained areas.

Dry land areas are divided into long-term cultural and improved ones. Like hayfields, pastures can be classified by quality. In this regard, a distinction is made between clean, tussocked and forested areas. In our country, unfortunately, there are quite a lot of low-quality lands of this group. However, if agricultural enterprises have funds and well-developed management projects, the situation can be improved.

Land Code of the Russian Federation No. 78-F3

The use of agricultural land is regulated by the state. When performing various types of work in such areas, they are guided primarily by Federal Law No. 78-F3 “On Land Management,” adopted in 2001. The plots of the group under consideration are classified as agricultural. Also included here:

• lands occupied for on-farm communications and roads;
• protective forest belts;
• lands with enclosed bodies of water;
• areas occupied by various types of structures intended for storage or primary processing of agricultural products.

Use is regulated by the Land Code of the Russian Federation. This law defines the subjects of rights to farms and the rights of citizens engaged in vegetable gardening, gardening or raising livestock on personal farmsteads.

Transfer to other categories

Agricultural land is subject to special protection by law. Such lands are transferred to other categories only in exceptional cases. Transfer can only be carried out if necessary:

• fulfillment of international obligations;
• development of mineral deposits;
• ensuring state security;
• maintenance of cultural heritage objects.

Particularly valuable land

In terms of quality, agricultural land existing in Russia can be classified into:

• Areas with a cadastral assessment above the regional average level.
• Particularly valuable in this region.
• Disturbed lands.

Particularly valuable agricultural lands, which, among other things, may include experimental sites of scientific and educational organizations, are often included in the list of lands, the use of which for purposes other than agricultural ones is not allowed.

Economic efficiency of use

The quality of agricultural land can thus vary. An economic assessment allows you to compare the value of specific sites relative to each other. It can be general, based on a comparison of costs and results for the entire set of crops grown, or private. In the latter case, the degree of efficiency of cultivation of specific varieties of agricultural plants is determined. Such an assessment can be made when planning and distributing production or identifying specific results of enterprise activities.

How effectively farmland is used in a given case is determined by a system of cost and natural indicators. The main ones are:

• cost of gross output and net income;
• yield c/ha;
• return on costs invested in land;
• profitability of an agricultural enterprise.

Sometimes, as additional indicators, a comparison of the share of total farmland, arable land and crops is also used.

Most often, the efficiency of land use is checked by the valuation method. It is calculated based on a set of yield indicators for the last 3-5 years. Also taken into account:

• share of differentiated income;
• production costs;
• gross output;
• quality of land, etc.

Rational use

The purpose of land used in agriculture may vary. But in any case, the main indicator of their quality is fertility. Rational use of land is the use of land in which it is possible to obtain maximum yields without reducing this indicator. The legislation in force today in Russia provides for economic incentives for land users, landowners and tenants to use such farming methods in which the fertility of plots not only does not decrease, but also increases in every possible way.

In addition to the deterioration of the composition and structure of the soil, irrational use can lead to their pollution and flooding. In order to avoid soil degradation, first of all, you should observe crop rotation, use heavy equipment wisely (to avoid over-compaction of the soil), apply mineral fertilizers only in the right quantities and on time, apply liming if necessary, etc.

Geography of farmland in Russia

Slash-and-burn agriculture in the mixed forest zone in our country had already developed by the beginning of the 6th century. In the 14th-15th centuries it was replaced by steam. In the 18th century. In central Russia, the stage of continuous land development began. A little later, the zone of agricultural land spread into the middle and northern taiga. By the 20th century, land development was largely completed. The picture of land geography that emerged in the last century has remained virtually unchanged to this day. The only exception is the development of virgin lands. To date, about 50% of all arable land is in the European part of Russia, 30% in the Southern Urals and 20% in southern Siberia.

Land is land that is systematically used or suitable for use for specific economic purposes and differs in natural and historical characteristics.

Land has clearly defined boundaries on the ground and is characterized by certain qualitative, relief and other indicators.

Depending on the natural conditions and economic importance, land is divided into arable land, fallow land, hayfields, pastures, etc.

Arable land is agricultural land that is systematically cultivated and used for crops, including perennial grasses, as well as clear fallows. Arable land does not include areas of hayfields and pastures occupied by crops for no more than 2-3 years, plowed for the purpose of radical improvement, as well as the row spacing of gardens used for crops.

Fallow land is land that was previously used for arable land and for more than one year, starting in the fall, not used for sowing agricultural crops, and also not allocated for fallow, with traces of cultivation.

Perennial agricultural planting - agricultural land used for artificially created tree, shrub or herbaceous perennial plantings intended to produce a harvest of fruit and berry, technical and medicinal products, as well as for decorative landscaping. Perennial agricultural plantations include: garden, vineyard, berry garden, fruit nursery, plantations, etc.

Hayfield is agricultural land systematically used for haymaking. Based on the degree of moisture, hayfields are divided into flooded, dry, and swampy.

Flood hayfield is a hayfield located in the floodplains of rivers, flooded by meltwater, causing changes in vegetation.

Dry hayfield is a hayfield (pasture) located on plains, slopes and elevated relief elements, moistened mainly by precipitation.

Swampy hayfield (pasture) - hayfield (pasture) located on low relief elements, along the edges of swamps or on poorly drained, leveled flat areas in conditions of excess moisture. 14

According to the degree of improvement, hayfields are distinguished between surface and radical improvement; according to the cleanliness of the surface from bushes and hummocks - clean, tussocky, bushy, forested. Pure hayfield (pasture) - hayfield (pasture) in which either there are no bushes, stumps, trees, stones, hummocks, or they evenly cover up to 10% of the area of ​​the site. Hummocked hayfield (pasture) - hayfield (pasture), more than 10% of the area of ​​which is covered with hummocks. Shrubby hayfield (pasture) - hayfield (pasture) evenly overgrown with shrub vegetation, occupying from 10 to 30% of the area of ​​the site. Forested hayfield (pasture) - hayfield (pasture) evenly overgrown with woody vegetation, occupying from 10 to 30% of the area.

Pasture is agricultural land systematically used for grazing animals.

According to the degree of moisture, pastures are classified as dry and swampy; by location - lowland (valley and mountain). Mountain pasture is a pasture located on the territory of a mountain system. According to seasonality, reindeer pastures are distinguished (in the north of the country): autumn, summer, winter, spring. Pasture areas where a set of organizational, agrotechnical, reclamation and other measures have been carried out to create good grass and systematic grazing of livestock are usually classified as cultivated pastures; These also include pastures created on arable land or hayfields.

Land that is systematically used to produce agricultural products is called agricultural land. The group of agricultural lands consists of: arable land, hayfields, pastures, perennial plantings and fallow lands. The value of land is often determined by its area and intensity of use.

Classification of lands (land) is necessary for cadastral registration of land, accurate display of the characteristics of the cadastral registration object in the State Register of Lands of the cadastral region. In Russia, several land classifications that differ in content and purpose are used. Some of them are reflected in the above real estate classifier (clause 1.2.3). Currently, the following are quite fully developed and used:

classification of lands by economic and legal use (categories of lands by intended purpose);

classification of agricultural land;

classification of lands according to their suitability for agriculture;

classification of hayfields and pastures by zones of the country, etc.

Classification of land by economic and legal use (category of land by intended purpose) is widely used in land management. Land cadastral registration is based on this classification (for more details, see paragraphs 1.1.3 and 1.2.4).

The classification of agricultural land is based on the provision that land is divided into two types: agricultural and non-agricultural. Land is understood as a territory (part of land use) systematically used for specific economic purposes and possessing certain natural historical properties. Therefore, agricultural land can be defined as an area (part of land use) systematically used for agricultural production and possessing certain natural historical properties. All other land is non-agricultural (forest areas, bushes, swamps, land under water, roads, buildings, etc.).

Traditionally, agricultural land includes arable land, perennial plantings, hayfields, pastures, and fallow lands.

Arable land is a plot of land that is systematically cultivated and used for cultivating agricultural crops. There are two types of arable land: reclaimed and non-reclaimed. Each of these varieties includes a characteristic of the state of the given land: clean arable land, arable land littered with stones, arable land overgrown with bushes, saline arable land, solonetzic arable land, arable land subject to erosion (wind or water), waterlogged or swampy arable land.

Perennial plantings as land are land plots occupied by artificially created tree, shrub and herbaceous perennial plantings. Perennial plantings are divided into varieties: irrigated and non-irrigated. Perennial plantings include the following subspecies: gardens, vineyards, berry gardens, fruit nurseries, plantations of medicinal, flower, ornamental and special industrial crops.

Hayfields are areas of land covered with perennial herbaceous vegetation, systematically used for haymaking. Hayfields come in the following varieties: dry, flooded (including estuary), and swampy. The condition of hayfields is characterized by the following subspecies: clean, cultivated, radical and surface improvements, tussocked, bushy, littered with harmful inedible and poisonous plants.

Pastures are lands covered with perennial herbaceous vegetation, suitable and systematically used for grazing livestock, which are not hayfields or fallow lands. Pastures are divided into dry, flooded, swampy, and mountainous. The following subtypes of pastures are distinguished: pure natural, radical and surface improvement, cultivated irrigated and non-irrigated, tussocked, bushy, littered with poisonous grasses, etc. In transhumance livestock farming, pastures are divided according to seasons of use (summer, spring-autumn, winter, year-round) and availability of watering places (watered and non-watered).

Fallow land is land that was previously used and has not been used for the cultivation of agricultural crops for more than one year.

Agricultural land can be reclaimed or not reclaimed. Reclaimed lands are divided into irrigated (regular irrigation, estuary irrigation and conditionally irrigated) and drained (with open and closed drainage, with two-way regulation of the water regime).

Of the non-agricultural land, the largest area is occupied by forest areas: covered and not covered with forest. Forested areas are divided into subspecies: areas of continuous or curtain afforestation and forest belts.

Shrubs are used for protective purposes, anti-erosion, and water-protection along rivers, reservoirs, and canals.

Swamps are divided into lowland, highland and transitional.

Land under water is the area under rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, canals, and sewers.

Non-agricultural land includes lands occupied by roads, runs, buildings and courtyards, streets and squares, ravines, sand, glaciers, landslides, scree, gravelly surfaces, pebbles, disturbed areas, etc.

Classification of lands according to their suitability for agriculture is based on an assessment of the feasibility of using land in agriculture. The nature of land use is determined by the category of suitability, which is established on the basis of soils and natural conditions of the location of these lands (climate, topography, etc.). Moreover, the actual use of the land plot may or may not correspond to the category that was established for this plot based on the quality of the land. Any land plot can be classified into one of the following suitability categories:

Land suitable for arable land.

Land suitable primarily for haymaking.

Pasture land that, after improvement, can be suitable for other agricultural land.

Land suitable for agricultural use after radical reclamation.

Lands unsuitable for agricultural use.

Lands unsuitable for agricultural use.

Disturbed lands.

The basis for assigning a land plot to a certain category and class of land are groups and subgroups of soils confined to natural and agricultural zones identified on the territory of Russia.

The category of land suitable for arable land unites 14 classes of land, the increase in the serial number of which corresponds to a decrease in their quality and production significance. Lands of a certain class determine the appropriate technology for cultivating agricultural crops and require certain environmental and reclamation measures.

The category of pasture land, which after improvement can be suitable for other agricultural land, unites seven classes of land. The name of the category indicates that the lands are of low quality and require expensive reclamation and environmental measures. Their use in agriculture, as a rule, is economically ineffective.

The classification of hayfields and pastures was carried out according to natural zones and mountainous areas. In each designated natural zone and mountain belt, classes and subclasses of forage lands with the predominant soil type are determined

5. Purpose, objectives and content of business plans

A business plan is a short document that gives an idea of ​​the goals, methods of implementation and expected results of an innovation project as a business development project. Its value lies in the fact that it allows one to assess the viability of a project in a competitive environment and serves as an important tool for its promotion and implementation.

It is generally accepted that a business plan is developed only when a project requires external investment for its implementation. However, a business plan provides an answer to the question of the effectiveness of any investment, including those made at the expense of the enterprise’s own funds. In addition, the business plan of an innovative project has a number of other purposes. The main ones are the following:

A standard representation of an enterprise or project, which reduces the cost of describing the enterprise and widely illustrates its unique capabilities associated with the use of innovative potential.

A business plan serves as one of the forms of communication and presentation of information on the civilized market about the essence of innovation, because must contain characteristics of the object of commercialization.

The business plan demonstrates a serious, respectful approach to your own business, which presupposes an appropriate attitude towards it on the part of your partners.

A business plan helps you make more informed decisions, especially in the innovative field, which is characterized by a high degree of risk and uncertainty.

A business plan helps to identify problems, threats, and untapped opportunities in a developing business in a timely manner.

A business plan characterizes the focus of business development and the degree of its manageability.

A business plan serves as a tool for managing and monitoring the implementation of an innovative project.

A business plan acts as a means of self-education for an entrepreneur, which undoubtedly increases the innovative culture of business and society.

The business plan is intended for the following categories of project participants and experts:

business owners interested in drawing up a business plan from the point of view of the organization’s development prospects and making a profit;

managers who are the developers of the business plan and participants in its implementation;

investors who want to be convinced of the commercial attractiveness of the project;

potential business partners who want to understand their role and place in the project and determine prospects for cooperation;

experts who evaluate various aspects of the project during competitive selection both within the enterprise and outside it (for example, when selecting projects for financing from budget sources).

Thus, the business plan gives a complete picture of business development during the implementation of an innovative project.

Depending on the stage of implementation of the innovation project, there are three types of business plans:

Preliminary (or business proposal), which is used to evaluate and initially select projects. This format is often used when holding competitions for innovative projects with funding from budget sources;

Final for projects presented to investors;

Clarified and adjusted for projects already being implemented.

The preliminary business plan contains extremely condensed analytical information and summary data on the project necessary for selecting a given project for financing from budget sources or for preparing the final version of the business plan.

In essence, such a business plan includes the same information as the final version, but with a lower level of evidence and detail in the elaboration of individual provisions. The information in a business proposal should create an exciting prospect for the reader, but does not necessarily contain full-fledged evidence of the possibility of achieving it. In particular, a business proposal aimed at experts selecting projects for budget financing must necessarily contain the following characteristics of the project:

socio-economic consequences of the project (increase in payments to the budget, creation of jobs, solution of social problems, multiplier effect, etc.);

intellectual property (type and ownership of the intellectual property object, its legal registration and the existence of agreements on use, information on patent research and patent clearance of development, the amount of funds received by scientific organizations);

technological potential of the enterprise (provision of equipment, premises, resource base, cooperation ties, sales system, presence of a quality system at the enterprise, etc.)

project team (team staffing: presence of a manager-leader, technical specialist, marketer, financier; its maturity, competence; presence of team success stories);

project financing (volume and sources of financing (in addition to budgetary funds), cost-price ratio, sales volume in monetary terms, payback period of investments, generated profit).

A final business plan is developed for projects selected for presentation to investors and partners. The main purpose of this business plan is a detailed comprehensive justification of the benefits received by project participants, as well as the development of a schedule for its implementation.

The final version of the business plan should include sections:

Summary; Description of the enterprise and product; Market and its analysis; Marketing plan; Production plan; Legal registration of the project;

Risk assessment and methods for reducing them; Financial plan, including project performance indicators; Proposals to the investor.

The geography of land is closely related to the characteristics of the natural environment, the history of economic development and settlement of the territory.

Based on the study of monuments of material culture, it has been established that already in the Bronze Age, ancient tribes lived on the territory of our country, who were engaged in cattle breeding and hoe farming. Archaeological excavations have discovered settlements along the shores of the lake, river. Volkhov, lake Chudskoye, near Suzdal, in the upper throughout the Cis-Ural region, as well as in the valley of the river. Kama, i.e. in the forest zone of the European part of Russia.

In Siberia during the Bronze Age, hoe farming and cattle breeding were widespread along the river. Ob, in the forest-steppe Irtysh region.

The beginning of the arable era was the 1st millennium AD. In the VI-IX centuries. in the north-west and north-east of the European part of Russia in the forest zone (southern taiga, zone) the slash-and-burn farming system, widespread at that time, led to significant changes in the natural environment. Abandoned areas of arable land (after 2-3 years of use) were overgrown with birch, aspen, and hazel (black forest). Such forests were called "crop forests" in contrast to undisturbed "wild" forests.

First of all, lake shores, river valleys, partially watersheds, as well as opoles (spaces with gray forest soils) - Suzdal, Vladimir, Pereyaslav, Rostov, Yuryev, Dmitrov, Uglich, Kostroma - were developed for arable land. The Vladimir-Suzdal region was the breadbasket of ancient Rus'.

In the northern and middle taiga subzones, agricultural development was of a strip nature. All settlements were built along rivers. The valley type of development has been preserved even now in the northern taiga subzone. Along the Northern Dvina, Onega, Vychegda, Sukhona, and Pechora, forests were cut down on terraces and floodplains to form meadows and develop cattle breeding on their basis.

In the forest-steppe and steppe zones, nomadic horse breeding, cattle breeding and sheep breeding dominated.

In subsequent centuries and especially in the XIV-XV centuries. Significant areas of “wild” forests were reduced to arable land. Forests of oak, elm, and linden with more fertile soils were selected.

The strip of Russian arable settlement ran along the Moscow Highway and the lines of Cossack fortifications, and subsequently along the Trans-Siberian Railway. The Minusinsk forest-steppe basin was developed only in the 18th century.

The development zone in Western Siberia covered part of the forest-steppe and steppe zones. The Baraba forest-steppe was not plowed up, but served as pasture land for dairy farming. The development of forest-steppe spaces was difficult due to the resistance of cattle breeders. For example, agricultural development of the steppe foothills of Altai began in the first half of the 18th century. and was associated with the mining industry. The peasants assigned to the factories were engaged in agriculture. After the reform of 1861 and in connection with the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the influx of settlers increased sharply and agricultural development began at a rapid pace. By 1914, the area under cultivation had doubled. The intermountain steppe basins were not covered by development due to unfavorable climatic conditions - the sharp continental climate inherent in them.

In the 20th century The general picture of the geography of land has undergone, except for some areas, minor changes. In the western part of the Non-Chernozem Zone, there was a reduction in arable land due to the outflow of the rural population to cities, as well as the unprofitability of mechanized cultivation of small plots of arable land and hayfields in forests.

In the 50s, in connection with the development of virgin and fallow lands, the arable wedge in the dry steppe zone sharply increased. For example, in Altai, 3 million hectares of land that were previously used as pastures were plowed. Subsequently, due to the development of deflationary processes and salinization, some of the new arable land was tinned.

The problem of optimizing the spatial structure of land differentiated by natural zones is extremely important from both environmental and economic points of view. For the forest zone, the following ecological rational structure of nature management was proposed: agriculture - 65% (arable lands, hayfields and pastures); - 15%; recreation – 12%; cities and industrial-urban zones – 4%; nature reserves – 4%. In this case, forests would occupy about 1/3 of the territory, since forest lands are usually allocated for recreation and nature reserves.

In the land cadastre of the Russian Federation, land area is divided into categories according to their functional purpose and types of land. Land is allocated according to its functional purpose: agricultural enterprises; cities, towns and rural settlements; industrial and transport enterprises; forest fund; water fund and State Land Reserve. Since 1990, for the first time, an independent category was introduced into land registration - lands for environmental purposes. It included lands of nature reserves (29.4 million hectares) and national parks (6.4 million hectares). The State Land Reserve includes lands under ravines, sands, glaciers, and rocky deposits.

Long-term use of arable land without soil-protective agricultural technology has led to the development of erosion processes. Neglect of agrotechnical measures on slope arable land or when plowing erosion-hazardous lands leads to planar washout and deflation. The greatest planar washout on arable land (10-15 tons per hectare per year) is observed in the Kirov, Perm, Nizhny Novgorod regions, in the Udmurt Republic and in the Stavropol region.

Linear erosion develops most in areas with significant dissection of the relief - Smolensk-Moscow and. The highest network density is in the Urals. There are 1.7 million hectares under the ravines. Over the past 10 years, the area of ​​ravines has increased annually by 8-9 thousand hectares.

Deflationary processes on arable land develop in the dry steppe zone. They received the greatest development in the Krasnodar Territory, Stavropol Territory, and in the steppe part of Altai (50-100 tons per hectare per year).

Erosion processes have covered vast areas of arable land and natural forage lands.

As anti-erosion measures, protective forest plantings (forest belts) and forest plantings in the upper reaches of ravines and along river banks are used. From 1994 to 1997, 120 thousand hectares were planted for these purposes. tree and shrub plantings.

The loss of humus, which has a decisive impact on soil fertility, is closely related to erosion processes. The humus content largely determines the resistance of soils to anthropogenic influences. The greatest losses of humus (up to 30-50%) were recorded in the Kirov, Perm, Nizhny Novgorod, Volgograd, Voronezh, Rostov and Pskov regions. Catastrophic losses on red soils and yellow soils of the Black Sea coast under tea plantations. Unsatisfactory soil condition in the southern taiga subzone of soddy-podzolic soils.

Such a physical characteristic of soils as compaction determines the water-air regime, which affects the yield of agricultural crops. Soil compaction occurs due to the use of heavy agricultural machinery. The greatest overconsolidation is typical for soils in the Volgograd region, Stavropol region, and Saratov region. According to forecasts, as a result of soil compaction, up to 10-15% of arable land may be lost in the near future.

Natural forage lands are also subject to degradation processes. In the tundra and forest-tundra zones on reindeer pastures, due to overgrazing by reindeer, digression of the vegetation cover occurs. Unregulated roadless passage of vehicles, exploration and exploitation of mineral deposits disturb the soil and vegetation cover and pollute the natural environment.

As a result of overgrazing, catastrophic destruction or digression of the vegetation cover, soil salinization, and the formation of large areas of sand dunes occur. In the Republic of Kalmykia, 82.7% of pastures are subject to desertification.

In the forest zone, natural forage lands are overgrown with small forests and shrubs (9.6 million hectares) due to their underutilization.

Russia's forests make up one fifth of the world's forests. They play an important role in regulating global climate processes in the global carbon cycle and in preserving the biodiversity of fauna and flora.

In the process of timber industry use and fires, most of them of anthropogenic origin, taiga forests mainly in the European part of Russia have undergone changes: indigenous and conditionally indigenous forests were replaced by derivatives - birch-aspen small-leaved ones. Such forests began to predominate (50-70%) in the Kaluga, Smolensk, Yaroslavl regions, in the Republic of Tatarstan (Tatarstan) and the Republic of Bashkortostan. More than 40% of small-leaved forests are occupied in the Novgorod, Vologda, Kostroma, Kirov, Nizhny Novgorod, Ulyanovsk, Moscow and Ryazan regions. Less than 40% of derived forests in the Pskov, Perm and Leningrad regions. In the northern and middle taiga zones, derived forests occupy no more than 20%.

The replacement of native species with derivatives reduces the landscape-stabilizing role of forests, their productivity and the possibility of timber use.

According to estimates by the Forestry Directorate of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, about 2 million hectares of forest are damaged annually. At the same time, active work is underway. From 1994 to 1996, 5.03 million hectares of forest were restored.

The most important land uses, according to specialists from the territorial bodies of the Ministry of Natural Resources, are recognized as: violation of the land use regime in specially protected areas; land disturbance and reclamation, soil degradation and failure to implement programs to restore soil fertility; pollution and littering of land, including toxic waste.

555. The signs concentrated in tables 96-101 are intended to create specialized topographic plans with an additional load for agricultural purposes (in relation to the requirements of land management, state land registration and land cadastre, reclamation, linear surveys and construction in rural areas). By combining these designations and general topographical ones, as well as the use of explanatory inscriptions, it is possible to reproduce all types of land on these plans and their qualitative delimitation, transition to unified topographical signs when drawing up universal topographical maps at scales of 1:10,000 and smaller using specialized plans.

556. Agricultural land is land that is systematically used to produce agricultural products. These lands include arable lands, fallow lands, hayfields and pastures, as well as perennial plantings (orchards, berry fields, vineyards, plantations). The latter, traditionally for topographic plans, are separated into an independent subsection “Cultural vegetation” (Tables 93-95).

When transferring agricultural land, the number of combinations of symbols in one contour should be no more than three, with one of the symbols being taken as defining the type of land (and, accordingly, its name), and the other two as characterizing the quality of this land. Adjacent contours of identical land that do not have a reference value can be combined, and small ones can be attached to large ones if the distance between them on the plan is less than 1 mm.

557 (419-425). Arable lands on topographic plans for agricultural purposes include the same land (except for fallow lands) as on topographic plans for universal purposes (clause 552).

The detailed transfer of arable lands during this topographic survey provides for their division into rainfed (in areas of irrigated agriculture), drained by open and closed drainage, with an irrigation network, irrigated, estuary irrigation, flooded, clogged with stones, with drainage and irrigation systems (item 562).

The main symbol of arable land is an outline without filling its area with graphic symbols. As a rule, it should be combined with the letter Ï Russian alphabet, placed on the plan for greater readability of arable lands among the images of other lands. For large contour sizes, this letter is given without layout every 10-15 cm of the plan.

The symbol of arable land on specialized plans also shows vegetable gardens and household plots that are in the personal use of workers (with tree and shrub vegetation highlighted), including those partially located outside populated areas. In their outlines instead of a letter Ï provide explanatory inscriptions - complete, if there is a sufficient area of ​​one of these lands, compact arrangement of several identical ones, or reduced accordingly to the type îã. èëè óñ. (i.e. personal plot).

558 (426-434). Fallow lands are land plots that were previously used for arable land, but for more than one year (starting in the fall) are not sown with agricultural crops and are not prepared for fallow. Plowed areas of other lands that are left for natural overgrowth are not considered fallow lands.

When creating topographical plans for agricultural purposes, deposits are divided into those indicated by one symbol - clean and by a combination of symbols - rainfed, rice, drained by open and closed drainage, with an irrigation network, in the irrigation zone (three qualitative categories), estuary irrigation, flooded and clogged with stones, with drainage and irrigation systems (item 562).

559 (435-443). Hayfields include land plots whose grass is systematically used for haymaking. Topographical plans for agricultural purposes provide for the differentiation of these lands into clean, radically improved, drained by open and closed drainage, with an irrigation network, irrigated, estuary irrigation, flooded, swampy, clogged with stones, pebbles or sand, with drainage and irrigation systems (clause 562 ).

In order to harmonize the load of universal and specialized topographic plans, for the latter, hayfields are shown with signs of grass vegetation, namely meadow and steppe, in combination with the inscription haymaking and designations of its qualitative characteristics.

560 (444-453). On topographic plans for agricultural purposes, pastures refer to land plots that are systematically used for grazing, as well as areas with vegetation suitable for livestock feed, and, moreover, not being fallow lands or hayfields. Pastures are divided into clean, cultivated, radically improved, drained by open and closed drainage, with an irrigation network, irrigated, estuary irrigation, flooded, swampy, clogged with stones, pebbles or sand, with drainage and irrigation systems (clause 562).

On these plans, pastures are depicted in two ways: their small contours are depicted with a special symbol (corner pointing upward), all others are depicted by combining the designation of the existing grass stand with an explanatory inscription pasture and additional signs - according to the classification of this land. When surveying pasture lands in arid areas, it is necessary to identify watered ones, i.e. with a provided watering place for grazing livestock, and seasonal, for use - for transhumance. With an area of ​​15 cm of contours more distant from settlements, they are conveyed by adding an explanatory inscription to the form pasture (îáâ. ), pasture (summer-spring, îñåí. ).

Cultivated pastures are considered areas where, thanks to comprehensive improvement, a good grass stand has been created, its care is systematically carried out (including the application of fertilizers) and livestock grazing is carried out in portions. On the plans they are highlighted with an additional inscription cult. pasture or, for long-term cultivated pastures, by letter indices - ÄÊÏ. Fences of cultivated pastures and their individual parts are shown with appropriate signs, if necessary in combination with an explanatory inscription, for example, electric shepherd(Cçí. N 476).

561 (454). Areas where reclamation construction is being carried out should be outlined and marked with an inscription on topographic plans for agricultural purposes ìëð. ñòð. , but at the same time maintaining the graphic designation of the existing land in nature.

Areas in the stage of restoration of fertility include those in which technical reclamation has been completed and a set of measures for biological reclamation (revegetation) is being carried out.

562. The use of symbols of agricultural land intended for further subdivision on plans of qualitative characteristics of land should be regulated by the following provisions.

1. Clean lands should be understood as areas that do not have bushes, hummocks, stumps, contamination with stones (pebbles, sand), or waste from industrial enterprises.

Rainfed lands in areas of irrigated agriculture include areas of clean land on which various crops (mostly drought-resistant) are cultivated without artificial irrigation.

2. Drained lands are areas with an open or closed drainage network that provides a normal water-air regime for the growth of agricultural crops (including perennial plantings) and other vegetation. These lands also include those that have been drained but require further reclamation work. Drained lands with two-way regulation of the water regime on these plans should be shown in accordance with explanation 9 in paragraph 562. Drainage ditches are transferred in accordance with their size and location on the ground.

3. The category of lands with an irrigation network should include areas where this network is represented primarily by systems of irrigation ditches (including those requiring repairs) associated with an irrigation source that does not always guarantee irrigation work in the required volume. At the customer’s direction (and if reliable data is available), lands with a closed irrigation network can be highlighted during surveying with an additional inscription çàêð. ñåòü .

Regularly irrigated lands are characterized by a permanent irrigation network in the form of canals, pipelines, trays, ditches and an irrigation source that fully ensures watering at optimal times. Irrigated lands also include areas that are actually irrigated, but need further reclamation improvement. The division of lands into irrigated areas in sufficient and insufficient quantities is carried out in consultation with relevant specialists.

Irrigated lands also include areas where irrigation is carried out by mobile units, as well as irrigated areas on drained areas.

When showing lands with an irrigation network and irrigated lands, linear water management facilities associated with them are depicted with conventional signs established for them; Temporary sprinklers are not transferable on the plan.

4. Lands with estuary irrigation are artificially diked areas, to provide them with moisture they are flooded in the spring or water is released from irrigation systems. Along with the accepted sign of these lands, the corresponding contours indicate the existing limiting dams (shafts) and water outlets.

5. Lands for radical improvement include hayfields and pasture lands, on which, as a result of measures taken (periodic plowing, sowing of grass, drainage, watering, etc.), a new grass stand has been created, which is repeatedly renewed.

6. Flooded lands mean areas along river floodplains and watershed lowlands that are flooded with flood waters for 10 or more days during the year.

7. Wetlands used in agriculture include poorly drained areas with excessive moisture from surface or groundwater, but suitable (at least in some months) for haymaking and grazing.

8. Lands littered with stones, pebbles or sand, when their accumulations reduce the cultivated area by 10% or more, are marked with special signs. The corresponding designation should also be used when the surface is clogged with boulders scattered throughout the area with a density of 20 or more per hectare, which prevents mechanized cultivation of the land.

9. Lands with two-way regulation of the water regime include arable lands, fallow lands, hayfields and pastures with reclamation systems that function as drainage systems in wet periods of the year and as irrigation systems in dry periods.

These lands, at the request of the customer (and if reliable data is available), can be divided during surveying into those with open and closed drainage and irrigation systems. The latter are highlighted with an additional inscription çàêð. ñåòü .

563. To highlight the contours of agricultural land on these specialized plans, the following qualifications have been adopted.

1. Irrigated and drained arable lands, plantations, berry fields, vineyards and orchards, as well as non-agricultural lands within them: from 0.5 cm more - on a scale of 1:2000, from 0.25 cm more - on a scale of 1:5000.

2. The same, but non-reclaimed lands and perennial plantings, as well as other contours within them: from 1 cm more - on a scale of 1:2000, from 0.5 cm more - on a scale of 1:5000.

3. All other lands, namely pastures, fallow lands and hayfields: from 2.5 cm more - on a scale of 1:2000, from 1.2 cm more - on a scale of 1:5000.

4. Lands of the same type when demarcating them from each other (for example, drained and flooded arable lands, clean and littered deposits with stones, radically improved and swampy hayfields, cultivated pastures and estuary irrigation) and the contours of vegetation cover, open ground, swamps and salt marshes outside agricultural land: from 12 cm more - on a scale of 1:2000, from 5 cm more - on a scale of 1:5000.

Notes

1. These qualifications, based on the relevant instructions (mandatory for all organizations carrying out surveys for agricultural purposes), are characterized by greater differentiation by land than the qualifications adopted for topographic plans for universal purposes (paragraphs 501, 564, 576).

2. As a rule, topographic plans in scales of 1:1000 and 1:500 are not produced for agricultural purposes.