Metonymy

Metonymy is a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor: metonymy is based on replacing words “by contiguity,” and metaphor is based on “by similarity.” Metonymy can be: general linguistic, general poetic, general newspaper, individual author, individual creative. Examples: “Hand of Moscow”, “I ate three plates”, “Black tailcoats flashed and rushed apart and in heaps here and there.”

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Example: “The lonely sail is white” or “From here we will threaten the Swede.” Typically used in synecdoche:

• 1. Singular instead of plural: “Everything is sleeping - man, beast, and bird.” (Gogol);
• 2. Plural instead of singular: “We all look at Napoleons.” (Pushkin);
• 3. Part instead of the whole: “Do you need anything? “In the roof for my family.” (Herzen);
• 4. The whole instead of the part: “Japan opened in different directions” (instead of: shares on the Tokyo Stock Exchange);
• 5. Generic name instead of specific name: “Well, sit down, luminary.” (Mayakovsky) (instead of: sun);
• 6. Species name instead of generic name: “Take care of your penny above all else.” (Gogol) (instead of: money).

9th grade

Lesson #9

Topic: Special means of expression

Trails

Metaphor and its thematic types. Metonymy. Synecdoche.

Goals:

Introducing students to special means of artistic expression;

Forming in students the ability to see tropes in context and use them in their own speech;

Show the beauty and expressive possibilities of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche;

Cultivating the need to improve one’s own speech.

Equipment: texts for analysis (printed), slide presentation.

During the classes

Org moment. Goal setting.

We all really want to be understood, but does this always happen? Is it always easy for us to express our thoughts and feelings? Why do you think?

Yes, indeed, sometimes we lack words with which to express feelings, etc.

But guys, there are such words, but we don’t know how to use them. V. Shefner has a poem:

Russian literature is dying out,

Conversational beauty;

Retreating into the unknown

Russian miracle speeches.

Hundreds of native and apt words,

Locked up like birds in cages,

They doze in thick dictionaries.

Let them out of there

Return to everyday life,

So that speech, a human miracle,

Not poor these days.

II. Repetition and consolidation of what has been learned.

1. Frontal work.

Many masters have said that it is difficult to find the right word: “How can the heart express itself!?” - exclaimed F.I. Tyutchev. (slide No. 2)

A man who was outwardly unattractive, he was spiritually beautiful, and we see this in his creations. Human beauty is not only in appearance, but also in the ability to express one’s thoughts, because a person’s thought is the essence of his spiritual life. An example of high spirituality for us are people who have the gift of words, who carry vivid images to bring joy, excitement...

Tell me, what means of our language are designed to influence feelings?

(Means of expression).

In another way they are called “paths”. What trails do you know?

(Students name the words, the teacher reveals the names of these tropes on slide 3).

2. Terminological dictation.

Now find out the tropes in poetic texts:

(Reads the passage, and students write the term after the number)

(slides No. 4 - 7)

1. What is the dawn call today?

In foamy cherry clouds! (E. Asadov).

2. Like a tree quietly dropping its leaves,

So I drop sad words. (S. Yesenin).

3. Autumn leaves are circling in the wind,

Autumn leaves cry out in alarm:

“Everything is dying, everything is dying!

You are black and naked

O our dear forest,

Your end has come!” (A. Maikov).

4. A bush bends in a white flame

Ice dazzling roses. (A. Akhmatova).

What trails have you recorded? (slide No. 8)

Answer:

Comparison

Personification

Metaphor

III . Explanation of new material.

1. Introduction to metaphor.

Guys, each of these paths is beautiful, bright, expressive in its own way, but one of them may include others, it is the most capacious of those listed here. Name it. (metaphor)

This is what we will be talking about today.

L. Uspensky called the word “the most amazing weapon.” And each weapon brings the highest benefit in the hands of someone who has studied it as deeply as possible, who wields it like a master. And mastery means knowing down to the subtleties how it works. Let's return to the term “metaphor”, what is it?

(slide number 9)

Metaphor - the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning to create an image.

What is it based on? (comparison)

Simile is an independent trope, how does it differ from metaphor?

(In a comparison there are two objects, there are comparative conjunctions, but in a metaphor there is one image and no comparative words).

If a metaphor is based on comparison, then in order to create a metaphor, you must first compare an object to something. What does compare mean?

(Find similarities based on individual characteristics).

In other words, define associations. People have long tried to find ways to make their speech brighter and more expressive. Remember which works of folklore are based on metaphor? (puzzles).

Guess the riddles and determine what objects or phenomena were involved in their creation (slides no. 10)

1. Five brothers are equal in age, but different in height.

2. There is a haystack in the middle of the yard, a pitchfork in front, a broom in the back.

3. The old man is wearing a red cap.

Poetic metaphors are the most expressive, and we will now work with vivid examples from the poems of Akhmatova and Vysotsky. (slide number 11)

“Here loneliness caught me in its net.” A. Akhmatova

“Souls are frozen under a crust of ice.” V. Vysotsky

Why do you think Vysotsky compared a dead soul to an ice crust, and not, say, concrete or cement?

(Ice can melt, souls can come to life from a warm word...)

Poets often use metaphors to create an image of natural phenomena. Most recently, we painted miniatures “The Sound of Rain” using sound writing techniques (alliteration and assonance).

Today let's try our hand at creating images using this phenomenon. Make an associative series for the word “rain”.

(students' answers).

Now listen to how the masters of words saw the rain...

(The teacher reads passages, simultaneously opening them on slides 12 - 13)

1. The rain is throwing down big peas (N. Zabolotsky)

2. And over all the shining Paris the rain rushed, spreading its mane. (V. Lugovskoy)

3. The timid rain tastes the fallen leaves with its damp paws. (V. Lugovskoy)

4. The rain walked on huge stilts, tall and thin as a thread. (S. Kirsanov)

2. Introduction to metonymy and synecdoche.

A type of metaphor is metonymy And synecdoche. What it is? (slide number 14).

- Metonymy – trope, a figure of speech in which, instead of the name of one object, the name of another is given, which is related to it by association by contiguity.

In metonymy, the connection can be: (slide number 15)

between an object and the material from which the object is made;

between the place of action (social event, organization) and the people there;

between an action (or its result) and the instrument of this action;

between a place and an event associated with it;

Let's find examples of metonymy in the following poetic texts and determine their connection (slide number 16).

1. I read Apuleius willingly, but did not read Cicero (A.S. Pushkin)

2. Amber smoked in his mouth (A.S. Pushkin)

3. The stocks shine; the stalls and the chairs - everything is boiling (A.S. Pushkin)

4. For the violent raid he doomed their villages and fields to swords and fires (A.S. Pushkin)

5. It’s not for nothing that all of Russia remembers Borodin’s day (M.Yu. Lermontov)

6. I ate three plates (I.A. Krylov)

Now let's talk about synecdoche (slide number 17)

Synecdoche – this usage:

singular instead of plural;

plural instead of singular;

the name of the part instead of the name of the whole;

generic name instead of specific name;

species name instead of generic name.

(slide no.)

- Let us comment on examples of synecdoche in the following texts:

A) Save your penny most of all (N.V. Gogol)

B) I need a roof for my family (A.I. Herzen)

B) We all look at

Napoleons (A.S. Pushkin)

D) Well, sit down, luminary (V.V. Mayakovsky)

D) And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn (M.Yu. Lermontov)

IV. Consolidation.

1. Working with texts.

You have poetry passages on your tables. Please read the ones you like, distinguishing between metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and explaining how they made you feel.

(Reading passages, texts printed):

1. The first snow made the trees’ eyelashes bristle.

Both in the forest and in the fields there is silence, silence.

How my heart needs her song now!

N. Rylenkov.

2. The road thought about the red evening,

Rowan bushes are more misty than the depths.

Hut-old woman jaw threshold

Chews the fragrant crumb of silence.

S. Yesenin

3. She fell in love with deceptions

Both Richardson and Russo.

A. Pushkin

4.No, my Moscow did not go

To him with a guilty head.

5. The hat went deep into reading the newspapers.

Ilf and Petrov

2. Poetic dictation

What are you bowing over the waters,

Willow, the top of your head?

And trembling leaves,

Like greedy lips,

Are you catching a running stream?

Even if it languishes, even if it trembles

Each leaf of yours is above the stream:

But the stream runs and splashes,

And, basking in the sun, it shines,

And laughs at you

F.I. Tyutchev

What picture appears in your mind when you read this poem?

What visual and expressive means help you with this? Write out the trails from the poem.

IV . Summing up the lesson

Today we got acquainted with three figurative and expressive means of language - metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Why are they needed, for what purpose do writers and poets use them? ( With the help of these means, writers and poets paint bright, colorful pictures, create memorable images, we visually imagine everything they write about. Therefore, poets and writers are also called artists of words.)

V . Reflection.

Guys, today we heard a lot of metaphors from famous poets, found them in poems, and created them ourselves. I will ask you to write down the one you like best on a piece of paper in large letters.

(3 people place them on the board).

I am very glad that here among the professional samples there are your works, your creativity, your discoveries. It is very difficult to create a good metaphor; Aristotle said that metaphor is the hallmark of genius. But a person whose heart is open to love - for people, for a mother, for a woman, for nature - will respond to the voice of poetry.

VI . Homework:

Write out examples of metaphors, metonymy, and synecdoche from works of Russian literature.

A word can have one lexical meaning - then it definitely– or several meanings – such a word is called ambiguous. There are quite a large number of unambiguous words in the language, but the most frequent, commonly used words are usually ambiguous. The totality of all meanings of a polysemantic word is called its semantic structure.

If a word is polysemous, there is a semantic connection between its meanings. In a polysemantic word, distinguish direct(basic) meaning of the word and portable(derived) meanings. The figurative meaning is the result of transferring the name to other phenomena of reality, which begin to be designated by the same word. There are different types of name transfer.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name based on similarity (real or attributed), based on the likening of one class of phenomena to another, as a result of which they are designated by one word. With a metaphorical transfer of meaning, the thing changes, but the concept does not change entirely: with all metaphorical changes, some sign of the original concept remains. Can be likened external, signs of objects perceived by the senses. For example, based on the similarity of shape (a network of wrinkles, a spruce paw), color (a crimson jacket, gray clouds), and location (the bow of a boat, the tail of an airplane). May be similar functions objects (cap visor - entrance visor). Completely different objects or phenomena can be compared to each other based on similarity emotional impressions, associations, assessments (a snowstorm is a storm of delight, short stature is a low deed).

Metonymy- this is a transfer of name that is made on the basis of contiguity, i.e. contact of things in space or time. With metonymic transfer, not only the thing changes, but also entire concepts. With metonymy, only the neighboring links of such a chain of name transfer can be explained, while the connection of subsequent links goes from one to another sequentially and indirectly, which fundamentally distinguishes metonymy from metaphor. Typical cases of metonymies are associated with the following relationships: one in another (the whole hall applauded), one on top of another (hotel room, diet table, three-course dinner), one under another (bureau), one through another (blinds), process - result (translation, reception, relocation), material - product (porcelain museum), tool - product (Russian language, lively pen), place - product (Panama, Boston), place - historical event (Borodino, Waterloo), name - public position (Karl - king, Caesar - Caesar), name - product (Mauser, revolver, Winchester).

Synecdoche- such a transfer of meaning when, naming a part, they mean a part of the whole, or, naming a whole, they mean a part of the whole. Synecdoche is often not distinguished from metonymies, because they have a lot in common: synecdoche is also based on contiguity; however, a significant difference between synecdoche is the quantitative sign of the relationship. Part instead of the whole: one hundred heads of cattle, a regiment of one hundred bayonets. Often the singular number is used instead of the plural for greater expressiveness of speech: buyer, be polite to the seller! General instead of specific: boss meaning boss. Genus instead of species: car in the meaning of a car, gun in the meaning of a cannon.

Antonomasia- a trope, expressed in the replacement of a name or name by an indication of some significant feature of an object or its relationship to something. For example, a great poet instead of Pushkin, the author of "War and Peace" instead Tolstoy, Peleus' son instead of Achilles.

Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of obvious and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the said thought, for example, “I said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.” Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them an appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose in mountains”). The character or situation portrayed may also be hyperbolic.

Litotes- a stylistic figure, a turn that contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, which is why it is also called inverse hyperbole. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison. For example: “A horse is the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc. Essentially, litotes is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole. Many litotes are stable phrases. A significant part of them are phraseological units or idioms: “snail’s pace”, “at hand”, “the cat cried for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin

Etymology- the doctrine of the origin of words. Etymologization according to the first consonance that comes across, without taking into account phonetic laws, methods of transition of meanings and grammatical composition and its changes, and rethinking an unknown or obscure word by chance similarity with a more well-known and understandable one is called in linguistics folk etymology. Folk etymologies are most often obtained by borrowing foreign words (roast beef from English is colloquially reinterpreted as razbiv from smash). In those cases when one or another folk etymology wins and becomes generally accepted, the word breaks with its previous legitimate etymology and begins to live a new life, and then the true etymology can only be of interest to the researcher. Because Since the phenomenon of folk etymology is especially common among people who have not sufficiently mastered literary speech, such words reinterpreted by accidental consonance and semantic similarity can be a clear sign of vernacular speech. "dummy" instead of "dummy"

Most people repeatedly encounter the use of metonymy when reading books, in writing and in conversation, believing that this is an ordinary general language; At the same time, few people think about what the word “metonymy” actually means. So what is it? The most understandable answer can be considered the following: this is a phrase in which one of the words can be replaced by another word.

The ancient Roman thinker Marcus Fabius Quintilian discussed metonymy in this way: its essence is manifested in replacing the described object with its cause, and this means that it is capable of replacing a word or concept with one related to the first.

(emphasis on the last syllable; “metonymia” - translated from ancient Greek “renaming”; from the meaning of the words “meto” - “above” in translation and “onyma” - “name”) - a phrase, a type of trope in which one word can be replaced by another, denoting a phenomenon or object located in some (temporal, spatial, etc.) relationship with the object, which is denoted by the replacing word. In this case, the replacement word is used in a figurative meaning.

Metonymy is different from metaphor, but it is quite often confused with it. The difference is that it is based on replacement “by contiguity” (i.e., a part of a whole instead of the whole whole or, conversely, an entire class instead of a representative of a class or vice versa, content instead of a container or vice versa, etc.), and a metaphor is is based on replacement “by similarity”; It’s also easy to define a metaphor if you replace it with a word that answers the question: “what.” A special case of metonymy is.

Example:“All flags will visit us” (“flags” are “countries” (a part replaces the whole, from the Latin “pars pro toto » ). Metonymy in this case highlights a property in a phenomenon, while the property, by its characteristic quality, can replace other meanings. Thus, on the one hand, metaphor becomes different from metonymy in its essence, since it has a greater real interconnection of substitute members, and on the other hand, it becomes more limited and eliminates features that are invisible in a given phenomenon.

The only thing similarity to metaphor- this belongs to the language (for example, a word such as “wiring” in a metonymic meaning is extended from the action of a word to a result, and in the artistic and literary direction it has a special meaning).

In the early literature of the Soviet era, the maximum attempts to use this method of expression were consolidated by constructivists. They put forward a principle that they called the “principle of locality,” meaning the motivation of verbal means by any theme of the work, i.e., limiting their actual (real) dependence on the topic. But such an attempt turned out to be insufficiently justified for them, since it was considered illegal to put forward metonymy at the expense of metaphor, and these are two completely different ways in the connections between phenomena that do not exclude, but complement each other.

Types of metonymy

• spatial(transfer of the physical, spatial relative position of phenomena, objects or names to objects that are closely related to them; for example, “the audience applauded”; the meaning is that people applauded, therefore, the action is transferred to the audience);
• temporary(the name of the action is transferred to the result of this action; for example, “new edition of a book”; in this case, the meaning of the word “edition” is used as a result, not an action);
• logical(the name of the author, the name of the action or initial substance, etc. is transferred to the final result, i.e. the final work, action and product relative to the above; in this case there must be a clear connection, for example, “looked at Ozhegov” - available in I mean getting information from Ozhegov’s dictionary).

Types of metonymy

• general linguistic metonymy - quite often used in speech; for example, beautiful porcelain (talking about porcelain products);
• general poetic (distinguished by its popularity in poetry; for example, sky blue);
• Is it a general newspaper (for example, an author's page);
• individual author's (for example, chamomile Rus').

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy

Synecdoche (translated from Greek “sinekdohe” - “correlation”).

The peculiarity of this variety is that it is characterized replacing a plural word to a singular word (meaning), using some part of it instead of the whole, or vice versa. Synecdoche is also called “quantitative metonymy,” because it is based on the strong use of substituted meanings, which enhances the expressiveness of the syllable, giving speech the greatest generalizing meaning.

Let's take the following sentences as an example:

“A detachment of one hundred bayonets” or “I won’t let him on the threshold!” and so on.

Examples in Russian

Metonymic transfers are quite diverse in the Russian language both in the nature of their transformations and in the state of phrases and expressions. They can be based on attribute and action, replacing content with containing, etc.

Let's look at a few examples in Russian:

• the conference made a decision (replacing part of the general with the general, since the meaning of the word “conference” means people);
• apple jam (transferring the process to an object state, since it is clear that the jam was prepared from apples);
• I’ll eat another plate (the content appears instead of the content, since it is not specified what is in the plate);
• he is in blue (here there is a sign instead of an object, since it is not indicated exactly what clothes are, but the meaning of what is said is clear)

Examples of metonymy in literature

Metonymy in literature is called literary trope, which is based on adjacent, contiguous, close and understandable connections between phenomena and objects.

For example, words from I. A. Krylov’s fable “Demyanov’s ear”: “I ate three plates...” or the expression in the poem “There is in the primordial autumn...” by F. I. Tyutchev: “Where the cheerful sickle walked and the ear fell...”

Let us recall such literary phrases as “the hungry years”, “the Bronze Age”, “we met at the opera”, “the stands froze”, “the theater applauded” and much more.

Opinion of scientific researchers

Modern science is convinced that the way of expressing thoughts, built in the form of metonymy, enhances expressiveness not only works and the Russian language, but also reveals the richness of vocabulary, helping to perceive the connection of related concepts that are not always homogeneous.

Metonymy is widely used in vocabulary, poetics, semantics, rhetoric and stylistics and is the most effective means of speech influence. Researchers claim that it has speech and logical qualities that help to reason more diversely, as well as cognitive properties, thanks to which a person penetrates deeply into the process of cognition and thinking.

Metonymy- allegory based on the contiguity (connection, involvement) of life phenomena.

metonymy of place - allegorical designation of phenomena through the name of the place, the sphere of life in which they exist, are located: “ ate all plate", "kettle boiled", "bulb lit" Often used in newspaper speech: “y London I don’t have enough strength for this.”

Childhood: silence at home big...

(M. Tsvetaeva “Kurlyk”)

metonymy of time: “it was a hard year”, “that happy day” - when the emotional coloring of events is transferred to the time when they occurred.

metonymy of means - phrases in which certain actions are designated by the names of the means (tools, organs) with the help of which they are carried out: “he has a right eye”, “hold your tongue” (this is from a textbook, my example is bad).

metonymy of ownership - this or that object or phenomenon is designated by the name of its creator, owner or manager:

To Greg, Schumann and Cui

I found out Tom's fate...

(M. Tsvetaeva “Books in red binding”)

metonymies of substance - certain objects are designated by the name of the substance from which they are made:

Amber on the pipes of Tsaregrad...

(A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”)

metonymy of a sign - certain states and relationships of human life are designated by their external expression, sign:

Blonde, almost whitish,

In legends became like fog...

(S. Yesenin “Dreaming of a mighty gift...”)

These are qualitative metonymies. A type of quantitative metonymy is synecdoche– transfer of meaning by association of part and whole. It is divided into:

ü designation of the whole through a part: “there are not enough workers at the plant hands", under his command there was a detachment of 200 bayonets"(again from the textbook).

ü many objects through one:

I saw your soft, baby hair…

(A. Fet “I saw your soft, baby hair...") (I would like to hope that there really was more than one...J)

ü proper names in common nouns:

Genius in books Solovievs,

Heine, Goethe and Zola,

And around from Ivanovs

The earth is shaking.

(Sasha Cherny “Lamentations”)

Depending on the peculiarities of the creative thinking of writers, on the ideological content of the works, the allegorical nature of their artistic speech is completely different. The use of metonymies embodies to a greater extent the mental rather than the emotional activity of human consciousness. Metonymies allow you to give additional meaning to the words you use.

The expressiveness of synecdoche is based on the fact that it seems to emphasize the importance of any part of an object, naming this part, but implies the entire object. The significance of the object itself or a set of objects can be emphasized. Individual synecdoche emphasizes certain aspects of objects or phenomena in order to more accurately express their essence.