Methodology of scientific research. The concept of method and methodology of scientific research

Empirical (what is perceived by the senses) cognition is carried out in the process of experience, understood in the broadest sense, that is, as the interaction of a subject with an object, in which the subject not only passively reflects the object, but also actively changes and transforms it.

The empirical method consists of sequentially performing the following five operations: observation, measurement, modeling, forecasting, checking the forecast.

In science, the main forms of empirical research are observation and experiment. In addition, they also include numerous measurement procedures, which, although closer to theory, are still carried out precisely within the framework of empirical knowledge and especially experiment.

The initial empirical procedure is observation, since it is included in both the experiment and the measurements, while the observations themselves can be carried out outside the experiment and do not involve measurements.

1. Observation - a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on data from the senses (sensation, perception, ideas). During observation, the knowledge gained is not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

The concepts of methods and techniques are often used as synonyms, but they often differ when methods refer to more complex cognitive procedures that include a whole set of different research techniques.

Observation can be direct and indirect with various instruments and technical devices (microscope, telescope, photo and film cameras, etc.) With the development of science, observation becomes more complex and indirect.

Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design; the presence of a system of methods and techniques; objectivity, i.e. the possibility of control through either repeated observation or using other methods (for example, experiment).

Usually observation is included as a component in the experimental procedure. An important point in observation is the interpretation of its results - deciphering instrument readings, a curve on an oscilloscope, an electrocardiogram, etc.

The cognitive result of observation is a description - recording, using natural and artificial language, initial information about the object being studied: diagrams, graphs, diagrams, tables, drawings, etc. Observation is closely related to measurement, which is the process of finding the ratio of a given quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit of measurement. The measurement result is expressed as a number.

Observation is particularly difficult in the social sciences and humanities, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer, his life attitudes and principles, and his interested attitude towards the subject being studied.

During observation, the researcher is always guided by a specific idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not simply register any facts, but deliberately selects those that either confirm or refute his ideas.

In this case, it is very important to select the most representative, i.e., the most representative group of facts in their interrelation. Interpretation of an observation is always carried out using certain theoretical principles.

2. Experiment - active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process under study, a corresponding change in the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.

Thus, in an experiment, an object is either reproduced artificially or placed in a certain way specified conditions that meet the goals of the study. During the experiment, the object being studied is isolated from the influence of side circumstances that obscure its essence and is presented in its pure form. In this case, specific experimental conditions are not only set, but also controlled, modernized, and reproduced many times.

Every scientific experiment is always guided by some idea, concept, hypothesis. The data of an experiment are always theoretically loaded in one way or another - from its setup to the interpretation of its results.

Main features of the experiment:

a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object, up to its change and transformation;

b) repeated reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;

c) the possibility of detecting properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;

d) the possibility of considering a phenomenon in its “pure” form by isolating it from circumstances that complicate and mask its course or by changing, varying the experimental conditions;

e) the ability to control the behavior of the research object and verify the results.

The main stages of the experiment: planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, methods of implementation); control; interpretation of results.

An experiment has two interrelated functions: experimental testing of hypotheses and theories, as well as the formation of new scientific concepts. Depending on these functions, experiments are distinguished: research (search), testing (control), reproducing, isolating.

Based on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, and social experiments are distinguished. Of great importance in modern science is the decisive experiment, the purpose of which is to refute one and confirm the other of two (or several) concepts that compete.

This difference is relative: an experiment designed to be confirmatory may turn out to be disconfirming in its results, and vice versa. But in any case, the experiment consists of posing specific questions to nature, the answers to which should provide information about its laws.

One of the simple types of scientific experiment is a qualitative experiment, which aims to establish the presence or absence of a phenomenon assumed by a hypothesis or theory. A more complex quantitative experiment that reveals the quantitative certainty of any property of the phenomenon being studied.

A thought experiment has become widespread in modern science - a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects. A thought experiment is a theoretical model of real experimental situations. Here the scientist operates not with real objects and the conditions of their existence, but with their conceptual images.

Social experiments are increasingly developing, which contribute to the introduction of new forms of social organization and optimization of social management. The object of a social experiment, in the role of a certain group of people, is one of the participants in the experiment, whose interests have to be taken into account, and the researcher himself is included in the situation he is studying.

3. Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. Using comparison, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed.

To compare is to compare one thing with another in order to identify their relationship. The simplest and most important type of relationship revealed through comparison is the relationship of identity and difference.

It should be borne in mind that comparison makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out according to characteristics that are essential for this consideration, while objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy, and serves as the starting point of the comparative-historical method.

This is the method with the help of which, through comparison, the general and special in historical and other phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various stages of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena is achieved.

This method allows us to identify and compare levels in the development of the phenomenon being studied, the changes that have occurred, and determine development trends. Scientific methods of theoretical research

1. Formalization - display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form. Formalization is based on the distinction between natural and artificial languages. Expressing thinking in natural language can be considered the first step of formalization. Natural languages ​​as a means of communication are characterized by polysemy, versatility, flexibility, imprecision, figurativeness, etc. It is an open, continuously changing system that constantly acquires new meaning and significance.

Further deepening of formalization is associated with the construction of artificial (formalized) languages, designed for a more accurate and rigorous expression of knowledge than natural language, in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding - which is typical for natural language (the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.)

The symbolic languages ​​of mathematics and other exact sciences have more than just the purpose of shortening writing - this can be done using shorthand. The language of artificial language formulas becomes a tool of cognition. It plays the same role in theoretical knowledge as the microscope and telescope do in empirical knowledge.

It is the use of special symbols that makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.

As a universal means for communication and exchange of thoughts and information, language performs many functions.

An important task of logic and methodology is to convey and transform existing information as accurately as possible and thereby eliminate some of the shortcomings of natural language. This is why artificial formalized languages ​​are created. Such languages ​​are used primarily in scientific knowledge, and in recent years they have become widespread in programming and algorithmization of various processes using computers.

The advantage of artificial languages ​​lies primarily in their accuracy, unambiguousness, and most importantly, in the ability to represent ordinary meaningful reasoning through calculation.

The meaning of formalization in scientific knowledge is as follows.

o It makes it possible to analyze, clarify, define and clarify (explicate) concepts. Everyday ideas (expressed in spoken language), although they seem clearer and more obvious from the point of view of common sense, turn out to be unsuitable for scientific knowledge due to their uncertainty, ambiguity and imprecision.

o It acquires a special role in the analysis of evidence. Presenting the proof in the form of a sequence of formulas obtained from the original ones using precisely specified transformation rules gives them the necessary rigor and accuracy.

o It serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby the computerization of not only scientific and technical, but also other forms of knowledge.

When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). Relationships of signs replace statements about the properties and relationships of objects.

In this way, a generalized sign model of a certain subject area is created, which makes it possible to detect the structure of various phenomena and processes while abstracting from the qualitative, substantive characteristics of the latter.

The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on the formulas of artificial languages, and new formulas and relationships can be obtained from them.

Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols. Formalization in this sense is a logical method of clarifying the content of a thought by clarifying its logical form. But it has nothing to do with the absolutization of logical form in relation to content.

Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that differ in content, and the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.

2. The axiomatic method is one of the ways of deductively constructing scientific theories, in which:

a) a system of basic terms of science is formulated;

b) from these terms a certain set of axioms (postulates) is formed - provisions that do not require proof and are the initial ones, from which all other statements of this theory are derived according to certain rules;

c) a system of inference rules is formulated, which allows one to transform initial provisions and move from one position to another, as well as introduce new terms (concepts) into the theory;

d) the transformation of postulates is carried out according to rules that make it possible to obtain from a limited number of axioms a set of provable provisions - theorems.

Thus, to derive theorems from axioms, special rules of inference are formulated.

All concepts of the theory, except primitive ones, are introduced through definitions that express them through previously introduced concepts.

Consequently, a proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from previous formulas according to some rule of inference.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing scientific knowledge. It has limited application, since it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized substantive theory.

3. Hypothetico-deductive method. Its essence lies in the creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived.

This method is thus based on the deduction of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. Therefore, the conclusions here are probabilistic in nature.

This nature of the conclusion is also due to the fact that guesswork, intuition, imagination, and inductive generalization are involved in the formation of a hypothesis, not to mention the experience, qualifications and talent of the scientist. And all these factors are almost impossible to strictly logically analyze.

Initial concepts: hypothesis (assumption) - a position put forward at the beginning of a preliminary conditional explanation of a certain phenomenon or group of phenomena; assumption about the existence of some phenomenon. The truth of this assumption is uncertain and problematic.

Deduction (inference): a) in the most general sense - this is a transition in the process of cognition from the general to the particular (individual), the derivation of the latter from the first; b) in a special sense - the process of logical inference, i.e., a transition according to certain rules of logic from certain given assumptions (premises) to their consequences (conclusions).

The general structure of the hypothetico-deductive method (or hypothesis method):

Familiarization with factual material that requires a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of already existing theories and laws. If not, then:

Making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using many logical techniques.

Assessing the severity of assumptions and selecting the most probable from among many guesses.

In this case, the hypothesis is checked for: a) logical consistency; b) compatibility with the fundamental theoretical principles of a given science (for example, with the law of conservation and transformation of energy).

However, it should be borne in mind that during periods of scientific revolutions it is the fundamental principles that collapse and crazy ideas that cannot be deduced from these principles arise.

o Deriving consequences from a hypothesis (usually deductively) with clarification of its content.

o Experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, confirmation does not guarantee its overall truth (or falsity).

From a logical point of view, the hypothetico-deductive method is a hierarchy of hypotheses, the degree of abstraction and generality of which increases with distance from the empirical basis.

At the very top are the hypotheses that are most general in nature and therefore have the greatest logical power. From these, as premises, lower-level hypotheses are derived. At the lowest level there are hypotheses that can be compared with empirical reality.

A mathematical hypothesis can be considered a type of hypothetico-deductive method, where some equations representing a modification of previously known and tested relationships act as hypotheses. By changing these relationships, a new equation is created that expresses a hypothesis that relates to unexplored phenomena.

The hypothetico-deductive method is not so much a method of discovery as a way of constructing and justifying scientific knowledge, since it shows exactly how one can arrive at a new hypothesis. Already in the early stages of the development of science, this method was especially widely used by Galileo and Newton.

Zagalological methods and techniques of cognition

1. Analysis - dividing an object into its component parts for the purpose of studying them independently. It is used both in real (practice) and in mental activity.

Types of analysis: mechanical dissection; determination of dynamic composition; identifying forms of interaction between elements of the whole; finding the causes of phenomena; identifying levels of knowledge and its structure, etc.

The analysis should not overlook the quality of the items. Each area of ​​knowledge has, as it were, its own limit of division of an object, beyond which we move into another world of properties and patterns (atom, molecule, etc.). A type of analysis is also the division of classes (sets) of objects into subclasses - classification and periodization.

2. Synthesis - unification - real or mental - of various aspects, parts of an object into a single whole.

The result of the synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external combination of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically interrelated, but some activities are primarily analytical (for example, analytical chemistry) or synthetic (for example, synergetics).

3. Abstraction. Abstraction:

a) side, moment, part of the whole, fragment of reality, something undeveloped, one-sided, fragmentary (abstract);

b) the process of mental abstraction from a number of properties and relationships of the phenomenon being studied with the simultaneous identification of properties that are of interest to the cognizing subject at the moment (abstraction);

c) a result that abstracts the activities of thinking (abstraction in the narrow sense).

These are various kinds of abstract subjects, which are both individual concepts and categories, and their systems (the most developed of them are mathematics, logic and philosophy).

Finding out which of the properties under consideration are essential and which are secondary is the main question of abstraction.

The question of what in objective reality is distinguished by the abstract work of thinking, from which thinking is distracted, is decided in each specific case depending, first of all, on the nature of the subject being studied, as well as on the tasks of cognition.

In the course of its historical development, science ascends from one level of abstraction to another, higher one.

There are different types of abstractions:

Abstraction of identification, as a result of which the general properties and relationships of the objects under study are highlighted. Here, corresponding classes are formed on the basis of establishing the equality of objects in given properties or relationships, taking into account what is identical in objects and abstracting from all the differences between them.

Isolating abstraction - certain properties and relationships are highlighted, which begin to be considered as independent individual objects.

Abstraction of actual infinity in mathematics - when infinite sets are considered as finite. Here the researcher is distracted from the fundamental impossibility of recording and describing every element of an infinite set, accepting such a problem as solved.

The abstraction of potential feasibility is based on the fact that any but a finite number of operations can be carried out in the process of mathematical activity.

Abstractions also differ in levels (orders). Abstractions from real objects are called first-order abstractions. Abstractions from first-level abstractions are called second-order abstractions, etc. The highest level of abstraction is characterized by philosophical categories.

4. Idealization is most often considered as a specific type of abstraction. Idealization is the mental construction of concepts about objects that do not exist and cannot be realized in reality, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world.

In the process of idealization, there is an extreme abstraction from all the real properties of an object with the simultaneous introduction into the content of the concepts being formed of features that are not realized in reality. As a result, a so-called idealized object is formed, with which theoretical thinking can operate when reflecting real objects.

As a result of idealization, a theoretical model is formed in which the characteristics and aspects of the cognizable object are not only abstracted from the actual empirical material, but through mental construction appear in a more sharply and fully expressed form than in reality itself.

The idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes.

Having formed theoretical constructs using the idealization of this kind of objects, you can further operate with them in reasoning as a really existing thing and build abstract diagrams of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.

Thus, idealized objects are not pure fictions unrelated to real reality, but are the result of a very complex and indirect reflection of it.

An idealized object represents real objects in cognition, but not according to all, but only according to some, strictly fixed characteristics. It is a simplified and schematized image of a real object.

Theoretical statements, as a rule, directly relate not to real objects, but to idealized objects, cognitive activity with which makes it possible to establish significant connections and patterns that are not available when studying real objects, taken in all the diversity of their empirical properties and relationships.

Idealized objects are the result of various thought experiments that are aimed at realizing some case that has not been realized in reality. Developed scientific theories usually consider not individual idealized objects and their properties, but integral systems of idealized objects and their structures.

5. Generalization is the process of establishing the general properties and characteristics of objects. Closely related to abstraction. The epistemological basis of generalization is the categories of the general and the individual.

It is necessary to distinguish between two types of generalities:

a) abstractly general as simple sameness, external similarity, superficial similarity of a number of individual objects (the so-called abstractly general feature). This type of generality, identified through comparison, plays an important but limited role in cognition;

b) concretely general as the law of existence and development of a number of individual phenomena in their interaction as part of the whole, as unity in diversity. This type of generality expresses the internal, deep, recurring basis of a group of similar phenomena - the essence in its developed form, that is, the law.

The general is inseparable from the individual (separate) as its opposite, and their unity is special. Single (individual, separate) is a philosophical category that expresses the specificity, originality of a given phenomenon (or group of phenomena of the same quality), its difference from others.

In accordance with the two types of generalities, two types of scientific generalizations are distinguished: the identification of any characteristics (abstract general) or essential ones (concrete general, law).

On another basis, generalizations can be distinguished:

a) from individual facts, events to their expression in thoughts (inductive generalization);

b) from one thought to another, more general thought (logical generalization). The mental transition from the more general to the less general is a process of limitation.

Generalization cannot be limitless. Its limit is philosophical categories that do not have a generic concept and therefore cannot be generalized.

6. Induction is a logical research technique associated with generalizing the results of observations and experiments and the movement of thought from the individual to the general.

In induction, the data of experience lead to the general, induce it. Since experience is always infinite and incomplete, inductive conclusions are always problematic. Inductive generalizations are usually regarded as empirical truths or empirical laws. The following types of inductive generalizations are distinguished: A. Popular induction, when regularly repeated properties observed in some representatives of the studied set and fixed in the premises of inductive inference are transferred to all representatives of the studied set - including its unstudied parts.

B. Induction is incomplete, where it is concluded that all representatives of the set under study belong to a property on the grounds that this property belongs to some representatives of this set.

Induction is complete, in which the conclusion is made that all representatives of the set under study belong to the property based on the information obtained during the study that each representative of the set under study belongs to this property.

When considering complete induction, it is necessary to keep in mind that:

D. Scientific induction, in which, in addition to the formal substantiation of the generalization obtained inductively, an additional substantive substantiation of its truth is given, including with the help of deduction (theories, laws). Scientific induction provides a reliable conclusion due to the fact that the emphasis is on necessary, natural and causal relationships.

D. Mathematical induction - used as a specific mathematical proof, where induction and deduction, assumption and proof are organically combined.

The considered methods for establishing causal relationships are most often used not in isolation, but in conjunction, complementing each other. In this case, one should not make the mistake: “after this, because of this.”

7. Deduction:

a) transition in the process of cognition from the general to the individual (particular); deducing the individual from the general;

b) the process of logical inference, i.e., transition according to certain rules of logic from certain given sentences - premises to their consequences (conclusions).

As one of the methods of scientific knowledge, it is closely related to induction; these are dialectically interconnected ways of moving thought.

Analogy does not provide reliable knowledge: if the premises of reasoning by analogy are true, this does not mean that its conclusion will be true.

To increase the likelihood of drawing conclusions by analogy, it is necessary to strive to:

a) the internal, rather than external, properties of the objects that are compared were captured;

b) these objects were similar in the most important and essential characteristics, and not in random and secondary ones;

c) the range of matching features was as wide as possible;

d) not only similarities were taken into account, but also differences - so that the latter were not transferred to another object.

8. Modeling. Inferences by analogy, understood extremely broadly, as the transfer of information from one object to another, form the epistemological basis of modeling - a method of studying objects using their models.

A model is an analogue of a certain fragment of reality, a product of human culture, conceptual and theoretical images, that is, the original of the model.

This analogue is a representative of the original in knowledge and practice. It serves to store and expand knowledge (information) about the original, construct the original, transform or manage it.

There must be a certain similarity (relationship of similarity) between the model and the original: physical characteristics, functions; behavior of the object being studied and its mathematical description; structures, etc. It is this similarity that allows the information obtained as a result of studying the model to be transferred to the original.

The forms of modeling are varied and depend on the models used and the scope of application of the modeling.

According to the nature of the models, material and ideal modeling are distinguished, expressed in the appropriate symbolic form.

Material models are natural objects that obey natural laws in their functioning - physics, mechanics. In the physical (subject-specific) modeling of a specific object, its study is replaced by the study of a certain model that has the same physical nature as the original (models of airplanes, ships).

With ideal (symbolic) modeling, models appear in the form of diagrams, graphs, drawings, formulas, systems of equations, and proposals.

9. A systems approach is a set of general scientific methodological principles (requirements), which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.

A system is a general scientific concept that expresses a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and with the environment, forming a certain integrity, unity.

The types of systems are very diverse: material and spiritual, inorganic and living, mechanical and organic, biological and social, static and dynamic, open and closed.

Any system consists of many different elements that have structure and organization.

Structure: a) a set of stable connections of an object that ensure its integrity and identity with itself; b) a relatively stable way of connecting the elements of a complex whole.

The specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The main requirements of the systems approach include the following:

a) identifying the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are irreducible to the sum of the properties of its elements;

b) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure;

c) research into the mechanism of interdependence, interaction between the system and the environment;

d) studying the nature of the hierarchy inherent in a given system;

e) ensuring a plurality of descriptions for the purpose of multidimensional coverage of the system;

f) consideration of the dynamism of the system, its presentation as an integrity that develops.

An important concept of the systems approach is the concept of self-organization. This concept characterizes the process of creating, reproducing or improving the organization of a complex, open, dynamic, self-developing system, the connections between the elements of which are not rigid, but probabilistic.

10. Probabilistic (statistical) methods - based on taking into account the action of many random factors, which are characterized by a stable frequency. This makes it possible to reveal the necessity that “breaks through” through the combined action of many accidents.

Probabilistic methods are based on the theory of probability, which is often called the science of chance, and in the minds of many scientists, probability and chance are practically inseparable.

There is even a statement that today chance appears as an independent beginning of the world, its structure and evolution. The categories of necessity and chance are by no means outdated; on the contrary, their role in modern science has increased significantly.

To understand these methods, it is necessary to consider the concepts of dynamic patterns, statistical patterns and probability.

In dynamic type laws, predictions have a precisely defined, unambiguous character. Dynamic laws characterize the behavior of relatively isolated objects, consisting of a small number of elements, in which one can abstract from a number of random factors.

In statistical laws, predictions are not reliable, but only probabilistic. This nature of predictions is due to the action of many random factors.

A statistical pattern arises as a result of the interaction of a large number of elements that make up a team, and therefore characterizes not so much the behavior of an individual element, but rather the behavior of the team as a whole.

The necessity manifested in statistical laws arises as a result of mutual compensation and balancing of many random factors.

Statistical laws, although they do not give unambiguous and reliable predictions, are nevertheless the only possible ones in the study of mass phenomena of a random nature. Behind the combined action of various factors of a random nature, which are practically impossible to cover, statistical laws reveal something stable, necessary, and repeating.

They serve as confirmation of the dialectic of transforming the accidental into the necessary. Dynamic laws turn out to be a limiting case of statistical ones, when probability becomes practically certainty.

Probability is a concept that characterizes a quantitative measure of the possibility of the occurrence of some random event under certain conditions that can be repeated many times. One of the main tasks of probability theory is to clarify the patterns that arise from the interaction of a large number of random factors.

Probabilistic-statistical methods are widely used in the study of mass phenomena - especially in such scientific disciplines as mathematical statistics, statistical physics, quantum mechanics, cybernetics, and synergetics.

The scientific method is a set of basic methods for obtaining new knowledge and methods for solving problems within the framework of any science. The method includes methods for studying phenomena, systematization, and adjustment of new and previously acquired knowledge.

The structure of the method contains three independent components (aspects):

conceptual component - ideas about one of the possible forms of the object under study;

operational component - regulations, norms, rules, principles regulating the cognitive activity of the subject;

logical component – ​​rules for recording the results of interaction between an object and means of cognition.

An important aspect of the scientific method, its integral part for any science, is the requirement of objectivity, which excludes subjective interpretation of the results. No statements should be taken at face value, even if they come from reputable scientists. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented and all initial data, methods and research results are made available to other scientists. This allows not only to obtain additional confirmation by reproducing experiments, but also to critically evaluate the degree of adequacy (validity) of experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.

12. Two levels of scientific research: empirical and theoretical, their main methods

In the philosophy of science, methods are distinguished empirical And theoretical knowledge.

The empirical method of cognition is a specialized form of practice closely related to experiment. Theoretical knowledge consists in reflecting phenomena and ongoing processes of internal connections and patterns, which are achieved by methods of processing data obtained from empirical knowledge.

At the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge, the following types of scientific methods are used:

The methods that are used at both levels are:

analysis - decomposition of a single system into its component parts and studying them separately;

synthesis - combining into a single system all the results of the analysis, which allows expanding knowledge and constructing something new;

analogy is a conclusion about the similarity of two objects in some characteristic based on their established similarity in other characteristics;

modeling is the study of an object through models with the transfer of acquired knowledge to the original.

13. Essence and principles of application of methods:

1) Historical and logical

Historical method– a research method based on the study of the emergence, formation and development of objects in chronological order.

Thanks to the use of the historical method, an in-depth understanding of the essence of the problem is achieved and it becomes possible to formulate more informed recommendations for a new object.

The historical method is based on identifying and analyzing contradictions in the development of objects, laws and patterns of technology development.

The method is based on historicism - the principle of scientific knowledge, which is a methodological expression of the self-development of reality, which includes: 1) the study of the present, modern state of the subject of scientific research; 2) reconstruction of the past - consideration of the genesis, emergence of the past and the main stages of its historical movement; 3) foreseeing the future, forecasting trends in the further development of the subject. Absolutization of the principle of historicism can lead to: a) an uncritical assessment of the present; b) archaization or modernization of the past; c) mixing the background of an object with the object itself; d) replacing the main stages of its development with secondary ones; e) foreseeing the future without analyzing the past and present.

Boolean method is a way of studying the essence and content of natural and social objects, based on the study of patterns and the disclosure of objective laws on which this essence is based. The objective basis of the logical method is the fact that complex highly organized objects at the highest stages of their development concisely reproduce in their structure and functioning the main features of their historical evolution. The logical method is an effective means of revealing the patterns and trends of the historical process.

The logical method in combination with the historical method act as methods for constructing theoretical knowledge. It is a mistake to identify the logical method with theoretical constructions, just as it is to identify the historical method with empirical descriptions: on the basis of historical facts, hypotheses are put forward, which are verified by facts and transformed into theoretical knowledge about the laws of the historical process. If the logical method is applied, these patterns are revealed in a form cleared of accidents, and the application of the historical method involves the recording of these accidents, but is not reduced to a simple empirical description of events in their historical sequence, but involves their special reconstruction and the disclosure of their internal logic.

Historical and genetic methods– one of the main methods of historical research, aimed at studying the genesis (origin, stages of development) of specific historical phenomena and analyzing the causality of changes.

I. D. Kovalchenko defined the content of the method as “the consistent disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the reality under study in the process of its historical movement, which allows us to come closest to reproducing the real history of the object.” I. D. Kovalchenko considered specificity (factuality), descriptiveness, and subjectivism to be the distinctive features of the method.

In its content, the historical-genetic method most closely corresponds to the principle of historicism. The historical-genetic method is based primarily on descriptive technologies, but the result of historical-genetic research only externally has the form of description. The main goal of the historical-genetic method is to explain facts, identify the reasons for their occurrence, features of development and consequences, i.e., analyze causality.

Comparative historical method– a scientific method, with the help of which, through comparison, the general and special in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved; a type of historical method.

Historical-typological method– one of the main methods of historical research, in which the tasks of typology are realized. Typology is based on the division (ordering) of a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively homogeneous classes (types), taking into account their common significant characteristics. Typology requires compliance with a number of principles, the central of which is the choice of the basis of the typology, which allows reflecting the qualitative nature of both the entire set of objects and the types themselves. Typology as an analytical procedure is closely related to abstraction and simplification of reality. This is reflected in the system of criteria and “boundaries” of types, which acquire abstract, conventional features.

Deductive method- a method that consists in obtaining specific conclusions based on knowledge of some general provisions. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the general to the particular, separate. For example, from the general position that all metals have electrical conductivity, one can make a deductive inference about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire (knowing that copper is a metal). If the output general provisions are an established scientific truth, then thanks to the method of deduction it is always possible to obtain the correct conclusion. General principles and laws do not allow scientists to go astray in the process of deductive research: they help to correctly understand specific phenomena of reality.

All natural sciences gain new knowledge through deduction, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics.

Induction– a method of cognition based on formal logical inference, which makes it possible to obtain a general conclusion based on individual facts. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the particular, particular to the general.

Induction is implemented in the form of the following methods:

1) single similarity method(in all cases, when observing a phenomenon, only one common factor appears, all others are different, therefore, this single similar factor is the cause of this phenomenon);

2) single difference method(if the circumstances of the occurrence of a phenomenon and the circumstances under which it does not occur are largely similar and differ only in one factor, present only in the first case, then we can conclude that this factor is the cause of this phenomenon)

3) combined method of similarities and differences(represents a combination of the two above methods);

4) concomitant change method(if certain changes in one phenomenon each time cause certain changes in another phenomenon, then the conclusion follows about the causal relationship between these phenomena);

5) residual method(if a complex phenomenon is caused by a multifactorial cause, “and some of these factors are known as the cause of some part of this phenomenon, then the conclusion follows: the cause of another part of the phenomenon is other factors that together constitute the general cause of this phenomenon).

The founder of the classical inductive method of cognition was F. Bacon.

Modeling is a method of creating and researching models. Studying a model allows you to obtain new knowledge, new holistic information about an object.

The essential features of the model are: clarity, abstraction, an element of scientific fantasy and imagination, the use of analogy as a logical method of construction, an element of hypotheticalness. In other words, a model is a hypothesis expressed in visual form.

The process of creating a model is quite labor-intensive; the researcher goes through several stages.

The first is a thorough study of experience related to the phenomenon of interest to the researcher, analysis and generalization of this experience and the creation of a hypothesis that underlies the future model.

The second is drawing up a research program, organizing practical activities in accordance with the developed program, making adjustments to it, prompted by practice, clarifying the initial research hypothesis taken as the basis of the model.

The third is the creation of the final version of the model. If at the second stage the researcher offers various options for the phenomenon being constructed, then at the third stage, based on these options, he creates a final example of the process (or project) that he is going to implement.

Synchronous– is used less frequently than others and with the help of which it is possible to establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or beyond its borders.

Chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. It is used in compiling chronicles of events and biographies.

Periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria and their strict and consistent application in study and research. The diachronic method involves the study of a certain phenomenon in its development or the study of changing stages, eras in the history of a particular region.

Retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied.

Updates– the historian tries to make predictions and give practical recommendations based on the “lessons of history.”

Statistical– consists of studying important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while together they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

Biographical method- a method of studying individuals and groups of people, based on the analysis of their professional path and personal biographies. The source of information can be a variety of documents, resumes, questionnaires, interviews, tests, spontaneous and provoked autobiographies, eyewitness accounts (survey of colleagues), study of products of activity.

Scientific research can be divided into three stages:

1. Installation stage

2. The actual research stage

3. Study processing stage

On installation stage occurs:

Choosing a research topic,

Definition of the object and subject of research,

Setting the goals and objectives of the study,

Selection of research methods.

On research stage there is an information study of the topic, the result of which is: a review of the literature on the research topic; a compiled card index of publications on the topic, information collected along the way. An experiment or theoretical work is carried out to obtain your own research results.

At the stage research processing preparation and writing of a scientific text takes place, which consists of:

Formation of a plan,

Selection and preparation of materials,

Grouping and systematization of materials,

Processing of the manuscript.

The result of all this great, painstaking work is coursework or diploma work.

Choosing a theme occurs in accordance with such a concept as relevance. Most often, a topic is chosen for research that is relevant when the need for research is caused by:

Solving vital problems,

Building a concept to solve a problem,

Research of a specific direction for a certain period of time,

A study of the activities of a specific enterprise in a specific area of ​​activity.

At different times there were different themes relevant . Scientific research is determined by life itself. But there are also “eternal” topics. For example, the search for new sources of energy, new materials with specified properties, the study of humans, etc.

Today, when the country's economy is in crisis, when the situation in both politics and economics is rapidly changing, the relevance of scientific research is also rapidly changing.

In the 1980s Topics related to the introduction of self-financing were actively developed. In the early 1990s. Topics related to the activities of commercial banks and the privatization of enterprises were studied. At the end of the 1990s. topics related to the study of the activities of exchanges appeared; transactions with securities, etc.

But what is “new”? This is a well-forgotten old thing. A forward spiraling movement, but at a higher level. An example is the New Economic Policy, NEP in the 1920s. in Russia and the new economic policy in the 1990s. already in the “new” Russia.

Subjects of scientific research work (R&D) applied character is as close as possible to everyday life. She solves immediate problems, mainly. This can be judged by the names (“in new economic conditions” or for a specific industry or enterprise).

Theoretical research is more durable.

When writing a coursework, diploma or other written work, in a concise presentation in the section “Relevance of the topic” they show what tasks science and practice face in terms of the direction you have chosen in specific socio-economic conditions; what (in the most general outline) has already been done by scientists, what remains undisclosed. On this basis, a contradiction is formed. As is known, contradiction (scientific) is the most important logical form of development of knowledge. Scientific theories develop as a result of the discovery and resolution of contradictions found in previous theories or in the practical activities of people.

Based on the identified contradiction, a problem is formulated. Not every contradiction in practice can be resolved by means of science - it can be due to material, personnel difficulties, lack of equipment, etc. In addition, science does not resolve contradictions in practice, but only creates prerequisites for their resolution, which may not be realized for various reasons.

Following the problem, it is necessary to understand what will be object And subject research.

Object in epistemology (theory of knowledge) - this is what opposes to the knowing subject in his cognitive activity. Those. this is that part of practice or scientific knowledge (in the case of theoretical, methodological research) with which the researcher deals.

Subject of research - this is that side, that aspect, that point of view, projection from which the researcher cognizes the entire object, while highlighting the main, most significant features of the object from the researcher’s point of view.

One and the same object may be the subject of various studies and even scientific directions . For example, the object “man” can be studied by physiologists, psychologists, historians, sociologists, etc. But item These studies will vary among different specialists. For a physiologist, the subject of research will be, for example, the state of the human circulatory system; for a psychologist - the mental state of a person at a time of stress, etc.

Or such an object of research as a “bank”. What can be the subject of bank research? The subject may be the bank's foreign exchange transactions; bank credit policy; bank personnel management; transactions with securities, etc.

The central point is wording research objectives . The purpose of the research is what you, in the most general form, should or intend to achieve as a result of the work. What will the work be done for? What is the expected end result?

Examples of goal statements could be the following: develop, justify, analyze, summarize, identify, etc. When formulating a goal, the word “path” should be avoided.

The total number of goals should not be more than 2-3, so as not to clutter up the work. Each of the goals can be presented in the form of tasks, the totality of solutions of which ensures their implementation. Simply put, goal setting clearly demonstrates what the researcher needs to do to achieve the goal?

The next step is to build a hypothesis. Hypothesis is a scientific assumption, an assumption whose true meaning is uncertain. A hypothesis is one of the main methods of developing scientific knowledge, which consists of putting forward a hypothesis and its subsequent experimental and sometimes theoretical testing. As a result, the hypothesis is either confirmed and it becomes a fact, concept, theory, or it is refuted and then a new hypothesis is built, etc. By formulating a hypothesis, you make an assumption about how you intend to achieve your research goal. It would be nice to have a multicomponent hypothesis or construct it in such a way as to test several options. And then in the work it will be possible to say that something worked and this is why, and that did not work, this assumption was erroneous. This will give the work credibility.

What methods will be used to solve the tasks? This question must be answered by listing research methods .

Methodology- this is the whole set of research techniques, including methodology, technology and various procedures (operations) with data.

Method (Greek – methodos) – in the broadest sense of the word - “the path to something”, the method of activity of the subject in any of its forms.

Any scientific method is developed on the basis of a certain theory, which thereby serves as its necessary prerequisite. The effectiveness and strength of a particular method is determined by the content, the depth of fundamentality of the theory, which is compressed into a method. In turn, the method “extends into the system,” i.e. used for further development of science, deepening and deployment of theoretical knowledge as a system, use in practice.

Each method is determined primarily by its subject, i.e. what exactly is being studied.

Any method, even the most important one, is only one of many factors in human creative activity, which is not limited only to logic and method. Creative activity may also include other factors: the strength and flexibility of the researcher’s mind, his criticality, depth of imagination, development of fantasy, ability to intuition, etc.

Research methods can be divided into methods of theoretical and empirical research, fundamental and applied, quantitative and qualitative methods, etc.

Each method has three main aspects:

Objectively meaningful,

Operational,

Praxeological.

The first aspect expresses the conditionality of the method by the subject of research through theory.

The operational aspect captures the dependence of the content of the method not so much on the object, but on the subject, his competence, ability to translate the corresponding theory into a system of rules, principles, techniques, which in their totality form the method.

The praxeological aspect of the method consists of such properties as efficiency, reliability, clarity, constructiveness, etc.

The characteristic features of the scientific method include objectivity, reproducibility, necessity, specificity, etc.

Method- a set of rules, techniques, operations for the practical or theoretical development of reality. It serves to obtain and substantiate objectively true knowledge.

The nature of the method is determined by many factors:

The subject of the study

The degree of generality of the tasks set,

The accumulated experience,

The level of development of scientific knowledge, etc.

Methods that are suitable for one area of ​​scientific research are not suitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, many outstanding achievements in science are a consequence of the transfer and use of methods that have proven themselves in other areas of research. Thus, based on the methods used, opposite processes of differentiation and integration of sciences occur.

The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods are distinguished:

1. Empirical

2. Theoretical

3. Metatheoretical levels.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.

Methods at the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists include the method of system analysis at this level, while others include it among general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge.

The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration. Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition.

For example, the methodology of economic research is understood as a system of methods, techniques, means of collecting, processing, analyzing and evaluating information about economic phenomena, their causes and conditions.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology.

However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Teaching about methods - methodology . It seeks to streamline, systematize methods, establish the suitability of their use in different fields, and answer the question of what kind of conditions, means and actions are necessary and sufficient to achieve certain scientific goals.

The variety of types of human activity determines the use of various methods, which can be classified on a variety of grounds. In scientific knowledge, methods are used: general and specific, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, etc.

It has now become obvious that a system of methods, methodology cannot be limited only to the sphere of scientific knowledge, it must go beyond its limits and certainly include it in its orbit and scope of practice. At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the close interaction of these two spheres.

As for the methods of science, there may be several reasons for dividing them into groups. Thus, depending on the role of place in the process of scientific knowledge, one can distinguish formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, fundamental and applied methods, methods of research and presentation, etc.

There are also qualitative and quantitative methods, uniquely deterministic and probabilistic, methods of direct and indirect cognition, original and derivative, etc.

The characteristic features of a scientific method (whatever type it belongs to) most often include: objectivity, reproducibility, heuristics, necessity, specificity, etc.

The methodology of science develops a multi-level concept of methodological knowledge, distributing all methods of scientific knowledge according to the degree of generality and scope.

With this approach, 5 main groups of methods can be distinguished:

1. Philosophical methods, among which the most ancient are dialectical and metaphysical. Essentially, every philosophical concept has a methodological function and is a unique way of mental activity. Therefore, philosophical methods are not limited to the two mentioned. These also include methods such as analytical (characteristic of modern analytical philosophy), intuitive, phenomenological, etc.

2. General scientific approaches and research methods, which have been widely developed and used in science. They act as a kind of “intermediate” methodology between philosophy and the fundamental theoretical and methodological provisions of the special sciences.

General scientific concepts most often include such concepts as “information”, “model”, “structure”, “function”, “system”, “element”, “optimality”, “probability”, etc.

The characteristic features of general scientific concepts are, firstly, the “fusion” in their content of individual properties, features, concepts of a number of special sciences and philosophical categories. Secondly, the possibility (unlike the latter) of their formalization and clarification by means of mathematical theory and symbolic logic.

On the basis of general scientific concepts and concepts, the corresponding methods and principles of cognition are formulated, which ensure the connection and optimal interaction of philosophy with special scientific knowledge and its methods.

General scientific principles and approaches include systemic and structural-functional, cybernetic, probabilistic, modeling, formalization and a number of others.

3. Private scientific methods are a set of methods, principles of cognition, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science corresponding to a given basic form of movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences.

4. Disciplinary methods are a system of techniques used in a particular scientific discipline that is part of some branch of science or that arose at the intersections of sciences. Each fundamental science is a complex of disciplines that have their own specific subject and their own unique research methods.

5. Interdisciplinary research methods- a set of a number of synthetic, integrative methods (arising as a result of a combination of elements of various levels of methodology), aimed mainly at the interfaces of scientific disciplines. These methods have found wide application in the implementation of complex scientific programs.

Thus, methodology is a complex, dynamic, holistic, subordinated system of methods, techniques, principles of different levels, scope, focus, heuristic capabilities, contents, structures, etc.

Scientific research can be defined as purposeful knowledge. Conducting research means studying, cognizing patterns, systematizing facts.

Scientific research has a number of distinctive features: the presence of a clearly formulated goal; the desire to discover the unknown; systematic process and results; justification and verification of the obtained conclusions and generalizations.

It is necessary to distinguish between scientific and everyday knowledge. Scientific knowledge, unlike everyday knowledge, involves the use of special research methods. In this regard, there is a need to constantly search for new methods for studying unexplored objects.

What are research methods

Research methods are ways of achieving goals in scientific work. The science that studies these methods is called “Methodology”.

Any human activity depends not only on the object (what it is aimed at) and the actor (subject), but also on how it is carried out, what means and methods are used. This is the essence of the method.

Translated from Greek, “method” means “way of knowing.” A correctly chosen method contributes to faster and more accurate achievement of the goal and serves as a special compass that helps the researcher avoid most mistakes while making his way.

The difference between method and technique and methodology

Very often there is confusion in the concepts of method and methodology. A methodology is a system of ways of knowing. For example, when conducting sociological research, quantitative and qualitative methods can be combined. The entire set of these methods will constitute a research methodology.

The concept of methodology is close in meaning to the research procedure, its sequence, and algorithm. Without a high-quality methodology, even a correctly selected method will not give a good result.

If methodology is a way of implementing a method, then methodology is the study of methods. In a broad sense, the methodology is

Classification of scientific research methods

All methods of scientific research are divided into several levels.

Philosophical methods

The most famous among them are the most ancient methods: dialectical and metaphysical. In addition to them, philosophical methods include phenomenological, hermeneutic, intuitive, analytical, eclectic, dogmatic, sophistic and others.

General scientific methods

Analysis of the process of cognition makes it possible to identify the methods on which not only scientific, but also any everyday human cognition is based. These include theoretical level methods:

1. Analysis is the division of a single whole into separate parts, sides and properties for their further detailed study.
2. Synthesis is the combination of individual parts into a single whole.
3. Abstraction is the mental selection of any essential properties of the subject under consideration while simultaneously abstracting from a number of other inherent features.
4. Generalization is the establishment of a unifying property of objects.
5. Induction is a method of constructing a general conclusion based on known individual facts.

Examples of research methods

For example, by studying the properties of certain liquids, it is revealed that they have the property of elasticity. Based on the fact that water and alcohol are liquids, they conclude that all liquids have the property of elasticity.

Deduction– a way of constructing a particular conclusion based on a general judgment.

For example, two facts are known: 1) all metals have the property of electrical conductivity; 2) copper is a metal. We can conclude that copper has the property of electrical conductivity.

Analogy- a method of cognition in which knowledge of a number of common characteristics of objects allows one to draw a conclusion about their similarity based on other characteristics.

For example, science knows that light has properties such as interference and diffraction. In addition, it was previously established that sound has the same properties and this is due to its wave nature. Based on this analogy, a conclusion was made about the wave nature of light (by analogy with sound).

Modeling– creation of a model (copy) of the object of study for the purpose of its research.

In addition to methods at the theoretical level, there are methods at the empirical level.

Classification of general scientific methods

Empirical Methods

Theoretical level methods

Specific scientific (special) methods

Any scientific discipline uses a set of specific methods that belong to different “levels” of methodology. It is quite difficult to tie any method to a specific discipline. However, each discipline relies on a number of methods. Let's list some of them.

Biology:

• genealogical - the study of heredity, compilation of pedigrees;
• historical - determining the relationship between phenomena that took place over a long period of time (billions of years);
• biochemical – the study of the chemical processes of the body, etc.

Jurisprudence:

• historical and legal – gaining knowledge about legal practice, legislation in different periods of time;
• comparative legal – search and study of similarities and differences between state legal institutions of countries;
• legal sociological method – research of reality in the field of state and law using questionnaires, surveys, etc.

In medicine, there are three main groups of methods for studying the body:

• laboratory diagnostics – study of the properties and composition of biological fluids;
• functional diagnostics – study of organs according to their manifestations (mechanical, electrical, sound);
• structural diagnostics – identifying changes in the structure of the body.

Economy:

• economic analysis - the study of the components of the whole being studied;
• statistical-economic method – analysis and processing of statistical indicators;
• sociological method - questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.
• design and calculation, economic modeling, etc.

Psychology:

• experimental method - creating circumstances that provoke the manifestation of any mental phenomenon;
• observation method - a mental phenomenon is explained through organized perception of a phenomenon;
• biographical method, comparative genetic method, etc.

Analysis of empirical research data

Empirical research is aimed at obtaining empirical data - data obtained through experience and practice.

The analysis of such data occurs in several stages:

1. Description of the data. At this stage, summarized results are described using indicators and graphs.
2. Comparison. Similarities and differences between the two samples are identified.
3. Studying dependencies. Establishing interdependencies (correlation, regression analysis).
4. Reducing volume. Studying all variables if there are a large number of them, identifying the most informative ones.
5. Grouping.

The results of any research conducted - analysis and interpretation of data - are drawn up on paper. The range of such research works is quite wide: tests, abstracts, reports, coursework, theses, theses, dissertations, monographs, textbooks, etc. Only after a comprehensive study and evaluation of the findings are the research results used in practice.

Instead of a conclusion

A. M. Novikov and D. A. Novikova in the book “” also distinguishes methods-operations (a way to achieve a goal) and methods-actions (solving a specific problem) in methods of theoretical and empirical research. This specification is not accidental. A more rigid systematization of scientific knowledge increases its effectiveness.

Research methods as they are updated: February 15, 2019 by: Scientific Articles.Ru