Norwegian countries. Supreme executive body

Sex and age structure

Norway has a predominantly working-age population aged 16 to 67 years. The pyramid reflects not only an increase in life expectancy, but also an increase in the birth rate. The numerical superiority of men is small and is replaced by a predominance of women from 55-59 years old. This factor is typical for a number of northern states.

Ethnic composition

More than 90% are Norwegian. The largest national minority is the Arabs - several hundred thousand people. Also living in Norway are the Sami (about 40 thousand people, exact calculations are difficult), Kvens (Norwegian Finns), Poles, Swedes, Russians, gypsies, etc.

Migration

Throughout almost all of its history, Norwegian society has been ethnically homogeneous. However, since the 1980s, immigration to Norway has increased sharply, with many newcomers settling in the Norwegian capital Oslo and its suburbs. By 2008, the number of immigrants accounted for 10% of the country's total population, with 70% of them coming from non-Western countries. These statistics do not take into account the children of migrants born in Norway. The total number of arrivals to Norway in 2010 was 73,852, of which 65,065 were foreign nationals. A large influx of migrants is observed in the northern provinces, which is due to the government’s policy of attracting labor to these climatically unfavorable regions. The migration balance is positive, despite the fact that the number of emigrants is increasing every year and already in 2010 reached 31,506 people.

In addition to external migration, there is also internal migration in Norway, both between municipalities and districts, the former of which is twice as developed as the latter. In 2010, the number of people moving to another municipality reached a record high of 214,685 people. Migration does not depend on gender and mainly occurs in the direction from the north and northwest to the southeast.

Languages

The official language is Norwegian. In a number of communes in Troms and Finnmark, the Sami have equal status with it. The classic literary Norwegian language - Bokmål (Norwegian bokmål - “book language”), or Riksmål (Norwegian riksmål - “state language”) - developed on the basis of the Danish language during Denmark’s dominance over Norway (1397-1814). At the end of the 19th century, in contrast to Bokmål, a new literary language was created on the basis of rural Norwegian dialects with an admixture of medieval Old Norse - Lannsmål (Nynorsk landsmål - “language of the country” or “rural language”), or Nynorsk (Nynorsk nynorsk - “New Norwegian”). Lannsmol received formal recognition in the 19th century. Its creator was the linguist Ivar Osen. Both Bokmål and Nynorsk are considered equal literary languages, but the former is much more widespread and is the main language for approximately 85-90% of Norwegians. Nynorsk is most common in Vestland, where about 87% of its speakers live, and it is widely used in rural areas. In the first half of the 20th century, a “policy of rapprochement” (Norwegian tilnærmingspolitikken) between Nynorsk and Bokmål was officially pursued with the goal of eventually creating an “all-Norwegian” norm (Samnosk, Norwegian samnorsk), but in 1966 it was decided to abandon this policy.

Religion

Only since May 21, 2012, the Church of Norway has been separated from the state - a kind of record for Europe. See Church of Norway

Article 2, Section A of the Norwegian Constitution guarantees every citizen of the country the right to freedom of religion. at the same time, the same article still states that Evangelical Lutheranism is the state religion of Norway. By law, the king of Norway and at least half of the ministers must profess Lutheranism. As of 2006, according to official statistics, 3,871,006 people or 82.7% of the population belong to the state Church of Norway (Den norske kirke). As of January 1, 2014, according to the church itself, 75% of the country's population belonged to the Church of Norway. However, only about 2% of the population regularly attends church. Many Norwegians are “registered” as parishioners of the Church of Norway “by default”. If a family has at least one parent who is a member of that established church, then the child automatically “gets” the faith of the registered parent, which is why the vast majority of Norwegian church members have done nothing to join that religion.

The 2005 Eurobarometer survey shows that Norway ranks at the bottom of the list of believing countries in Europe: only 32% of Norwegians believe in God, 47% believe in some kind of spirit or life force, 17% do not believe in God or any -spirit or life force.

In Norway there are 403,909 people, or 8.6% of the population as of 2007, belonging to other faiths and teachings.

Among them, the most numerous are adherents of Islam (79,068 people or 1.69% of the population), the Roman Catholic Church (51,508 people or 1.1%) and the Pentecostal Movement of Norway (40,398 people or 0.86%).

The neo-pagan community Foreningen Forn Sed is officially registered in the country.

Story

Prehistoric period

In the early Mesolithic era, two related cultures of hunters and gatherers penetrated into the territory of Norway, following the retreating glacier to the north, later named after the main monuments of Fosna and Komsa. The climate in Norway after the end of the Ice Age was extremely favorable, and Norway was one of the most densely populated areas during that period of Earth's history.

During the Neolithic period, in southern Norway there was a megalithic, presumably pre-Indo-European Funnel Beaker culture, and in the east there was a pit-comb pottery culture (the latter presumably Finno-Ugric).

Ancient history

The ancestors of modern Norwegians, who pushed the nomadic Finnish tribes to the north, belonged to a separate Scandinavian tribe related to the Danes and Angles.

It is not completely clear how exactly Norway was settled. According to one version, Norway was settled from the north, but then settlers settled on the west coast and in the center. Some historians, on the contrary, suggest that settlement occurred from south to north - an opinion confirmed by archaeological excavations. It is even possible that settlement occurred from several sides at once, since the tribes of settlers spread very quickly throughout Norway. It is reliably known that the very first people came to Norway more than 10,000-9,000 years ago, settling in the area of ​​​​the villages of Komsa in Finnmark and Fosna in Nurmør. These places gave their name to the first Norse hunter-gatherer cultures. According to the sagas, the Norwegians occupied the area from the southern part of the Vike Bay to Drontheim, (the former name of Nidaros), but, like the Goths and Swedes, they did not have centralized power. The population was divided into 20-30 separate groups called fylke (Norwegian fylke, people). Each county had its own king, or jarl. In order to create a single state, several counties united into one general assembly - Thing. The Thing was convened in a certain place, and all free members of society were present, but affairs were conducted by representatives appointed by each king individually, who constituted the supreme assembly, or supreme court. The ranks of the commissioners did not allow persons dependent on the king.

Later the country was divided into four great districts, each with its own Thing, with its own separate laws and customs; namely: Frostating, which included the county located north of Sognefjord; Gulating, covering the southwestern county; the Things of Oppland and Vik, located to the south and east of the Central Mountain Range, first met together at Eidsating, but subsequently the district of Vik separated and became a separate Thing.

Within the county there was a division into hundreds (herad); At the head of the herad was a hersir, who held this position by hereditary law. He was in charge of the civil and religious affairs of the district. The kings, called yngling, were considered to be descended from God and were representatives of the filk in foreign affairs and leaders of troops during wars, but their rights were determined by their personal qualities and the size of their personal possessions; the most important matters were decided by the people themselves at the Thing.

The peasants paid the king viru if they violated the peace and brought him voluntary gifts. If the king “introduced violence instead of law,” then an arrow was sent to all inhabitants of the county as a sign that the king should be captured and killed. If it was not possible to kill, the king was expelled from the country forever. Illegitimate children, whose origin was proven by testing with iron, had the same rights to the throne as legitimate children.

Ancient Norse society thus consisted of two classes: princes and free villagers, or peasants. Strictly dependent on them were unfree people, or slaves, whom they treated, however, not harshly. These were, for the most part, prisoners. After death, they were not allowed into Valhalla, where only free people who died in battle were accepted. The two free classes did not constitute castes separate from each other. The title of peasant was considered honorable. Entering the service of the king was considered shameful for peasants and was imposed in some cases as punishment.

The king was the largest landowner and managed his lands with the help of persons called armadr. At the king's court lived a detachment of warriors - the Hirdmanns. They were dependent on the king, although they enjoyed complete personal freedom. The occupations of the warriors were wars, predatory raids, military exercises and hunting. They organized feasts, which were also attended by women, loved to have fun, but at the same time longed to die a heroic death. The belief in a destiny that no one can escape exalted the courage of the Norwegians. They believed that victory was given by Odin, and therefore they boldly went into battle.

Viking Age

Due to the scarcity of soil, with a thirst for fame and enrichment, the passion for expeditions to foreign lands increased, so that already in the 8th century the Norwegians began to terrify neighboring countries with their raids. When, at the end of the 9th century, vast states began to form in Norway, whose kings restricted the freedom of individual districts, the number of those leaving for long voyages increased even more. Sometimes the kings themselves went on campaigns for conquest or robbery, wanting to glorify their name. Only those expeditions that were undertaken under the command of princes, who were called sea kings, were called honorable. There are two periods of Viking expeditions: in the first, the Norwegians sail overseas in small detachments, attack only the shores and islands and retire home when winter sets in; in the second period, they gather in large troops, go far from the coast, stay for the winter in the country they plunder, take possession of it, build fortifications there, and settle in them. This period begins earlier in some of the lands visited by the Vikings, in others later - in Ireland in 835, at the mouth of the Loire - around the same time, in England and along the lower reaches of the Seine - in 851.

Viking ship in the Oslo Museum

The Norwegians even attacked the territory of what is now Turkey, where they were attracted by the riches of Constantinople, which they called Mykklgard. At the end of the 9th century, Norway united into one kingdom, and since then there has been more reliable information about its fate. On the western bank of Vik, today's Christiansfjord, there was a small region of Vesterfyld, ruled by the descendants of the kings who, according to popular legend, once reigned in Uppsala. The first king of Westerfjord to leave his mark was Halfdan the Black, who, partly through family connections and partly by conquest, annexed to his kingdom all the areas near the upper extremity of the bay and extending inland to Lake Mjösen. Halfdan died early, leaving a ten-year-old son, Harald (863). The latter continued the work begun by his father, subjugating neighboring jarls and kings to his power and establishing autocracy in Norway. He achieved success, but the proud ancestors were reluctant to submit to the king, to whom they had previously been equal; many noble people were expelled by Harald for resisting him and sailed to look for new lands for themselves. The region lying south of Sognefjord was the last to be subjugated. Its leaders gathered a significant army, but in the fierce battle of Gafursfjord Harald was defeated (885). Harald made a complete revolution in the economic and social system of the country. Masses of those dissatisfied with the destruction of the old liberties went to Iceland, the Shetland, Hebrides and Orkney islands. From there they often raided the coasts of Norway, but Harald defeated them and installed Norwegian jarls on the islands. At the end of his life, Harald changed the principle of autocracy: he divided the country between his sons, allocating a kingdom to each, and gave the descendants of the female line a county along with the title of jarl. A total of 16 kingdoms were formed, the connection between which Harald thought to preserve by declaring his eldest son Eirik as the eldest king. Harald was still alive when Erich made an attempt to re-establish a unified monarchy and received the nickname Bloody Ax for the extermination of his brothers. His harsh, tyrannical character contributed to the revival of the reaction excited by Harald's strict management. the year of the latter's death (936), his youngest son Haakon appeared on the scene, born of a slave and given to be raised by Æthelstan of England. Haakon was elected king after he solemnly promised the peasants to restore their ancient rights and return their ancestral lands to them. Eirik had to go to England. Haakon the Good fulfilled the promises he made. Baptized at the court of Æthelstan, Haakon made an attempt to introduce Christianity in Norway, but the peasants sharply refused and stubbornly insisted that the king strictly perform pagan rituals, so that a rupture almost occurred between him and the people.

Olaf II, miniature

After Haakon, a number of kings, of which the most famous - Olaf I Tryggvason (995-1001) and Olaf II the Fat (1015-1024), tried to introduce Christianity, enduring a stubborn struggle with the people. Thanks to his personal qualities, Olaf Tryggveson became a beloved hero of Norwegian history. Olaf II the Thick, nicknamed the Saint after his death and considered the patron of Norway, was the great-grandson of Harald Fairhair. He united all of Norway under his rule, rebuilt Nidaros, founded by Olaf Tryggveson and then destroyed, and made it the capital of the state. He was a devout Christian; the centuries-old resistance of the people to the new faith was suppressed. Having established Christianity, Olaf changed the laws of the country in accordance with the new conditions of life and drew up a church code. The powerful clans, which enjoyed complete independence under his ancestors, had to submit to him. He destroyed the heredity of the positions of landmen and verziers. Even the title of jarls was destroyed; Jarl began to be called the king's closest assistant in war and in peacetime. Under other kings, jarls entered into a struggle with royal power and acquired enormous importance, which most often happened when the kings were young. The neighboring kings, Swedish and Danish, tried in every possible way to harm the Norwegian king. Although the Swedish king Olaf the Beloved was eventually forced to reconcile with him at the insistence of his peasants and even marry his daughter to him, Canute of Denmark constantly incited rebellions against him and supported the insurgents. Olaf took advantage of Canute's departure to Rome to attack his state, but Canute, returning, drove out the enemies and the next year he sailed to Norway. The people, irritated against Olaf for his arbitrary rule, swore allegiance to Canute. Olaf was forced to flee and found shelter with Yaroslav in the Old Russian state. In 1029, he gathered an army and sailed to Norway, but at Stiklestad he was met by a Norwegian army, three times more numerous, and he was killed. Canute appointed his son Sven as governor in Norway; but the intolerable oppression that the Norwegians had to endure under the Danish yoke aroused their irritation, and everyone remembered Olaf with bitter regret. The very people who killed Olaf brought his ten-year-old son Magnus from Rus' and proclaimed him king. Sven fled to Denmark, with which an agreement was concluded: Magnus was to become king of Denmark after the death of Hardeknud. When the latter died, Magnus's power was truly recognized in Denmark. He appointed Sven as his governor, but a year later Sven refused to obey him. Magnus won several battles, but after winning the great battle on the island of Zealand (1047) he was killed. His successor, Harald the Severe, waged constant wars with the Danes: he was called the northern lightning, the destroyer of the Danish islands. He became carried away by the hope of conquering England, sailed there and died. After this came the more peaceful reign of Olaf the Quiet, who ruled Norway peacefully for 27 years. under his rule Norway achieved significant prosperity. After the death of Olaf, in 1095, Norway was again divided into two states, and strife began again until one of the kings, Magnus Barfud, again became the sovereign of a united Norway. He made expeditions to foreign countries, conquered the Hebrides and Orcadian islands and the English Isle of Man, and fell in Ireland in 1103. He was succeeded by his sons, Erich and Sigurd. The first, through wise management, contributed to the peaceful annexation of new regions to Norway, built churches, monasteries, etc. Sigurd, on the contrary, was distinguished by the brave, restless spirit of the ancient Vikings. In 1107-1111 he undertook a crusade to St. Land and returned with many looted treasures. In Jerusalem, he undertook to the patriarch to establish a bishopric in Norway and establish church tithes, which he fulfilled. After his death (1130), a long period of internecine wars began. The state was sometimes fragmented among several sovereigns, sometimes united under the rule of one. The clergy managed to take advantage of the troubled times to expand their rights and privileges. This significantly weakened the royal power, which in Norway could never acquire such great importance as in the rest of Europe, because the rights of the Norwegian people were very extensive, and they stubbornly defended them, defending themselves against any attempts to subjugate them. The Norwegian aristocracy became more and more distant from the people and after the introduction of Christianity began to move closer to the clergy, seeking, together with them, to concentrate the government of the country in their hands. In 1161, during the reign of Haakon II the Broad-Shouldered, a papal legate visited Norway, who forced recognition of the prohibition of marriages of priests and introduced various other reforms. In Bergen, he anointed 8-year-old Magnus, who was elected king in 1162, to reign. Magnus was descended from Harald Fairhair on his mother’s side; the church, having sanctified his hereditary rights, made it possible for a number of descendants of the king's daughters to make claims to the Norwegian throne. King Magnus in 1174, according to the conviction of Archbishop Eystein of Nidaros, promulgated a law called the Charter of the Golden Pen and which granted the Norwegian clergy very great rights. Magnus, who in this charter called himself King of God, promised to establish tithes in favor of the church, refused all interference in the elections of bishops and other church dignitaries and gave the Archbishop of Nidaros and his spiritual advisers the predominant influence in deciding which of his sons or relatives the king must be given the crown. Thus the appointment of the king by the people's assembly was replaced in Norway by the influence of the clergy and coronation. This was explained by the fact that each king received Norway as a fief from St. Olaf. The people could not calmly endure such a violation of their rights and rebelled under the leadership of Eystein Moyle, who called himself the grandson of one of the Norwegian kings, Harald Gille. A struggle arose between two parties, one of which was called Birchfoot (Birkebeiners), and the other Krivozhezlova (Bugglers), from the crooked bishop's staff. The Birchlegs opposed the expansion of the rights of the clergy and defended the rights of the people, and the Crooked Rods were clerics. The struggle continued for more than a century and caused a number of coups. The Birkebeiners were already close to death when they were led by the former priest Sverrir, an Icelander by origin, posing as the son of King Sigurd Munds. In 1184, Magnus was killed and Sverrir was elected king. His reign marks a new era in the history of Norway; he dealt a decisive blow to both allies - the clergy and the aristocracy - and established the democratic principles on which the Norwegian state relied. He destroyed the power of the noble class, appointing new persons who depended exclusively on him to govern the country; the titles were preserved, but they now represented nothing more than an empty phrase. He also abolished the predominance of the clergy on the grounds that the king receives his title from God and rules over all his subjects. The clergy rebelled against him, Pope Innocent III excommunicated him, all the bishops left Norway, but Sverrir remained adamant. If he failed to complete the work of centralization, it was only because he had to fight all the time not only with internal, but also with external enemies. The struggle continued after his death (1202), both under his son Haakon III and during the interregnum that followed, when the Birkebakers appointed one king and the ecclesiastical party another, until Sverrir's side-grandson, Haakon, was recognized as king. by both parties at a meeting in Bergen, which was attended by the high clergy, jarls and peasants. A period of peaceful development has begun for Norway. Haakon did not agree to recognize the letters of the Golden Pen, but at the same time he acted as a conciliator between the peasants and the clergy. In matters of jurisdiction, the clergy was given complete independence from the civil court; it elected its dignitaries without royal interference, and church estates were declared free from military service. gratitude for that, the clergy helped Haakon conquer almost all of Iceland and Greenland. His son Magnus VI ascended the throne (1263) no longer by choice at the Thing, but at the request of his father, who invited the people to swear allegiance to him before the proposed campaign in Denmark and promulgated the law on succession to the throne in 1257, which destroyed the influence of bishops on this matter and prevented fragmentation of the state into parts. Magnus maintained calm within the state and peace with its neighbors and earned the title of Law Improver (Laegebaetr); he established a general law for the entire kingdom, basing it on the old legislation of the country, gulating, frostating, etc. Punishments were softened, more precise rules of succession were established, which completely eliminated the election of the king. Significant changes made in the state system consisted of increasing the importance of royal servants and increasing the power of the king himself.

King Hakon V the Saint (1319) completely abolished the title of Lendermen without meeting any resistance: Lendermen ceased to be leaders of the people, representing only large free landowners. Norway remained a country of peasants - small landowners. Hakon died without male heirs, and since the young Swedish king Magnus Eriksson was Hakon's grandson on his mother's side, the Norwegians elected him as their king: the throne of Norway passed into the Swedish line, and both countries retained their laws and their supreme councils. Norway had 4 local councils (Orething) and one general council, meeting mostly in Bergen. Larger cities had their own self-government.

Union with Denmark and Sweden

Since the election of Magnus Eriksson, the history of Norway has been inseparably linked with the history of other Scandinavian states and has lost its independent significance. Norway is in tow from Sweden, participating, among other things, in Sweden’s wars with the Hansa, which strengthened the latter’s dominance and delayed the development of Norwegian trade for a long time. In Norway, all power was concentrated in the hands of officials; there was neither an aristocracy nor a permanent popular assembly that could oppose them, although the peasants and cities retained their original liberties. In 1349, a plague broke out, killing more than a third of the country's population. The Norwegians urgently demanded the presence of the king, and Magnus in 1350 sent his youngest son Gakon, 12 years old, as king. In 1376, the Swedish Council of State, upon the termination of the male line of the reigning dynasty, chose four-year-old Olaf, the son of the Norwegian king Hakon and his wife Margaret, as king, and Margaret was appointed regent. Following this, the Hansa recognized Olaf as the Danish king. Thus, all 3 Scandinavian states merged into one. When Hacon of Norway died in 1380, Margaret of Denmark was recognized as Norwegian regent. But her power in Denmark and Norway was very weak. In 1387, Olaf died, and both the Danish and Norwegian diets elected Margaret queen, and in 1388 the Swedes elected her queen of Sweden. By electing Margaret, the Norwegian Diet recognized her as the heir of her sister's grandson, Erich of Pomerania. In July 1396, the Danish and Swedish diets promised that Erich, upon reaching adulthood, would be given control of their states and that the Scandinavian states would not wage war among themselves. To strengthen the position of her heir, Margaret convened state councils of all three kingdoms in Kalmar; In June 1397, they developed a law called the Kalmar Union. Based on it, Denmark, Norway and Sweden were always supposed to have one king, elected from the dynasty of Eric along the line of primogeniture; Scandinavian states should not fight among themselves, but should protect each other when attacked by enemies; treaties with foreign states must be common to all three states; declared a rebel in one of them must be persecuted in the other two, but each of the three Scandinavian states retains its own special laws.

The Kalmar Union brought little benefit to the Scandinavian states; they were drawn into the policy of conquest, which was followed by the reigning dynasty and which brought them a lot of harm. Norway had to make sacrifices for several decades for purposes completely unknown to it, paying huge taxes to spend on wars alien to its interests. The Norwegians never saw the king, and his officials oppressed the people, sucked all the juice out of the country, and forced them to take bad coins at face value. The Norwegians asked to send them a governor if the king could not come himself; Having neither an aristocracy nor a common diet, they needed the king’s immediate concern for their state affairs - but their requests were not paid attention to. “We are ruled by foreign cruel vochts, we have no order in coin, no governor, not even a seal, so the Norwegians must run for their seal abroad,” - this is how the Norwegians complained in 1420. This is where the hostility towards the rule of foreign kings and a whole series of troubles arose; the people refused to submit to foreigners and vigorously resisted all kinds of attacks on local laws and customs. The Troubles in Denmark gave the Norwegians the opportunity to defend their independence and turn the union into a personal and equal union (1450). Each state retained its own separate name and laws, was governed by its own compatriots, and had its own separate finances and treasury. Karl Knudson, chosen by the Norwegians as king, ceded his rights to the Danish king Christian I. It was decided that Norway would always have a king in common with Denmark; the choice of the king should take place in Halmstad, and if King Christian leaves behind sons, then they must first of all be subject to election. From then until 1814, Norway and Denmark had common kings.

Throughout the 15th century and until 1536, when the liberties of Norway were finally suppressed, the Norwegians did not cease to worry and be indignant against any encroachment on their rights. They recognized the Danish kings only after much hesitation and resistance. The Norwegians were especially outraged by the fact that their most important and oldest colonies, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, were given by Christian I in 1468 as a pledge to the Scottish king and have not been redeemed since then, so they remained in the possession of Scotland. Armed uprisings against foreigners constantly occurred.

After the Danish king Christian II, expelled from Denmark and supported by Norway, was captured by the Danes and deposed, the Danish Rigsdag in 1536, contrary to the Kalmar Union, turned Norway from an equal member of the union into a subject province. A separate Norwegian diet, a separate army and navy, separate finances, etc. were destroyed. The Supreme Norwegian Court was destroyed; all trials were decided in Copenhagen by Danish judges; Bishops were ordained there, and youth studied there, devoting themselves to state and church service. Norwegian soldiers and sailors joined the ranks of the Danish fleet and troops. The administration of Norway was entrusted to the Danish Vogts, sent by the Danish government and completely independently managing it. The only thing that the Danes did not dare to touch upon was the land rights of the peasants, “odelsret”. The loss of political independence had a depressing effect on the development of Norway. It seemed to freeze in place, especially after the reformation, which was introduced into Norway in almost the same violent ways as Christianity. Norway's trade was destroyed by the all-powerful Hansa; industry did not develop. Both the country's finances and its population suffered from constant wars with Sweden, whose soldiers devastated its border areas. At the same time, Sweden captured three Norwegian regions: Jämtland, Härjedalen and Bohuslän. mental life was completely stagnant. Even the rewriting of ancient manuscripts stopped; one might think that the Norwegians even forgot to read, says one writer. But if in these respects the dominance of Denmark had an unfavorable effect on Norway, then in others it acted beneficially, directing the life of Norway along the channel along which it began to go, and strengthening the democratic principles underlying its political system. The last remnants of feudalism disappeared in the 17th century, and a new aristocracy could not be formed due to the absence of a court, the absence of a king and the constant change of officials who were alien elements and could not take firm roots in the country. After the destruction of dependence on the Hansa in 1613, Norway's trade developed greatly, as did shipping, fishing and forestry, and the population increased significantly, with all the population growth flowing into the cities, contributing to their prosperity. At the end of the 18th century, when Norway had to suffer a lot during the wars between Denmark and England, the spirit of nationality and love of freedom awoke among the Norwegians. English cruisers and fleets interrupted communications between Denmark and Norway for years, and the latter would have already separated from Denmark if not for the attachment to the Stadtholder Prince August Christian of Holstein-Glusburg, who managed to win people's love with his leadership. After his death, in 1809, the idea of ​​​​restoring independence appeared again. A society was formed for the benefit of Norway, actively working in this direction. In 1811, after long resistance from the Danes, he succeeded in founding a university in Christiania, thanks to which Copenhagen ceased to be the center of Norwegian culture. The spirit of national independence began to speak with particular force when the Norwegians learned that the Danish king, forced to do so by Sweden, after a stubborn struggle, ceded his rights to Norway to the Swedish king, according to the Treaty of Kiel in 1814.

19th century

The Treaty of Kiel was signed in 1814. He decreed the following: “Norway should belong to the king of Sweden and form a kingdom united with Sweden, and the new king undertakes to govern Norway as an independent state, according to its own laws, liberties, rights and privileges.” Norwegian historians pay special attention to the fact that it was not Denmark that ceded its rights to Norway to Sweden, because the Danish state did not have any rights to Norway that it could cede: Norway and Denmark were twin brothers, legally equal parts the same monarchy. The King of Denmark ruled in Norway not by anyone else's will, but by virtue of the ancient hereditary law of Norway. He could dispose of her as her legitimate sovereign, but only within the limits of legality, therefore, he had no right to transfer her to anyone without her consent. He could only do one thing - renounce the throne, and then Norway would gain the right to independently control its own destiny. Due to such considerations, the Norwegians opposed the Treaty of Kiel. In 1814, Norway thus entered into a personal union with Sweden.

Christian VIII

The ruler of Norway at that time was Prince Christian Frederick, a 28-year-old man who, according to contemporaries, was distinguished by determination and energy. Convinced of the unshakable determination of the Norwegians to prevent the country from turning into a Swedish province, the prince summoned the highest dignitaries of Norway, provided them with all the documents regarding the Swedish-Danish agreement, declared himself regent for the duration of the interregnum and invited the Norwegians to elect representatives to the Diet in Eidsvold, empowered to develop a new constitution. After this, the troops and civil guards in the square solemnly swore to defend the independence of Norway: this oath was repeated after them by the people and the Prince Regent, who swore the oath in the churches. Elections to a national constituent assembly were held. On April 10, the meeting was opened, and in a committee of 15 people, chaired by Falzen, a draft constitution was developed, which was then adopted in the general meeting. The following can be identified as its main provisions:

• Norway forms a free, independent and undivided kingdom. Legislative power belongs to the people, who exercise it through representatives.
• Taxation is the exclusive right of representatives of the people.
• The right to declare war and make peace belongs to the king.
• The judicial branch is separate from the legislative and executive branches.
• Freedom of the press.
• The Evangelical Lutheran faith is recognized as the state religion, but complete freedom of religion is allowed; only Jesuits are not allowed to enter the state; Monastic Orders and Jews are also not allowed.
• The king may, for outstanding services to the state, give orders, but he does not have the right to elevate to any rank or rank that is not related to the position held by the person in question. No personal or hereditary benefits may be granted to anyone. This was a preparation for the complete destruction of the nobility, since the hereditary nobility turned into personal nobility. Falzen declared at the same time that, not wanting to have, even in name, any advantage over his fellow citizens, he, for himself and his descendants, renounces his nobility and all the advantages associated with it.
• The king is granted a veto suspensivum, but not an absolutum.
• The king has no right to accept any other crown without the consent of ⅔ of the Storting.
• The king must live within the present boundaries of the state.

On May 19, 1814, Prince Regent Christian Frederick was unanimously elected King of Norway. The Swedish government did not obey the decision of the Norwegian people; The Swedish army was ordered to set out on a campaign to capture Norway. Attempts were made by foreign powers to resolve the matter diplomatically, but they came to nothing. The Norwegian troops were led by inexperienced people, as a result of which the Norwegian soldiers soon began to lose confidence in victory and talk about treason. On the other hand, the Swedish Crown Prince Karl-John acted with extreme caution and, after much hesitation, agreed to enter into direct relations with the Norwegian people, to negotiate with them as a completely independent nation. The proposal was accepted; The Maritime Convention was signed on August 14, and the Kiel Treaty was destroyed by the Swedish government itself. King Christian convened the Storting on October 7, 1814. During the debate, the need for unification became more and more clear, since Norway was unable to continue the costly struggle. King Christian conveyed a message to the assembly in which he finally renounced the power given to him and freed Norway from the oath. Swedish commissioners were sent to negotiate with the Storting regarding the union of Norway with Sweden, with instructions to show the greatest possible courtesy and compliance. The following agreement was developed: Norway forms a free and independent kingdom, having a common king with Sweden. In all its own affairs Norway should be governed independently, and in general it should enjoy equal influence with Sweden. The same idea underlay the structure of external relations. Norway was to have its own administration of external affairs, but external affairs affecting both states were to be decided in a joint Norwegian and Swedish council of state, according to the principle of equal influence or complete equality. Norway could, in the person of two members of the State Council who were under the king, participate in the Swedish Council of State whenever an issue of national importance was discussed in it. In this case, the solution required the consent of the Norwegian government. Only when the commissioners agreed on behalf of the king to the conditions of union set by the Storting, the Storting accepted the resignation of King Christian and elected Charles XIII as the constitutional king of Norway not by virtue of the Treaty of Kiel, but by virtue of the Norwegian Constitution. The Crown Prince conveyed the king's written oath "to govern Norway in accordance with its constitution and its laws"; the members of the Storting, for their part, took an oath of allegiance to the constitution and to the king, and the debate ended with a dignified speech by the President, in which he expressed the hope that the sacred bonds uniting the two peoples would increase the common benefit and security and that “the day of union will be celebrated by our descendants."

The wonderful hopes were not destined to come true. Sweden began to pursue its favorite idea - the conquest of Norway, and Norway - to defend its independence. At first, the Swedes ardently rejoiced at the agreement with Norway; the majority were convinced that Norway had already been conquered, others hoped for a voluntary merger of both nations. But since things were not going well, discontent and disappointment began to arise in Sweden. Norway's first conflict with Sweden broke out in 1815, when the Storting abolished the nobility and hereditary privileges. Karl-John did not agree with the Storting's decision. The law passed through three votes and became mandatory without the sanction of the king, which terribly outraged the latter. One threatening rescript after another was sent to the Storting; There was even an attempt to limit the freedom of the press, they threatened to interfere with foreign powers, but democratic Norway insisted on its own. The people's representatives of Norway continued to act in the same spirit. The king proposed, in 1824, a number of restrictive changes to the constitution. All these proposals were rejected by the Storting. The issue of external representation of Norway created great difficulties. After a series of increasingly tense negotiations, in 1836 it was established that a Norwegian member of the council of state would be “present” whenever general diplomatic affairs were discussed; when discussing purely Norwegian affairs, he expressed his opinion, but his voice did not have decisive importance. This concession satisfied no one. Several unionskomité were convened to discuss this issue and revise the act of union; but the revision met with unfavorable attitudes in the Norwegian Storting. The July Revolution even earlier had a revitalizing effect on Norway's democratic aspirations. In 1836 the last land tax was abolished. In 1838, rural self-government was transformed, and the influence of the administration on it was eliminated. The government's proposals to replace the delaying royal veto with an absolute one, to limit the Storting's right to naturalization, etc. were rejected in 1839. In 1842, the Storting decided that the king's sanction was not required for the naturalization of foreigners in Norway. In the 1840s, the struggle for stadtholdership also arose. § 14 of the Constitution determined that the stadtholder in Norway could be either a Norwegian or a Swede. Soon the Norwegians felt the inconvenience of this resolution and began to ask for the abolition of the post of stadtholder. Charles XV, upon his accession to the throne in 1859, promised to fulfill their desire, but the Swedish Rigsdag opposed this, and the king confirmed the decision of the Rigsdag. This terribly outraged the Norwegians; The Storting protested against the interference of the Swedish Rigsdag in purely Norwegian affairs. Since the Rigsdag, in its address to the king, proposed to revise the constitution in order to expand the scope of issues considered by the general council, and therefore increase the supreme power of Sweden, the Storting also protested against this kind of revision of the constitution, which violated its fundamental principle - equality. Nevertheless, the unionskomité was convened and decided to establish a new union council, and with it common ministers for both states, with a common constitution superior to the individual constitutions of this or that kingdom, and with a general circle of action very extensive and embracing the most significant issues, concerning both nations. The Storting continued to stand for the previous state of affairs, but 17 votes were in favor of the new one: this was the first indication that it was no longer possible to rely on the Norwegian officials who had been so persistent in the past during the struggle with the government for independence. Upon his accession to the throne in 1872, King Oscar II managed to win over the Norwegian Storting with various concessions, so that the latter agreed to reform the customs business (1874), to introduce a common Scandinavian coin (1875), etc. In 1880 the struggle flared up again. Back in 1872, a bill was introduced into the Storting requiring ministers to appear at its meetings upon their first request. In 1880, the Storting began to insist on the implementation of this law; Stang's ministry did not agree and was forced to resign. Then new reasons for disagreement appeared on the scene: the government demanded an increase in the fleet and army, the Storting rejected this demand and adopted a project to establish a police force similar to the Swiss one. The king did not approve this project. The Storting put the ministers on trial and they were convicted, but the king overturned the verdict. After the resignation of Selmer's ministry, the radical ministry of Sverdrup was formed, which, having conceded to the king questions about the absolute veto, etc., achieved the adoption by the king of a law on the right of the Storting to demand ministers at its meetings, the reorganization of the army, the expansion of voting rights, etc. The question of The union resurfaced in 1885 when Sweden independently changed its foreign affairs administration without seeking Norway's consent. The king is no longer the head of Sweden's foreign policy: it is controlled by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who has constitutional responsibility. But since the Swedish Minister of Foreign Affairs was at the same time the head of Norwegian foreign affairs, the right of the Norwegian king to direct Norway's foreign policy thus passed to Sweden. In addition to its ideological significance, the issue seemed very important from a practical point of view: an awkward step in foreign policy could threaten the political and national existence of the country. Foreign policy was especially important for Norway, as a predominantly trading country, in contrast to Sweden, a predominantly agricultural country. Negotiations began between Sverdrup's Norwegian and Swedish ministries. The result was a protocol on May 15, 1885: it was decided that the ministerial council should include as many Norwegian officials as Swedish ones; Norwegians will participate in decisions and be responsible to the Storting, but in return Norway must recognize that the leadership of foreign policy belongs to Sweden. The Storting became so indignant that Sverdrup was forced to resign; Following this, negotiations stopped. At the next election, both the right and left parties of the Norwegian Storting introduced the question of foreign policy into the House. The left won, but since its two groups, pure and moderate, could not come to an agreement, the right became the head of the administration, forming the Stang Ministry, and negotiations with Sweden resumed, but did not lead to any results. The futility of all negotiations and all kinds of joint political action became more and more obvious and matters moved into a new stage, expressed in the program for the elections of January 30, 1891: “a new order of management of diplomatic affairs, which would place more thorough constitutional responsibility on the Norwegian public authorities " The left won the elections, and Minister Sten became the head of the department, who made a direct demand for the appointment of a separate Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Storting, not wanting to act too harshly, limited itself for the time being to the establishment of separate Norwegian consulates, which were of great practical importance for a country that lived almost exclusively on navigation and trade. On June 10, 1892, the Storting allocated money to make the required changes, but the king refused to approve this decision and dismissed the Sten ministry, which had a majority of 64 votes; Stang was appointed minister, which in itself represented a violation of the parliamentary regime. The radicals carried out a decree in 1893 to reduce the king's civil list and the content of ministers; The majority of the Storting set a deadline for the separation of the Norwegian consulates from the Swedish ones on January 1, 1895 and allocated 340,450 crowns for their maintenance. The government responded to this by refusing to separate the consulates and used the money allocated for individual consulates for general consulates. The country was divided between two parties: right and left. The right wants to implement the principle of equality within the boundaries of the existing agreement, but from the point of view of the left this is nothing more than a chimera; the left sees only one way out of the humiliating and unsatisfactory state of affairs for Norway - the division of both countries, the abolition of the union regarding everything that was not included in the agreement.

The hope of Stang's conservative cabinet to achieve a majority in the Storting elections in 1894 was in vain: the left lost several seats, but still had a majority in the new Storting of 59 against 55 moderates and conservatives. Stang's cabinet submitted their resignations on January 31, 1895. The king entered into negotiations with the left side of parliament, demanding from it some commitments regarding its further course of action, and when such commitments were not given, he categorically refused to accept Stang's resignation (April 3, 1895). As a result, the opposition of the left side of the Storting became extremely acute; speeches were heard so harsh in tone and content that could not have been heard in it before. However, Stang's cabinet managed to get the Storting to agree to negotiate with Sweden, for which the parliaments elected an agreement committee of 7 Swedes and 7 Norwegians (in November 1895). Even earlier, in October, Stang's ministry finally resigned, giving way to the Gagerup coalition cabinet, consisting of representatives of all parties of the Storting. However, the reconciliation process was not going well. In 1896, the Storting, by a tiny majority of votes (41 to 40), decided to replace the Swedish-Norwegian flag exclusively with the Norwegian one. The decree was made a second time, and the king again refused his sanction. In response to this, the Storting, again by an insignificant majority (58 to 56), rejected the proposal made by the conservatives to again raise the civil list of the king and crown prince to the previous level of 326,000 crowns for the first and 88,000 crowns for the second, at which it stood until 1893. Norway's participation in the Stockholm exhibition, proposed by the Swedish government, was also accepted by a tiny majority (58 to 56). The discussion of the Swedish-Norwegian trade agreement with Japan gave rise to sharp attacks against Gagerup, who, according to the radicals, neglected the interests of Norway in favor of Sweden; Nevertheless, the treaty was approved, albeit by an insignificant majority of votes. at a time when in other European countries it is usually conservatives who are in favor of strengthening the army, and liberals and radicals are fighting against it, in Norway exactly the opposite happened: the strengthening and rearmament of the army proposed by the Gagerup government was not only accepted by the Storting, but even the costs of the reform were significant increased compared to the government's demand, because Norway seriously considered the possibility of war with Sweden. In 1896-1897, the Storting passed several important bills in the field of constitutional and social legislation. The right to vote in elections to the Storting is granted to persons located outside Norway. The right to vote in local government elections has been significantly expanded. The radicals' demand to extend the right to vote to women was rejected. The law of 1897 imposed a criminal sanction in addition to the constitutional provision by which the Storting has the right to summon every person on public affairs, with the exception of the king and members of the royal family. Persons thus summoned and who do not appear at the summons of the Storting are subject to a fine of 1,000 to 10,000 crowns; any statement made by a summoned person is equivalent in its legal consequences to a statement made under oath. This law was already voted in 1894, but then the king refused his sanction; this time he gave it. In 1897, it was decided to close a significant number of commercial and industrial enterprises on holidays. In the same year, 1897, an amendment was developed to the 1894 law on accident insurance for workers.

The elections to the Storting in 1897 gave a triumph to the left, which had 79 of its representatives, while the number of members of the right dropped from 55 to 35. Thus, the left had a sufficient majority both to revise the constitution and to convict members of the council of state (ministry). . The first result of the elections was the resignation of the Gagerup ministry. On February 18, 1898, a radical cabinet was formed, chaired by former Prime Minister Steen. In 1898, a reform of electoral law was carried out. The number of voters, which in the 1880s did not exceed 6% of the population, rose to 11% by 1897, was immediately raised to 20% by this reform. In March 1898, the Swedish-Norwegian agreement committee presented its report to the parliaments of both countries, from which it turned out that no agreement followed. The Swedes insisted on maintaining a common Swedish-Norwegian foreign minister. Disagreements emerged among the Norwegian members; the majority (moderate) agreed to the temporary retention of general consuls, so that after a few years separate Norwegian consuls would be appointed; The (radical) minority, influenced by the triumph of the radicals in the elections, insisted on the immediate appointment of a Norwegian foreign minister and Norwegian consuls. In November 1898, the Storting for the third time adopted a resolution to replace the Swedish-Norwegian flag with the Norwegian flag. The king again refused to sanction this law, and the draft became law without his sanction, as adopted by three Stortings in succession. Members of the Norwegian Council of State (Ministry) strongly advised the king not to undermine his authority by refusing to sanction this project, which was almost completely useless; but the king stubbornly stood his ground, citing the fact that the Swedish-Norwegian flag was accepted at one time by the Norwegian people with delight and that it flew with honor on all oceans. On 15 February, Gustav announced that at the Hague Peace Conference, Sweden and Norway would be represented by one common delegate, rather than two delegates, as the Norwegian Storting wished. This decision was one of the immediate reasons why, when Gustav entered Christiania, he was met with a hostile manifestation on the part of the people; on the contrary, upon his return to Stockholm he was enthusiastically received by the Swedish people. It was more clearly evident here than ever that the struggle between Sweden and Norway is being waged not only by governments, but also by peoples, each of whom was almost unanimous on this issue. In May 1899, the Storting, without debate, unanimously voted an extraordinary loan for the army and navy in the amount of 11.5 million crowns. On May 11, King Oscar again took control of the country.

XX century

At the beginning of 1905, Gagerup retired and was replaced by Michelsen. In May 1905, a new electoral law passed through the Storting, which introduced direct elections, established individual election in districts and increased the number of members of the Storting from 114 to 123. The division into districts, however, was not made with complete correctness, due to the desire to give every city as much as possible (over 2,000 inhabitants) an individual deputy; As a result, towns with 2,000 inhabitants have a deputy, and Christiania with a population of over 200 thousand has only 5 deputies. At the beginning of 1905, King Oscar, due to illness, ceded royal power to his heir Gustav, who was antipathetic to the Norwegians. The Storting passed a law dividing the Swedish-Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs into two special ones and creating special Norwegian consulates; Gustav refused to sanction it; Michelsen's ministry responded by resigning. The regent, after unsuccessful attempts to form a new cabinet, refused to accept her. Then the Storting unanimously, on June 7, 1905, adopted a resolution to dissolve the union with Sweden. Not wanting, however, to bring the matter to war, the Storting, with all votes against 4 Social Democrats, decided to ask Oscar II to allow one of his younger sons to take the place of King of Norway; The Social Democrats, who voted against this proposal, wanted to take advantage of the opportunity to proclaim Norway a republic. The resolution adopted by the Storting read: “in view of the fact that all members of the ministry have resigned their positions; in view of the king's declaration that he is unable to form a new government; In view of the fact that the constitutional royal power has thereby ceased to fulfill its functions, the Storting instructs the members of the ministry, who have now resigned, to temporarily assume the powers belonging to the king and, under the name of the Norwegian government, to rule the country on the basis of the constitution of the Norwegian kingdom and the existing laws, introducing in them those changes that are inevitably caused by the rupture of the union that connected Norway with Sweden under the rule of one king, who ceased to fulfill his functions as the king of Norway.” Simultaneously with this resolution, the Storting decided to draw up an address to King Oscar, where the idea was persistently pursued that the nature of the union was being interpreted incorrectly by Sweden. Solidarity of interests and immediate unity are more valuable than political ties; union became a danger to this unity; the destruction of the union is not associated with hostile feelings either towards the Swedish people or towards the dynasty. In conclusion, the Storting expressed the hope that the new choice of the king would prepare for Norway a new era of calm work and truly friendly relations with the people of Sweden and its king, for whose personality the Norwegian people will invariably retain feelings of respect and devotion. The proclamation of the Storting to the Norwegian people expressed the hope that the Norwegian people would live in peace and harmony with all peoples, especially with the Swedish, with which they are connected by numerous natural ties. The ministry drew up an address to the king, in which, mentioning his decision not to accept their resignation, it stated that by virtue of the constitution the king was obliged to give the country a constitutional government. From the moment the king prohibits the formation of a responsible cabinet, the Norwegian royal power ceases to function. The king's policy on the issue of reorganizing consular legislation is incompatible with the constitutional regime; no other Government is disposed to take responsibility for this policy, and the present Cabinet cannot take part in it. King Oscar protested against the Storting's conduct and did not agree to the accession of one of his sons to the Norwegian throne, citing a violation of the constitution by the Storting. From a formal point of view, such a violation undoubtedly took place, since the act of union with Sweden is a constitutional act in Norway and, as such, could be changed or repealed only after being adopted twice in two successive Stortings and the consent of the crown. The Norwegian side responded to this that the king was the first to take the path of violating the constitution, refusing to sanction the law adopted by the Storting, resigning the ministry and failing to form a new one, so that all his activities took place without the countersignature of the ministry responsible to the Storting. In response to this statement, the king sent a message to the President of the Norwegian Storting, in which he argued that he had not gone beyond the rights granted to him by the constitution, and that the Norwegian Storting had committed a revolutionary act. the first time after these negotiations, the king was clearly leading the matter towards war; in turn, the Norwegian provisional government, headed by Michelsen, was energetically preparing for it. The king’s name was no longer remembered at services in churches; justice began to be administered on behalf of the provisional government, to which the entire army unanimously swore allegiance. All Norwegians who were in the diplomatic service of Sweden and Norway retired; only the envoy to Washington, Grip, remained at his post. The Provisional Government established a Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but it could not appoint consuls until it was recognized by the European powers. The session of the Swedish Riksdag opened on June 20. The President of the Swedish Council of Ministers said that it was not in Sweden's interests to resort to violence and spoke in favor of negotiations with Norway. The danger of war was averted. The Norwegian provisional government, wanting to find support among the people, turned to a referendum, which had not been practiced in Norway until then. On August 13, 1905, a popular vote was held to break the union with Sweden; The referendum was preceded by passionate campaigning. The result exceeded the most ardent expectations: 321,197 votes were cast for a break with Sweden, only 161 votes were against; 81% of all persons entitled to vote took part in the voting. On August 31, a conference of Swedish and Norwegian delegates elected by the parliaments of both countries opened. At the conference, both sides came to an agreement, on the basis of which Norway undertook to demolish fortifications located near the border. In the Storting, this caused discontent on the extreme left, but by a majority vote the Karlstadt Convention was ratified and, after ratification by the Swedish Riksdag, it came into force. Following this, the question of whether Norway should be a monarchy or a republic came up. the country was undergoing lively agitation; Social Democrats and radicals stood for the establishment of the republic. The entire right, on the contrary, insisted on a monarchical form of government, pointing out that the Norwegian constitution is the most republican in the world and even as a kingdom Norway will remain in reality a republic, only with a hereditary president, whose power is more limited than the power of the English or French king President of the Republic. A republic could isolate Norway politically, while a king, especially if Prince Charles of Denmark is elected king, would bring with him an alliance with a number of powers. Apparently this consideration had a decisive influence; Both the Storting and the people in a referendum established a monarchical form of government and elected Charles, Prince of Denmark as king, who ascended the throne under the name Haakon VII. In November 1905, Michelsen submitted to the Storting a proposal to establish the civil list of the Norwegian king at 700,000 crowns for the entire duration of his reign (until now the civil list had been established for a year). The extreme left protested both against doubling the size of the civil sheet and against fixing it for a long time. However, both measures passed by a majority of 100 to 11.

In international relations, Norway's independence was finally formalized in the Christian Convention, signed by representatives of the four great powers, who pledged to respect the borders of the new kingdom and provided their guarantees of its territorial integrity.

XXI century

Economy of Norway

Advantages: largest oil and gas producer in Northern Europe. Hydropower supplies most of the country's energy needs, allowing most of its oil to be exported. Oil funds serve for the development of future generations. Mineral reserves. Large merchant fleet. Low inflation (3%) and unemployment (3%) compared to the rest of Europe.

Weaknesses: very high dependence on oil. Small domestic market, peripheral location. Too few highly qualified personnel. The harsh climate limits the development of agriculture, high taxes and very expensive labor also hinder development.

In terms of GDP, it currently ranks 26th in the world (2006). prosperity depends to a large extent on the gas production and oil refining industries. Since the mid-1990s, Norway has become the world's second largest oil exporter, after Saudi Arabia. This industry employs almost 80 thousand people, many work in industries related to oil and gas production. About half of exports and 1/10 of government revenues come from oil and gas trade, which accounts for one third of government revenues as a whole (according to 2005 data). More than a quarter of all Norwegian investment is in the construction of drilling platforms in the North Sea, west of Bergen, where one of the largest natural gas fields is located. Norwegians have built the world's largest drilling platform, with a displacement of 1 million tons and a height of 465 meters. The value of the remaining hydrocarbon resources on the Norwegian continental shelf is estimated in the state budget at 4,210 billion kroner (2006). Currently, less than a third of Norway's proven hydrocarbon reserves have been produced. At the same time, Norway is a world leader in the field of technologies that ensure safety in oil and gas production. The country's main achievement is the adoption of measures to create a system to prevent carbon dioxide emissions. Today, the leading deposits are Belosnezhka (Snevit) and Ormen Lange.

The country has large forest reserves, deposits of iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, titanium, molybdenum, silver, marble, and granite. Norway is Europe's largest producer of aluminum and magnesium. Europe's largest titanium ore deposit is located in southwestern Norway.

In the chemical industry, Norsk Hydro stands out as a leading European supplier of nitrate and complex fertilizers, urea and nitrate. Norway is also a supplier of vinyl chloride monomer and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which are used as raw materials for the production of synthetic paints. Norway also produces other technical goods. Paints, adhesives, detergents and fine chemicals form another sector of the Norwegian chemical industry.

Mechanical engineering specializes in the production of equipment for the oil and gas production and oil refining industries. Platforms are also supplied to other countries. Another important branch of mechanical engineering is shipbuilding. The bulk of Norway's industrial potential is concentrated in the south of the country (4/5 of industrial output); about 9/10 of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated in port cities.

The fishing industry is almost as important to Norway as oil and gas production. The main centers for fish processing are Stavanger, Bergen, Ålesund, Trondheim. A significant part of Russian fishermen send their catch for processing to Norway. Russia is also one of the largest consumers of finished fish products. Norwegian aquaculture has developed rapidly over the past three decades. The country has accumulated a wealth of experience in the production of equipment for fish cultivation (including feeding and breeding), monitoring and various production technologies in the field of fish processing.

Forests cover 27% of the country's area. And forestry is a small but very important industry for local farmers.

Rich forest resources and the availability of affordable electricity have given Norway a leading role in the global pulp and paper market. About 90% of the pulp and paper produced in the country is exported. Norwegian mills produce a variety of pulps, including short-staple and long-staple kraft pulp, which is an important component of newsprint and magazine paper.

The Norwegian maritime economy includes a wide-ranging network of shipping and aquaculture industries, providing an increasing variety of goods and services.

Agriculture

The share of agriculture in Norway's economy has declined with the development of manufacturing; in 1996, agriculture and forestry accounted for only 2.2% of the country's total output. The development of agriculture in Norway is difficult due to natural conditions - the high latitude position of the country, a relatively short growing season, cool summers and low soil fertility.

Agriculture in Norway is in a difficult state, despite government subsidies. As of 1996, the share of cultivated land did not exceed 3% of the country's total area, and 5.6% of the country's working population was employed in agriculture and forestry. The number of farms reaches 200,000, and most of them are small in size: about half of all farms have plots of no more than 10 hectares and only 1% of farmers own more than 50 hectares of land. The main agricultural regions are Trøndelag and the Oslofjord area.

The leading industry is intensive livestock farming, which produces about 80% of all agricultural products, mainly meat and dairy products. Due to this, as well as climatic conditions, mainly fodder crops are grown. Sheep breeding is developed. In the second half of the 20th century, wheat production increased many times, from 12 thousand tons in 1970 to 645 thousand tons in 1996. Despite this, Norway provides itself with only 40% of its own agricultural products and is forced to import grain crops.

Energy

Norway ranks first in the world in terms of electricity production per capita. At the same time, despite the presence of large hydrocarbon reserves, 99% of electricity is generated by hydroelectric power plants, due to the presence of significant hydroresources in Norway. A third of the electricity produced in Norway is consumed by the metallurgical industry.

There is no nuclear power in Norway. However, the country's laws leave open the possibility of building nuclear power plants. Since the 2000s, the idea of ​​using nuclear energy has been seriously considered and has the support of most of the country's industrial leaders. The companies Statkraft, Vattenfall, Fortum and Scatec are considering the possibility of building a nuclear power plant with thorium fuel cells. The involvement of Russian partners in the project is not excluded.

Wind power plants are becoming widespread.

Salary level in Norway

In 2011, the average monthly salary in Norway was 38,100 kroner, an average increase of 3.8% compared to 2010. On average, men earned 6 thousand crowns more than women - 40,800 and 34,800 crowns, respectively. The share of women's wages over the year increased from 85% to 85.3%. In the public sector, the gap in wages between women and men remained virtually unchanged and the increase was mainly due to the private sector.

Transport

Rail transport

Norway's railway network consists of several main lines radiating from Oslo, connecting it with the main cities of the country - Bergen, Stavanger, Trondheim and Bodø, as well as with Sweden. Another line, short in length in Norway, connects Narvik with Sweden. The total length of Norway's railways is 4,087 km (of which 2,528 km are electrified) as of 2005.

Road transport

The total length of roads in Norway as of 2007 is 92,946 km, of which 27,343 km are national roads, 27,075 km are regional roads and 38,528 km are local roads. Of these, 74% have a hard surface.

Norway's total vehicle fleet as of 2006 includes 2,599,712 vehicles, including 2,084,193 cars, 26,954 buses and 488,655 trucks and others.

Air transport

There are 53 airports in Norway with regular flights, of which 8 have international status - Gardermoen (Oslo), Flesland (Bergen), Sula (Stavanger), Värnes (Trondheim), Torp (Sandefjord), Tromsø (formerly Langnes), Rygge (Moss) ), Vigra (Ålesund). The country's civil aviation fleet as of 2005 is 888 airplanes and 168 helicopters. The total volume of external and internal passenger traffic in 2005 was 34,803,987 people, with almost half of this number, 15,895,722 people, coming from Oslo Airport.

Maritime transport

Culture

Media

• Media concern Schibsted

Among the largest newspapers in Norway, the daily Verdens Gang (365 thousand copies), Aftenposten (250 thousand), Dagbladet (183 thousand), which widely publishes foreign policy materials, and others stand out. Norway occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of the number of periodicals per capita. The Norwegian Newspaper Union united 152 newspapers in 1998. Most of the publications are supported or controlled by the Conservative Party - 44 publications, with a total circulation of 800 thousand copies.

National news agency - Norwegian Telegraph Bureau - NTB (joint stock company). Founded in 1867. NTB is the main news provider for Norwegian newspapers, radio and television stations. Public radio and television broadcasting in Norway (except cable and commercial television) is conducted by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (Norsk Rikskringkasting, NRK), which includes radio channels NRK P1, NRK P2, NRK P3, TV channels NRK1, NRK2 and NRK3. The commercial television channel TV2 in Bergen, which began broadcasting on September 5, 1992, rivals NRK in popularity. This is followed by TVNorge and TV3. A new Norwegian TV channel, MEtropol, has recently opened, specializing in showing films and entertainment programs.

Holidays

Sport

Norway has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since the 1900 Paris Games, and every Winter Olympics since the 1924 Chamonix Games. With about one and a half hundred total (including more than fifty gold) medals at the Summer Games and more than three hundred (including more than a hundred gold) medals at the Winter Games, in the overall medal standings of the Olympic Games, Norway rounds out the top twenty countries in the Summer Games and is third at the Winter Games.

Norway has hosted the Winter Olympics twice. The 1952 Olympics were held in Oslo, and in 1994 in Lillehammer.

The Norwegian National Olympic Committee was founded in 1900.

Winter species are predominantly developed. The Norwegians won the most medals in cross-country skiing and speed skating. The biathlon team, along with Russia and Germany, is one of the strongest in the world. The most outstanding modern biathlete is Ole Einar Björndalen, the world's only eight-time Olympic champion in biathlon and multiple medalist in other competitions. Hockey, however, is underdeveloped and inferior to the more popular football. The highest achievement of the football team is reaching the 1/8 finals of the 1998 World Cup in France. Most of the national team players play in the English Championship. The Norwegian championship is traditionally led by Rosenborg (20-time champion), Brann, Valerenga, Viking, etc. In the 1990s, Rosenborg successfully played in the Champions League, reaching 1/1 in the 1996-1997 season. 4 finals, and in 2008 won the Intertoto Cup. Famous football players - Ole Gunnar Solskjaer, Toure Andre Flo, John Carew, Jon Arne Riise and others.

Music

Archaeological excavations throughout the country provide evidence of the ancient origins of Norwegian music. There are many folk instruments - different varieties of violins, harps and flutes. Norway's ethnic music is extremely diverse. in particular, it includes lyrical-epic motifs created during the Viking times.

A-ha in 2005

Norwegian academic music began to develop somewhat later than in most other countries of Western Europe, which is largely due to more than 400 years of dependence on Denmark. end of the 18th century The Linnemann family of organist-composers (“Norwegian Bachs”) gains fame. The founders of the national music school are often called Halfdan Kjerulf, the creator of the Norwegian romance; Ole Bull, composer-improviser and virtuoso violinist; Rikard Nurdrok, promoter of national music, author of the national anthem. The most significant Norwegian composer can be called Edvard Grieg, who laid the main traditions of Norwegian romanticism. In addition, notable contributions to the development of Norwegian music were made by Christian Sinding, officially called "the largest national composer since Grieg"; F. Valen (a student of Arnold Schoenberg), who applied the principles of dodecaphony in his work; Alf Hurum, Harald Severud and others. The birthplace of composers and performers Kötil Björnstad and Axel Kolstad.

In the late 1970s - early 1980s, a “new wave” emerged in Norway, represented by such groups as Kjøtt, De Press, The Aller Værste!, Blaupunkt.

The most popular and recognizable Norwegian music group is a-ha, created in 1983 in Oslo. A-ha is one of the leading electro-pop bands that emerged at the end of the “new wave”.

The American press dubbed the opera and popular performer Sissel Shirshebo, known primarily for her participation in the opening and closing ceremonies of the 1994 Winter Olympic Games in Norway and her vocal performance in the James Cameron film Titanic, as the “Songbird from Norway.”

Norway has a strong metal scene, especially the black metal and viking metal scenes. A large number of black metal bands, including the founders of this style, come from Norway. Among the most famous are: Antestor, Burzum, Darkthrone, Mayhem, Immortal, Dimmu Borgir, Emperor, Gorgoroth, The Kovenant, Satyricon, Storm, Windir. In addition, symphonic metal and gothic metal are very popular in Norway: Theater of Tragedy, Leaves" Eyes, Tristania, Sirenia, Mortemia, etc.

The most significant musician in Norwegian jazz can be called saxophonist Jan Garbarek, who works in a huge stylistic range: free jazz, ethno-jazz, symphonic music.

Roy Khan, owner of a unique velvety voice and former vocalist of the power metal band Kamelot, also comes from Norway.

Among the musical groups that combine several styles, Katzenjammer can be distinguished.

Norway has won the Eurovision Song Contest three times (1985, 1995, 2009).

There are many folk bands that take their inspiration from the times of the Vikings. The most significant folk group today is Wardruna.

Literature

Norwegian literature traces its rich history back to the Old Norse sagas, created by immigrants from Norway. However, after the conclusion of the union with Denmark, the written Norwegian language was gradually replaced by Danish, and until the beginning of the 20th century, Norwegian writers created their works in a language almost indistinguishable from Danish. The revival of the Norwegian literary language was greatly facilitated by Henrik Wergeland, who fought for the cultural independence of Norway. His works influenced the great writers of the second half of the 19th century - Henrik Ibsen and Bjornstjerne Bjornson.

At the end of the 19th century, Norwegian modernists began to make themselves known. Outstanding representatives of modernism were Knut Hamsun and Sigbjörn Obstfeller. Modernism reached its greatest flourishing in the 1960s. The student magazine Profil, published at the University of Oslo, brought together a group of young authors who experimented with different literary forms. Many of them subsequently made outstanding contributions to Norwegian literature: Dag Solstad (Norwegian), Thor Obrestad (Norwegian), Eldrid Lunden and others. A prominent representative of modernism is the playwright Jun Fosse.

Among the outstanding Norwegian writers of the 20th century, one can also note Johan Borgen and Axel Sandemose. In the new millennium, Lars Soby Christensen, Nikolai Frobenius and Erlend Lu are very popular, including in Russia.

Three Norwegian writers have received the Nobel Prize for Literature: Bjørnstjerne Björnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun in 1920 and Sigrid Undset in 1928.

Norway is also famous for its children's literature. In 1874, Peter Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Mu published a collection of folk tales, “Norske Folkeeventyr,” based on the Norwegian folklore they collected and processed, gaining fame as the “Norwegian Brothers Grimm.” Contemporary children's writers Anne-Katharina Westley and the rising star of Norwegian children's literature Maria Parr have gained enormous popularity all over the world.

Kitchen

Norwegian cuisine is primarily influenced by the cold Scandinavian climate. The main components of Norwegian cuisine are fish, meat, cereals, bread and dairy products.

To preserve supplies for the winter, food canning is widely used, such as drying, pickling, fermentation. The most typical dishes include lutefisk (dried fish soaked in an alkaline solution and then soaked in water), forikol (lamb meat with cabbage and potatoes), rakfisk (fermented trout), smörbröd (open sandwiches). A traditional Norwegian alcoholic drink is aquavit.

Travelers

Norway is famous for its numerous travelers. The most famous of them, who made the greatest contribution to geographical and other sciences, are:

• Eric the Red (950-1003) - navigator and discoverer who founded the first settlement in Greenland. He received the nickname “redhead” for the color of his hair and beard. Father of Leif and Thorvald Eriksson, discoverers of America;
• Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) - polar explorer, zoologist, founder of a new science - physical oceanography, politician, Nobel Peace Prize laureate for 1922;
• Roald Amundsen (1872-1928) - polar traveler and explorer. First man to reach the South Pole (December 14, 1911). The first explorer to make a sea crossing through both the North-Eastern (along the coast of Siberia) and the North-Western sea route (along the straits of the Canadian archipelago). Died in 1928 during the search for Umberto Nobile's expedition;
• Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002) - one of the most famous travelers of the 20th century, made a number of expeditions on ships built using the technologies of the ancient world. Heyerdahl's first major expedition was the Kon-Tiki raft. The Norwegian's next achievement was the expeditions on the papyrus boats "Ra" and "Ra-II". The success of Ra-II was regarded as evidence that even in prehistoric times, Egyptian sailors could travel to the New World. The famous Russian traveler and TV presenter Yuri Senkevich took part in both expeditions. In addition to these projects, Tur, together with like-minded people, conducted research on the island. Easter, Maldives and Canary Islands, in the USSR and other regions of the world. His research made significant contributions to history, ethnography and other sciences.

See also

• Norwegian Health Inspectorate
• Norway's possessions
• Social projects of Norway in Russia
• Norway Awards
• Postage stamps and postal history of Norway
• Norway in World War II
• Philosophy in Norway

Notes

1. 1 2 Brief information about Norway. Statistics Norway (Statistisk sentralbyrå) (January 2013). Retrieved September 3, 2013.
2. Statistical Yearbook of Norway 2012, Table 19: Total area, distribution of area and length of coastline, by county. 2011 (English). Statistics Norway (Statistisk sentralbyrå). Retrieved September 3, 2013.
3. Population, by age. Per 1 January (English). Statistics Norway (Statistisk sentralbyrå). Retrieved September 3, 2013.
4. Human Development Index and its components
5. 1 2 Statistical Yearbook of Norway 2011
6. Kuznetsov A.E., History of Norway. Moscow. 2006. - P. 183
7. CIA - The World Factbook
8. Statistical Yearbook of Norway 2012, Table 19: Total area, distribution of area and length of coastline, by county. 2011 (English).
9. Statistisk sentralbyrå
10. Executed multiculture
11. Fakta om norsk språk
12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Norway - Around the World encyclopedia
13. Statistisk sentralbyrå
14. Kirken.no - Medlemskap i kirken
15. KOSTRA: kirke, 2010 (Norwegian). Statistisk sentralbyrå (20 June 2011). Retrieved December 30, 2011. Archived from the original on February 18, 2013. (English)
16. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf Special EUROBAROMETER 225 “Social values, Science & Technology” (page 9)
17. Statistisk sentralbyrå
18. Statistisk sentralbyrå
19. Foreningen Forn Sed community website
20. Economy Statistics > GDP (most recent) by country. Retrieved November 11, 2010. Archived from the original on August 22, 2011.
21. 1 2 3 Geographical encyclopedic dictionary - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2003
22. 5ballov.ru | Education in Russia
23. Nuclear legislation in OECD countries - Regulatory and Institutional Framework for Nuclear Activities. Norway
24. The Norwegian Post - Norwegian industry wants nuclear energy
25. Green nuclear power coming to Norway - Cosmos magazine
26. Who can live well in Norway? - CFO Russia
27. 1 2 Statistisk sentralbyrå
28. Statistisk sentralbyrå
29. Statistisk sentralbyrå
30. Statistisk sentralbyrå
31. Aftenposten newspaper website
32. Dagbladet newspaper website

Links

• Official website of Norway in Russia
• Holidays in Norway - Official tourism portal for Norway
• All Norway in Russian
• Russian Portal in Norway
• Cultural articles about Norway
• Closer to Norway, together with Norvegus.ru
• Norway Wiki

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Norway Information About

NORWAY
The Kingdom of Norway is a state in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. Norway is called the land of the midnight sun because 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun barely sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north the polar night lasts almost around the clock, while in the south daylight lasts only a few hours.

Norway. The capital is Oslo. Population - 4418 thousand people (1998). Population density - 13.6 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 73%, rural - 27%. Area (including the polar islands) - 387 thousand square meters. km. Highest point: Mount Gallhepiggen (2469 m). Official language: Norwegian (Riksmål, or Bokmål; and Lansmål, or Nynoshk). State religion: Lutheranism. Administrative division: 19th county. Currency: Norwegian krone = 100 øre. National holiday: Constitution Day - May 17. National anthem: "Yes, we love this country."

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Norway, due to the fact that the polar day lasts from May to July, is sometimes called the “Land of the Midnight Sun”. This, of course, is a mysterious and somewhat even romantic name, but it does not evoke a strong desire to come to this country. However, Norway is not only the “Land of the Midnight Sun”. First of all, Norway is home to Vikings, amazingly beautiful fjords, some of which are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and, of course, prestigious ski resorts.

Norway is located in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Norway borders Finland and Russia in the northeast, and Sweden in the east. Norway is washed in the northeast by the Barents Sea, in the southwest by the North Sea, and in the west by the Norwegian Sea. The Skagerrak Strait separates Norway from Denmark.

The total territory of Norway, including the islands of Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen and Bear in the Arctic Ocean, is 385,186 square kilometers.

A significant part of Norway's territory is occupied by mountains. The highest of them are Mount Gallhöppigen (2469 m) and Mount Glittertinn (2452 m).

There are a lot of rivers in Norway, the longest of which are Glomma (604 km), Logen (359 km), and Otra (245 km).

Norway is sometimes called the "lake region". This is not surprising, given that it has several hundred lakes. The largest of them are Mjøsa, Røsvatn, Femunn, and Hornindalsvatnet.

The capital of Norway is Oslo, which is now home to more than 620 thousand people. It is believed that Oslo was founded in 1048 by the Norwegian king Harald III.

The official language in Norway is Norwegian, which consists of two dialects (Bokmål and Nynorsk). Most often, Norwegians speak Bukol, but for some reason Nynorsk is popular among Norwegian Internet users.

More than 80% of Norwegians are Lutherans (Protestants), belonging to the Church of Norway. However, only about 5% of Norwegians go to church every week. In addition, 1.69% of Norway's inhabitants are Muslim, and 1.1% are Catholic.

Norway is a constitutional monarchy in which the head of state, according to the Constitution of 1814, is the King.

Executive power in Norway belongs to the King, and legislative power belongs to the local unicameral parliament - the Storting (169 deputies).

The main political parties in Norway are the liberal-conservative Progress Party, the social democratic Norwegian Labor Party, the Christian Democratic Party and the Socialist Left Party.

Norway is located at the same latitude as Alaska and Siberia, but this Scandinavian country has a much milder climate. At the end of June - beginning of August in Norway the weather is warm and the days are long. At this time, the average air temperature reaches +25-30C, and the average sea temperature - +18C.

The warmest and most stable weather is always observed on the southern coast of Norway. However, even in northern Norway in summer the air temperature can exceed +25C. However, in central and northern Norway the weather changes frequently.

In winter, most of Norway tends to turn into a snowy paradise. In winter in Norway, the air temperature can even drop to -40C.

Norway is washed in the northeast by the Barents Sea, in the southwest by the North Sea, and in the west by the Norwegian Sea. The Skagerrak Strait separates Norway from Denmark. Norway's total coastline is 25,148 km.

Average sea temperature in Oslo:

January – +4C
- February - +3C
- March - +3C
- April - +6C
- May - +11C
- June - +14C
- July - +17C
- August – +18С
- September - +15C
- October - +12C
- November - +9C
- December - +5C

The real jewel of Norway is the Norwegian fjords. The most beautiful of them are Naeroyfjord, Sognefjord, Geirangerfjord, Hardangerfjord, Lysefjord, and Aurlandsfjord.

Norway has a lot of rivers, the longest of which are Glomma in the east (604 km), Logen in the southeast (359 km), and Otra in Sørland (245 km). The largest Norwegian lakes are Mjøsa, Røsvatn, Femunn, and Hornindalsvatnet.

Many tourists come to Norway to go fishing. Salmon, trout, whitefish, pike, perch and grayling abound in Norwegian rivers and lakes.

Archaeologists have proven that people lived on the territory of modern Norway back in the 10th millennium BC. But the real history of Norway began in the Viking Age, whose cruelty is still legendary on the coast of Great Britain, for example.

Between 800 and 1066, the Norse Vikings became known throughout Europe as brave warriors, ruthless invaders, cunning traders and inquisitive seafarers. The history of the Vikings ended in 1066, when the Norwegian king Harald III died in England. After him, Olaf III became king of Norway. It was under Olaf III that Christianity began to spread rapidly in Norway.

In the 12th century, Norway captured part of the British Isles, Iceland and Greenland. This was the time of greatest prosperity for the Norwegian kingdom. However, the country was greatly weakened by competition from the Hanseatic League and the plague epidemic.

In 1380, Norway and Denmark entered into an alliance and became one country. The union of these states lasted more than four centuries.

In 1814, Norway became part of Sweden under the Treaty of Kiel. However, Norway did not submit to this and the Swedes invaded its territory. In the end, Norway agreed to be part of Sweden if they were left with the constitution.

Nationalism grew throughout the 19th century in Norway, leading to the 1905 referendum. According to the results of this referendum, Norway became an independent state.

During the First World War, Norway remained neutral. During World War II, Norway also declared its neutrality, but it was still occupied by German troops (for Germany this was a strategic step).

After the end of World War II, Norway suddenly forgot about its neutrality and became one of the founders of the NATO military bloc.

The culture of Norway differs markedly from the cultures of other European nations. The fact is that this Scandinavian country is located far from such European cultural centers as Florence, Rome and Paris. However, tourists will be pleasantly impressed by Norwegian culture.

Many Norwegian cities host music, dance and folk festivals every year. The most popular of them is the international cultural festival in Bergen (music, dance, theater).

It cannot be said that the Norwegians made a huge contribution to world culture, but the fact that it was significant is undeniable. The most famous Norwegians are polar explorers Roald Amundsen and Fridtjof Nansen, composers Varg Vikernes and Edvard Grieg, artist Edvard Munch, writers and playwrights Henrik Ibsen and Knut Hamsun, as well as traveler Thor Heyerdahl.

The main products of Norwegian cuisine are fish, meat, potatoes and other vegetables, and cheese. Norway's favorite traditional snack is pölse (potato cake with sausage).

Fenalår - dried lamb
- Fårikål - stewed lamb with cabbage
- Pinnekjøtt - salted ribs
- Roast wild elk or deer
- Kjøttkaker – fried beef meatballs
- Laks og eggerøre – omelette with smoked salmon
- Lutefisk – baked cod
- Rømmegrøt - sour cream porridge
- Multekrem – cloudberry cream for dessert

The traditional alcoholic drink in Norway is Aquavit, which is usually 40% ABV. The production of aquavita in Scandinavia began in the 15th century.

Norwegians have always been distinguished by the fact that they are very careful about their history. Therefore, we advise tourists to Norway to definitely see:

North Cape

Norwegian fjords

Changing of the guard ceremony at the Royal Palace in Oslo

Wooden quarter Briggen in Bergen

Sculpture Park in Oslo

Ski jump Holmenkolle

Snow hotel in Kirkenes

Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim

Viking ships at the maritime museum in Oslo

National History Museum in Oslo

The largest Norwegian cities are Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, and Stavanger.

Norway is famous for its magnificent ski resorts. Every winter, various ski championships are held in Norway. The top ten best ski resorts in Norway include, in our opinion, the following:

1. Trysil (Trisil)
2. Hemsedal (Hemsedal)
3. Hafjell
4. Geilo (Geilo)
5. Tryvann
6. Norefjell
7. Oppdal
8. Hovden
9. Kvitfjell
10. Kongsberg

We advise tourists from Norway to bring a real Norwegian wool sweater, toy trolls, modern dishes, wooden kitchen utensils, silverware, ceramics, dried lamb, brown goat cheese, and Norwegian vodka - aquavit.

Stores are open:

Mon-Wed and Fri: 09:00-17.00/18:00
Thu: 09:00-20.00
Sat: 10:00-18.00
Supermarkets are usually open Mon-Fri from 09:00 to 20:00, and on Sat from 10:00 to 18:00.

Banks:
Mon-Fri - 08:00-15.30

Most hotels, restaurants, and large stores accept major international credit cards.

Contents of the article

NORWAY, The Kingdom of Norway, a Northern European state, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory area – 385.2 thousand square meters. km. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. The length of the border with Russia is 196 km, with Finland – 727 km, with Sweden – 1619 km. The length of the coastline is 2650 km, and taking into account the fjords and small islands - 25,148 km.

Norway is called the land of the midnight sun because 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun barely sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north the polar night lasts almost around the clock, while in the south daylight lasts only a few hours.

Norway is a country of picturesque landscapes, with jagged mountain ranges, glacially carved valleys and narrow fjords with steep banks. The beauty of this country inspired the composer Edvard Grieg, who tried to convey in his works the changes in mood inspired by the alternation of light and dark seasons of the year.

Norway has long been a seafaring country, and most of its population is concentrated on the coast. The Vikings, skilled sailors who created a vast system of overseas trade, ventured across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the New World ca. 1000 AD In the modern era, the role of the sea in the life of the country is evidenced by the huge merchant fleet, which ranked sixth in the world in terms of total tonnage in 1997, as well as the developed fish processing industry.

Norway is a hereditary democratic constitutional monarchy. It gained state independence only in 1905. Before that, it was ruled first by Denmark and then by Sweden. The union with Denmark lasted from 1397 to 1814, when Norway passed to Sweden.

The area of ​​mainland Norway is 324 thousand square meters. km. The length of the country is 1770 km - from Cape Linnesnes in the south to the North Cape in the north, and its width ranges from 6 to 435 km. The country's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Skagerrak in the south and the Arctic Ocean in the north. The total length of the coastline is 3,420 km, and including the fjords - 21,465 km. In the east, Norway borders with Russia (border length 196 km), Finland (720 km) and Sweden (1660 km).

Overseas possessions include the Spitsbergen archipelago, consisting of nine large islands (the largest of them is Western Spitsbergen) with a total area of ​​63 thousand square meters. km in the Arctic Ocean; Jan Mayen Island with an area of ​​380 square meters. km in the North Atlantic Ocean between Norway and Greenland; small islands of Bouvet and Peter I in Antarctica. Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.

NATURE

Terrain

Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large block, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by rugged terrain. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west, as a result the eastern slopes (mainly in Sweden) are flatter and longer, while the western slopes, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are represented, and between them there is a vast highland.

To the north of the border of Norway and Finland, only a few peaks rise above 1200 m, but towards the south the heights of the mountains gradually increase, reaching maximum heights of 2469 m (Mount Gallhöppigen) and 2452 m (Mount Glittertinn) in the Jotunheimen massif. Other elevated areas of the highlands are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnan, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks, devoid of soil and vegetation cover, are often exposed there. Externally, the surface of many highlands more closely resembles slightly undulating plateaus, and such areas are called “vidda”.

During the Great Ice Age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of these are Jostedalsbre (the largest glacier in Europe) in the Jotunheimen mountains, Svartisen in north-central Norway and Folgefonny in the Hardangervidda area. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvänangenfjord, where small icebergs calve at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900–1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. There were probably several continental glaciations at that time, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, the deepening and straightening of ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque steep U-shaped troughs, deeply cutting through the surface of the highlands.

After the melting of continental glaciation, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys were flooded, where fjords were formed. The fjord shores amaze with their extraordinary picturesqueness and are of very important economic importance. Many fjords are very deep. For example, the Sognefjord, located 72 km north of Bergen, reaches a depth of 1308 m in the lower part. The chain of coastal islands is the so-called. Skergaard (in Russian literature the Swedish term skjergård is more often used) protects the fjords from strong westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Some islands are exposed rocks washed by the surf, others reach significant sizes.

Most Norwegians live on the shores of fjords. The most significant are the Oslofjord, Hardangerfjord, Sognefjord, Nordfjord, Storfjord and Tronnheimsfjord. The main occupations of the population are fishing in the fjords, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in some places along the shores of the fjords and in the mountains. In the fjord areas, industry is little developed, except for individual manufacturing enterprises that use rich hydropower resources. In many areas of the country, bedrock comes to the surface.

Water resources

In the east of Norway there are the largest rivers, including Glomma, which is 591 km long. In the west of the country the rivers are short and fast. Southern Norway has many picturesque lakes. The largest lake in the country is Mjøsa, with an area of ​​390 square meters. km located in the southeast. At the end of the 19th century. Several small canals were built connecting the lakes with seaports on the southern coast, but they are currently little used. The hydropower resources of Norway's rivers and lakes make a significant contribution to its economic potential.

Climate

Despite its northern location, Norway has a favorable climate with cool summers and relatively mild (for the corresponding latitudes) winters - the result of the influence of the Gulf Stream. The average annual precipitation varies from 3330 mm in the west, where moisture-carrying winds primarily receive moisture, to 250 mm in some isolated river valleys in the east of the country. The average January temperature is 0°C typical for the southern and western coasts, while in the interior regions it drops to –4°C or less. In July, average temperatures on the coast are approx. 14°C, and in inland areas - approx. 16°C, but there are also higher temperatures.

Soils, flora and fauna

Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is covered by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. Five geobotanical regions are distinguished: a treeless coastal region with meadows and shrubs, to the east of it there are deciduous forests, further inland and to the north there are coniferous forests, above and even further to the north there is a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses; finally, at the highest altitudes there is a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. In the forests to the very south of the country there are ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and, in small numbers, wolves and brown bears. Red deer are common along the south coast.

POPULATION

Demography

Norway's population is small and growing slowly. In 2004, 4,574 thousand people lived in the country. In 2004, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 11.89, the death rate was 9.51, and population growth was 0.41%. This figure is higher than natural population growth due to immigration, which in the 1990s reached 8–10 thousand people per year. Improved health care and rising living standards have ensured continued, albeit slow, population growth over the past two generations. Norway, along with Sweden, is characterized by record low infant mortality rates - 3.73 per 1000 births (2004) versus 7.5 in the USA. In 2004, life expectancy for men was 76.64 years and for women 82.01 years. Although Norway's divorce rate was inferior to some of its neighboring Nordic countries, the rate rose after 1945, and in the mid-1990s approximately half of all marriages ended in divorce (as in the United States and Sweden). 48% of children born in Norway in 1996 were out of wedlock. After restrictions introduced in 1973, immigration was directed to Norway for some time mainly from Scandinavian countries, but after 1978 a significant layer of people of Asian origin appeared (about 50 thousand people). In the 1980s and 1990s, Norway accepted refugees from Pakistan, African countries and the former Yugoslav Republics.

In July 2005, 4.59 million people lived in the country. 19.5% of residents were under 15 years of age, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years of age, and 14.8% were 65 years of age or older. The average age of a Norwegian resident is 38.17 years. In 2005, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 11.67, the death rate was 9.45, and population growth was 0.4%. Immigration in 2005 – 1.73 per 1000 people. Infant mortality is 3.7 per 1000 births. Average life expectancy is 79.4 years.

Population density and distribution

Norway was once the world's leading whaling power. In the 1930s, its whaling fleet in Antarctic waters supplied the market with 2/3 of the world's production. However, reckless fishing soon led to a sharp decline in the number of large whales. In the 1960s, whaling in Antarctica ceased. In the mid-1970s, there were no whaling vessels left in the Norwegian fishing fleet. However, fishermen are still killing small whales. The annual slaughter of approximately 250 whales caused significant international friction in the late 1980s, but as a member of the International Whale Commission, Norway stubbornly rejected all attempts to ban whaling. It also ignored the 1992 International Convention on the End of Whaling.

Mining industry

The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. According to 1997 estimates, industrial oil reserves in this area were estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and gas reserves at 765 billion cubic meters. m. 3/4 of the total oil reserves and fields in Western Europe are concentrated here. Norway is ranked 11th in the world in terms of oil reserves. The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains half of all gas reserves in Western Europe, and Norway holds 10th place in the world in this regard. Prospective oil reserves reach 16.8 billion tons, and gas reserves - 47.7 trillion. cube m. More than 17 thousand Norwegians are engaged in oil production. The presence of large oil reserves has been established in Norwegian waters north of the Arctic Circle. Oil production in 1996 exceeded 175 million tons, and natural gas production in 1995 - 28 billion cubic meters. m. The main fields being developed are Ekofisk, Sleipner and Thor-Valhall to the southwest of Stavanger and Troll, Useberg, Gullfaks, Frigg, Statfjord and Murchison to the west of Bergen, as well as Drøugen and Haltenbakken further to the north. Oil production began at the Ekofisk field in 1971 and increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, rich new deposits of Heidrun near the Arctic Circle and Baller were discovered. In 1997, North Sea oil production was three times higher than 10 years earlier, and its further growth was limited only by falling demand on the world market. 90% of the oil produced is exported. Norway began producing gas in 1978 from the Frigg field, half of which is located in British territorial waters. Pipelines have been laid from Norwegian fields to the UK and Western European countries. The development of the fields is carried out by the state company Statoil together with foreign and private Norwegian oil companies.

Proven oil reserves in 2002 were 9.9 billion barrels, gas reserves were 1.7 trillion cubic meters. m. Oil production in 2005 amounted to 3.22 million barrels per day, gas production in 2001 - 54.6 billion cubic meters. m.

With the exception of fuel resources, Norway has few mineral reserves. The main metal resource is iron ore. In 1995 Norway produced 1.3 million tons of iron ore concentrate, mainly from the Sør-Varangägr mines in Kirkenes near the Russian border. Another large mine in the Rana region supplies the nearby large steel mill in the city of Mu.

The most important non-metallic minerals are cement raw materials and limestone. In Norway in 1996, 1.6 million tons of cement raw materials were produced. Development of deposits of building stone, including granite and marble, is also underway.

Forestry

A quarter of Norway's territory - 8.3 million hectares - is covered with forests. The densest forests are in the east, where logging mainly takes place. Over 9 million cubic meters are being prepared. m of wood per year. Spruce and pine have the greatest commercial value. The logging season usually falls between November and April. The 1950s and 1960s saw rapid growth in mechanization, and by 1970 less than 1% of all employed people in the country received income from forestry. 2/3 of the forests are private property, but all forested areas are under strict government supervision. As a result of unsystematic logging, the area of ​​overmature forests has increased. In 1960, an extensive reforestation program began to expand the area of ​​productive forests in the sparsely populated areas of the north and west as far as the Vestland fjords.

Energy

Energy consumption in Norway in 1994 amounted to 23.1 million tons in terms of coal or 4580 kg per capita. Hydropower accounted for 43% of total energy production, oil also 43%, natural gas 7%, coal and wood 3%. Norway's deep rivers and lakes have greater hydropower reserves than any other European country. Electricity, almost entirely generated by hydroelectric power, is the cheapest in the world, and its per capita production and consumption are the highest. In 1994, 25,712 kWh of electricity was produced per person. In general, more than 100 billion kWh of electricity is generated annually.

Electricity production in 2003 – 105.6 billion kilowatt-hours.

Manufacturing industry

Norway developed at a slow pace due to a shortage of coal, a narrow domestic market and limited capital inflows. The manufacturing, construction and energy industries accounted for 26% of gross output and 17% of all employment in 1996. In recent years, energy-intensive industries have developed. The main industries in Norway are electrometallurgical, electrochemical, pulp and paper, radio electronics, and shipbuilding. The Oslofjord region has the highest level of industrialization, where approximately half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated.

The leading industry is electrometallurgy, which relies on the widespread use of cheap hydropower. The main product, aluminum, is made from imported aluminum oxide. In 1996, 863.3 thousand tons of aluminum were produced. Norway is the main supplier of this metal in Europe. Norway also produces zinc, nickel, copper and high-quality alloy steel. Zinc is produced at a plant in Eitrheim on the coast of the Hardangerfjord, nickel is produced in Kristiansand from ore brought from Canada. A large ferroalloy plant is located in Sandefjord, southwest of Oslo. Norway is Europe's largest supplier of ferroalloys. In 1996, metallurgical output amounted to approx. 14% of the country's exports.

One of the main products of the electrochemical industry is nitrogen fertilizers. The nitrogen required for this is extracted from the air using large amounts of electricity. A significant part of nitrogen fertilizers is exported.

The pulp and paper industry is an important industrial sector in Norway. In 1996, 4.4 million tons of paper and pulp were produced. Paper mills are located mainly near the vast forested areas of eastern Norway, for example at the mouth of the Glomma River (the country's largest timber rafting artery) and in Drammen.

The production of various machines and transport equipment employs approx. 25% of industrial workers in Norway. The most important areas of activity are shipbuilding and ship repair, production of equipment for the production and transmission of electricity.

The textile, clothing and food industries produce few products for export. They satisfy most of Norway's own needs for food and clothing. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers.

Transport and communications

Despite the mountainous terrain, Norway has well-developed internal communications. The state owns railways with a length of approx. 4 thousand km, of which over half are electrified. However, most of the population prefers to drive cars. In 1995, the total length of highways exceeded 90.3 thousand km, but only 74% of them had a hard surface. In addition to railways and roads, there were ferry services and coastal shipping. In 1946, Norway, Sweden and Denmark founded the Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS) airline. Norway has developed local air services: it ranks among the first in the world in terms of domestic passenger traffic. The length of railways in 2004 was 4077 km, of which 2518 km were electrified. The total length of highways is 91.85 thousand km, of which 71.19 km are paved (2002). The merchant fleet in 2005 consisted of 740 ships with a displacement of St. 1 thousand tons each. There are 101 airports in the country (including 67 runways with hard surfaces) - 2005.

Communication means, including telephone and telegraph, remain in the hands of the state, but the issue of creating mixed enterprises with the participation of private capital is being considered. In 1996, there were 56 telephone sets per 1 thousand residents of Norway. The network of modern electronic communications is rapidly expanding. There is a significant private sector in radio and television broadcasting. Norwegian Public Broadcasting (NPB) remains the dominant system, despite the widespread use of satellite and cable television. In 2002 there were 3.3 million telephone subscribers; in 2003 there were 4.16 million mobile phones.

In 2002, there were 2.3 million Internet users.

Foreign trade

In 1997, Norway's leading trading partners in both export and import were Germany, Sweden and the UK, followed by Denmark, the Netherlands and the USA. The predominant export items by value are oil and gas (55%) and finished goods (36%). Products of the oil refining and petrochemical, forestry, electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries, and food are exported. The main import items are finished products (81.6%), food products and agricultural raw materials (9.1%). The country imports some types of mineral fuels, bauxite, iron, manganese and chrome ore, and cars. With the growth of oil production and exports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norway had a very favorable balance of foreign trade. Then world oil prices fell sharply, exports declined, and for several years Norway's trade balance was in deficit. However, by the mid-1990s the balance became positive again. In 1996, the value of Norway's exports was $46 billion, and the value of imports was only $33 billion. The trade surplus is complemented by large revenues from the Norwegian merchant fleet, with a total displacement of 21 million gross registered tons, which according to the new International Shipping Register received significant privileges allowing it to compete with other ships flying foreign flags.

In 2005, the export volume was estimated at 111.2 billion US dollars, the import volume at 58.12 billion. Leading export partners: Great Britain (22%), Germany (13%), the Netherlands (10%), France (10 %), USA (8%) and Sweden (7%), in terms of imports - Sweden (16%), Germany (14%), Denmark (7%), Great Britain (7%), China (5%), USA ( 5%) and the Netherlands (4%).

Currency circulation and state budget

The unit of currency is the Norwegian krone. The exchange rate for the Norwegian krone in 2005 was 6.33 kroner per US dollar.

In the budget, the main sources of revenue were social security contributions (19%), income and property taxes (33%), excise duties and value added tax (31%). The main expenditures were allocated to social security and housing construction (39%), servicing external debt (12%), public education (13%) and healthcare (14%).

In 1997, government revenues amounted to $81.2 billion, and expenses - $71.8 billion. In 2004, state budget revenues amounted to $134 billion, expenses - 117 billion.

The government in the 1990s created a special oil fund using windfall profits from oil sales, intended as a reserve for when oil fields are depleted. It is estimated that by 2000 it will reach $100 billion, most of it placed abroad.

In 1994, Norway's external debt was $39 billion. In 2003, the country had no external debt. The size of the total public debt is 33.1% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Structure

The most common agricultural unit is the small family farm. With the exception of a few forest holdings, Norway has no large land holdings. Seasonal fishing is also often family-based and carried out on a small scale. Motorized fishing boats are mostly small wooden boats. In 1996, approximately 5% of industrial firms employed more than 100 workers, and even such large enterprises sought to establish informal relationships between workers and management. In the early 1970s, reforms were introduced that gave workers the right to exercise greater control over production. At some large enterprises, working groups began to monitor the progress of individual production processes themselves.

Norwegians have a strong sense of equality. This egalitarian approach is the cause and consequence of using the economic levers of state power to mitigate social conflicts. There is a scale of income taxes. In 1996, approximately 37% of budget expenditures were directed to direct financing of the social sphere.

Another mechanism for leveling social differences is strict state control over housing construction. Most of the loans are provided by the state housing bank, and construction is carried out by companies with cooperative ownership. Due to the climate and topography, construction is expensive, however, the ratio between the number of residents and the number of rooms they occupy is considered quite high. In 1990, there were an average of 2.5 people per dwelling consisting of four rooms with a total area of ​​103.5 square meters. m. Approximately 80.3% of the housing stock belongs to the individuals living in it.

Social Security

The National Insurance Scheme, a compulsory pension system covering all Norwegian citizens, was introduced in 1967. Health insurance and unemployment assistance were included in the system in 1971. All Norwegians, including housewives, receive a basic pension upon reaching 65 years of age. The additional pension depends on income and length of service. The average pension is approximately 2/3 of earnings in the highest paid years. Pensions are paid from insurance funds (20%), from contributions from employers (60%) and from the state budget (20%). Loss of income during illness is compensated by sickness benefits, and in case of long-term illness by disability pensions. Medical care is paid, but social insurance funds pay for all treatment costs exceeding $187 per year (doctor services, stay and treatment in public hospitals, maternity hospitals and sanatoriums, purchase of medicines for some chronic diseases, as well as full-time employment – two-week annual benefit in case of temporary disability). Women receive free prenatal and postnatal care, and full-time employed women are entitled to 42 weeks of paid maternity leave. The state guarantees all citizens, including housewives, the right to four weeks of paid leave. In addition, persons over 60 years of age have an additional week's leave. Families receive benefits of $1,620 per year for each child under 17 years of age. Every 10 years, all workers are entitled to an annual leave with full pay for training to improve their skills.

Organizations

Many Norwegians are involved in one or more voluntary organizations, catering to a variety of interests, most often related to sports and culture. Of great importance is the Sports Association, which organizes and supervises tourist and ski routes and supports other sports.

The economy is also dominated by associations. Chambers of Commerce control industry and entrepreneurship. The Central Economic Organization (Nøringslivets Hovedorganisasjon) represents 27 national trade associations. It was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Federation of Industry, the Federation of Craftsmen and the Association of Employers. The interests of shipping are expressed by the Association of Norwegian Shipowners and the Association of Scandinavian Shipowners, the latter is involved in concluding collective agreements with seafarers' unions. Small business activities are controlled mainly by the Federation of Trade and Service Enterprises, which in 1990 had approximately 100 branches. Other organizations include the Norwegian Forestry Society, which deals with forestry issues; the Federation of Agriculture, which represents the interests of livestock, poultry and agricultural cooperatives, and the Norwegian Trade Council, which promotes foreign trade and overseas markets.

Trade unions in Norway are very influential, they unite approximately 40% (1.4 million) of all employees. The Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (CNTU), founded in 1899, represents 28 unions with 818.2 thousand members (1997). Employers are organized into the Norwegian Employers' Confederation, founded in 1900. It represents their interests in collective bargaining agreements in enterprises. Labor disputes are often referred to arbitration court. In Norway, there was an average of 12.5 strikes per year during the period 1988–1996. They are less common than in many other industrialized countries. The largest number of union members is in the management and manufacturing industries, although the highest coverage rates are observed in the maritime sectors. Many local trade unions are affiliated with local branches of the Norwegian Labor Party. Regional trade union associations and the CNPC provide funds for the party press and for the election campaigns of the Norwegian Labor Party.

Local flavor

Although the integration of Norwegian society has increased with improved communications, local customs are still alive in the country. In addition to disseminating the New Norwegian language (Nynoshk), each district carefully preserves its own dialects, as well as national costumes intended for ritual performances, supports the study of local history and publishes local newspapers. Bergen and Trondheim, as former capitals, have cultural traditions that differ from those of Oslo. Northern Norway also develops a distinctive local culture, mainly as a result of the distance of its tiny settlements from the rest of the country.

Family

The close-knit family has been a specific feature of Norwegian society since Viking times. Most Norwegian surnames are of local origin, often associated with some natural features or with the economic development of land that occurred in Viking times or even earlier. Ownership of the family farm is protected by inheritance law (odelsrett), which gives the family the right to buy back the farm, even if it has recently been sold. In rural areas, the family remains the most important unit of society. Family members travel from far and wide to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations and funerals. This commonality often does not disappear in urban life. With the onset of summer, the favorite and most economical way for the whole family to spend holidays and vacations is to live in a small country house (hytte) in the mountains or on the seashore.

Status of women

in Norway it is protected by the law and customs of the country. In 1981, Prime Minister Brundtland introduced an equal number of women and men into her cabinet, and all subsequent governments were formed according to the same principle. Women are widely represented in the judiciary, education, health care and management. In 1995, approximately 77% of women aged 15 to 64 worked outside the home. Thanks to a developed system of nurseries and kindergartens, mothers can work and run a household at the same time.

CULTURE

The roots of Norse culture can be traced back to the Viking traditions, the medieval "age of greatness" and the sagas. Although Norwegian cultural masters were usually influenced by Western European art and assimilated many of its styles and subjects, their work nevertheless reflected the specifics of their native country. Poverty, the struggle for independence, admiration for nature - all these motives are manifested in Norwegian music, literature and painting (including decorative ones). Nature still plays an important role in folk culture, as evidenced by the Norwegians' extraordinary passion for sports and outdoor living. The media have great educational importance. For example, periodicals devote a lot of space to events in cultural life. The abundance of bookstores, museums and theaters also serves as an indicator of the keen interest of the Norwegian people in their cultural traditions.

Education

At all levels, education costs are covered by the state. The education reform launched in 1993 was supposed to improve the quality of education. The compulsory education program is divided into three levels: from preschool to 4th grade, 5–7 grades and 8–10 grades. Teenagers between the ages of 16 and 19 can complete the secondary education necessary to enter a trade school, high school (college) or university. In rural areas of the country there are approx. 80 higher public schools where general education subjects are taught. Most of these schools receive funds from religious communities, private individuals or local authorities.

Higher education institutions in Norway are represented by four universities (in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromsø), six specialized high schools (colleges) and two state art schools, 26 state colleges in the county and further education courses for adults. In the 1995/1996 academic year, 43.7 thousand students studied at the country's universities; in other higher educational institutions – another 54.8 thousand.

Education at universities is paid. Typically, students are provided with loans to obtain an education. Universities train civil servants, religious ministers and university teachers. In addition, universities almost exclusively supply doctors, dentists, engineers and scientists. Universities also engage in fundamental scientific research. The University of Oslo Library is the largest national library.

Norway has numerous research institutes, laboratories and development bureaus. Among them, the Academy of Sciences in Oslo, the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen and the Scientific Society in Trondheim stand out. There are large folk museums on the island of Bygdøy near Oslo and in Maihaugen near Lillehammer, where you can trace the development of building art and various aspects of rural culture since ancient times. In a special museum on the island of Bygdøy, three Viking ships are exhibited, clearly illustrating the life of Scandinavian society in the 9th century. AD, as well as two ships of modern pioneers - Fridtjof Nansen’s ship “Fram” and Thor Heyerdahl's raft Kon-Tiki. Norway's active role in international relations is evidenced by the Nobel Institute, the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies, the Peace Research Institute and the Society of International Law located in this country.

Literature and art

The spread of Norwegian culture was hampered by a limited audience, which was especially true for writers who wrote in the little-known Norwegian language. Therefore, the government has long begun to provide subsidies to support the arts. They are included in the state budget and are used to provide grants to artists, organize exhibitions and directly purchase works of art. In addition, income from state-run football competitions is provided to the General Research Council, which funds cultural projects.

Norway has given the world outstanding figures in all fields of culture and art: playwright Henrik Ibsen, writers Björnstern Björnson (Nobel Prize 1903), Knut Hamsun (Nobel Prize 1920) and Sigrid Undset (Nobel Prize 1928), artist Edvard Munch and composer Edvard Grieg. The problematic novels of Sigurd Hull, the poetry and prose of Tarjei Vesos and the pictures of rural life in the novels of Johan Falkberget also stand out as achievements of Norwegian literature of the 20th century. Probably, the writers who write in the New Norwegian language stand out most in terms of poetic expressiveness, among them the most famous is Tarjei Vesos (1897–1970). Poetry is very popular in Norway. Relative to the population, Norway produces several times more books than the United States, and many of the authors are women. The leading contemporary lyricist is Stein Mehren. However, the poets of the previous generation are much better known, especially Arnulf Everland (1889–1968), Nordahl Grieg (1902–1943) and Hermann Willenwey (1886–1959). In the 1990s, Norwegian writer Jostein Gorder gained international recognition with a philosophical story for children. Sofia's world.

The Norwegian government supports three theaters in Oslo, five theaters in large provincial cities and one traveling national theater company.

The influence of folk traditions can also be seen in sculpture and painting. The leading Norwegian sculptor was Gustav Vigeland (1869–1943), and the most famous artist was Edvard Munch (1863–1944). The work of these masters reflects the influence of abstract art in Germany and France. Norwegian painting showed a tendency toward frescoes and other decorative forms, especially under the influence of Rolf Nesch, who immigrated from Germany. The leader of the representatives of abstract art is Jacob Weidemann. The most famous promoter of conventional sculpture is Duret Vaux. The search for innovative traditions in sculpture was evident in the works of Per Falle Storm, Per Hurum, Yusef Grimeland, Arnold Haukeland and others. The expressive school of figurative art, which played an important role in the artistic life of Norway in the 1980s and 1990s, is represented by such masters as Björn Carlsen (b. 1945), Kjell Erik Olsen (b. 1952), Per Inge Björlu (b. 1952) and Bente Stokke (b. 1952).

Revival of Norwegian music in the 20th century. noticeable in the works of several composers. Musical drama by Harald Severud based on Peer Gynt, the atonal compositions of Fartein Valen, the fiery folk music of Klaus Egge and the melodic interpretation of traditional folk music by Sparre Olsen testify to the vital trends in contemporary Norwegian music. In the 1990s, Norwegian pianist and classical music performer Lars Ove Annsnes gained worldwide recognition.

Media

With the exception of the popular illustrated weeklies, the rest of the media are kept in a serious spirit. There are many newspapers, but their circulation is small. In 1996, 154 newspapers were published in the country, including 83 daily newspapers; the seven largest ones accounted for 58% of the total circulation. Radio broadcasting and television are state monopolies. Cinemas are mainly owned by the communes, and sometimes Norwegian-produced films subsidized by the state are successful. Usually American and other foreign films are shown.

In con. In the 1990s, there were more than 650 radio stations and 360 television stations operating in the country. The population had over 4 million radios and 2 million televisions. Among the largest newspapers are the daily Verdens Gang, Aftenposten, Dagbladet, etc.

Sports, customs and holidays

Outdoor recreation plays a big role in national culture. Football and the annual international ski jumping competition in Holmenkollen near Oslo are very popular. At the Olympic Games, Norwegian athletes most often excel in skiing and speed skating competitions. Popular activities include swimming, sailing, orienteering, hiking, camping, boating, fishing and hunting.

All citizens in Norway are entitled to almost five weeks of paid annual leave, including three weeks of summer leave. Eight church holidays are celebrated; on these days people try to go out of town. The same applies to two national holidays - Labor Day (May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17).

STORY

Ancient period

There is evidence that primitive hunters lived in some areas on the northern and northwestern coast of Norway shortly after the ice sheet retreated. However, naturalistic paintings on cave walls along the West Coast were created much later. Agriculture spread slowly to Norway after 3000 BC. During the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had contact with the Gauls, the development of runic writing (used from the 3rd to 13th centuries AD by Germanic tribes, especially the Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons for tombstone inscriptions as well as for magic spells), and the settlement process territory of Norway was carried out at a rapid pace. From 400 AD the population was replenished by migrants from the south, who paved the “path to the north” (Nordwegr, hence the name of the country - Norway). At that time, the first tiny kingdoms were created to organize local self-defense. In particular, the Ynglings, a branch of the first Swedish royal family, founded one of the most ancient feudal states west of the Oslofjord.

Viking Age and mid-Middle Ages

Period of peaceful development (1905–1940)

The achievement of complete political independence coincided with the beginning of accelerated industrial development. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Norwegian merchant fleet was replenished with steamships, and whaling ships began to hunt in Antarctic waters. The liberal party Venstre was in power for a long period, which carried out a number of social reforms, including the full granting of voting rights to women in 1913 (Norway was a pioneer in this regard among European states) and the adoption of laws limiting foreign investment.

During World War I, Norway remained neutral, although Norwegian sailors sailed on Allied ships that broke the blockade organized by German submarines. As a sign of Norway's gratitude for the country's support, the Entente in 1920 granted it sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago (Spitsbergen). Wartime anxieties helped bring about reconciliation with Sweden, and Norway subsequently played a more active role in international life through the League of Nations. The first and last presidents of this organization were Norwegians.

In domestic politics, the interwar period was marked by the growing influence of the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which originated among fishermen and tenant farmers in the far north, and then received the support of industrial workers. Under the influence of the revolution in Russia, the revolutionary wing of this party gained the upper hand in 1918 and for some time the party was part of the Communist International. However, after the breakaway of the Social Democrats in 1921, the ILP broke off relations with the Comintern (1923). In the same year, the independent Communist Party of Norway (KPN) was formed, and in 1927 the Social Democrats again united with the CHP. In 1935, a government of moderate representatives of the CHP was in power with the support of the Peasant Party, which gave its votes in exchange for subsidies to agriculture and fishing. Despite the unsuccessful experiment with prohibition (repealed in 1927) and the mass unemployment generated by the crisis, Norway has achieved success in the fields of health care, housing construction, social security and cultural development.

World War II

On April 9, 1940, Germany unexpectedly attacked Norway. The country was taken by surprise. Only in the Oslofjord area were the Norwegians able to offer stubborn resistance to the enemy thanks to reliable defensive fortifications. For three weeks, German troops dispersed throughout the interior of the country, preventing individual units of the Norwegian army from uniting. The port city of Narvik in the far north was retaken from the Germans within days, but Allied support was insufficient and, as Germany launched offensive operations in Western Europe, Allied forces had to be evacuated. The king and government fled to Great Britain, where he continued to lead the merchant marine, small infantry units, navy and air force. The Storting gave the king and government the authority to govern the country from abroad. In addition to the ruling CHP, members of other parties were introduced into the government in order to strengthen it.

A puppet government was created in Norway led by Vidkun Quisling. In addition to acts of sabotage and active underground propaganda, the leaders of the Resistance secretly established military training and transported many young people to Sweden, where permission was received to train “police forces”. The king and government returned to the country on June 7, 1945. Proceedings were initiated in approx. 90 thousand cases on charges of treason and other offenses. Quisling, along with 24 traitors, was shot, 20 thousand people were sentenced to prison.

Norway after 1945.

The CHP received a majority of votes for the first time in the 1945 elections and remained in power for 20 years. During this period, the electoral system was transformed by repealing the constitutional clause providing 2/3 of the seats in the Storting to deputies from rural areas of the country. The regulatory role of the state was expanded to national planning. State control over prices for goods and services was introduced.

The government's financial and credit policy helped maintain fairly high growth rates of economic indicators even during the global recession in the 1970s. The necessary funds to expand production were obtained through large foreign loans against future income from oil and gas production on the North Sea shelf.

Norway has become an active member of the UN. Norwegian Trygve Lie, a former leader of the ILP, served as the secretary general of this international organization from 1946–1952. With the outbreak of the Cold War, Norway made its choice in favor of the Western Alliance. In 1949 the country joined NATO.

Until 1963, power in the country was firmly held by the Norwegian Workers' Party, although already in 1961 it lost its absolute majority in the Storting. The opposition, dissatisfied with the expansion of the public sector, was waiting for the right opportunity to remove the CHP government. Taking advantage of the scandal surrounding the investigation into the coal mine disaster on Spitsbergen (21 people died), she managed to form the government of J. Lynge from representatives of “non-socialist” parties, but it lasted only about a month. Returning to office, Social Democratic Prime Minister Gerhardsen took a number of popular measures: a move towards equal pay for men and women, an increase in government spending on social security. Introduction of monthly paid leave. But this did not prevent the defeat of the CHP in the 1965 elections. The new government, made up of representatives of the Center, Høyre, Venstre and Christian People's parties, was headed by the leader of the centrists, agronomist Per Borten. The Cabinet as a whole continued social reforms (introduced a unified social security system, including a universal old-age pension, child benefits, etc.), but at the same time carried out a new version of tax reform in favor of entrepreneurs. At the same time, disagreements in the ruling coalition on the issue of relations with the EEC intensified. Centrists and some liberals objected to plans to join the EEC, and their position was shared by many in the country, fearing that European competition and coordination would deal a blow to Norwegian fishing and shipbuilding. However, the social democratic minority government that came to power in 1971, led by Trygve Bratteli, sought accession to the European Community and held a referendum on this issue in 1972. After the majority of Norwegians voted against it, Bratteli resigned and gave way to a minority government of three centrist parties (HNP, PC and Venstre) led by Lars Korwald. It concluded a free trade agreement with the EEC.

Having won the 1973 elections, the CHP returned to power. The minority cabinets were formed by its leaders, the Bratteli (1973–1976). Odvar Nordli (1976–1981) and Gro Harlem Brundtland (since 1981) are the first female prime minister in the country's history.

Center-right parties increased their influence in the September 1981 elections, and the leader of the Conservative Party (Høyre) Kåre Willock formed the first government from members of this party since 1928. At this time, Norway's economy was booming due to rapid growth in oil production and high prices on the world market.

In the 1980s, environmental issues became important. In particular, the forests of Norway have been severely damaged by acid rain caused by the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by UK industries. As a result of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in 1986, significant damage was caused to the Norwegian reindeer herding industry.

After the 1985 elections, negotiations between the socialists and their opponents reached a dead end. Falling oil prices created inflation and problems arose with financing social security programs. Willock resigned and Brundtland returned to power. The results of the 1989 elections made it difficult to form a coalition government. The conservative government of the non-socialist minority under the leadership of Jan Suse resorted to unpopular measures, which stimulated an increase in unemployment. A year later, it resigned due to disagreements over the creation of the European Economic Area. The Workers' Party, led by Brutland, again formed a minority government, which in 1992 resumed negotiations on Norway's accession to the EU.

Norway at the end of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century.

In the 1993 elections, the Workers' Party remained in power, but did not win a majority of seats in parliament. Conservatives - from the very right (the Progress Party) to the very left (the People's Socialist Party) - were increasingly losing their positions. The center party, which opposed joining the EU, received three times as many seats and moved into second place in terms of influence in parliament.

The new government has again brought up the issue of Norway's accession to the EU. This proposal was actively supported by voters from three parties - the Workers, Conservative and Progress Party, living in cities in the south of the country. The Center Party, which represents the interests of the rural population and farmers, who are mostly opposed to the EU, led the opposition, receiving support from the far left and Christian Democrats. In a national referendum in November 1994, Norwegian voters, despite positive results in Sweden and Finland a few weeks earlier, again rejected Norway's participation in the EU. A record number of voters took part in the voting (86.6%), of which 52.2% were against EU membership, and 47.8% were in favor of joining this organization.

In the 1990s, Norway came under increasing international criticism for its refusal to stop commercial whale slaughter. In 1996, the International Fisheries Commission confirmed a ban on the export of whaling products from Norway.

In October 1996, Prime Minister Brundtland resigned in the hope of giving her party a better chance in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The new cabinet was headed by the chairman of the NRP, Thorbjörn Jagland. But this did not help the CHP win the elections, despite the strengthening of the economy, falling unemployment and lower inflation. The prestige of the ruling party was undermined by internal scandals. The planning minister, who was accused of previous financial manipulation during his time as a trade manager, resigned, the energy minister (she sanctioned illegal surveillance practices while she was justice minister), and the justice minister, who was criticized for her position on the issue of entitlement. for asylum for foreign citizens. After losing the elections in September 1997, Jagland's cabinet resigned.

The center-right parties still did not have a common position on the issue of participation in the EU. The Progress Party, which opposed immigration and favored the rational use of the country's oil resources, this time gained more seats in the Storting (25 versus 10). Moderate center-right parties refused any cooperation with the Progress Party. HPP leader Kjell Magne Bundevik, a former Lutheran pastor, formed a coalition of three centrist parties (HNP, Center Party and Venstre), representing only 42 of the 165 deputies of the Storting. On this basis a minority government was formed.

In the early 1990s, Norway achieved increased prosperity through large-scale oil and gas exports. The sharp fall in world oil prices in 1998 took a heavy toll on the country's budget, and the government was so discordant that Prime Minister Bundevik was forced to take a month's leave to "restore his sanity." In the 1990s, Norway came under increasing international criticism for with a refusal to stop commercial whale slaughter. In 1996, the International Fisheries Commission confirmed a ban on the export of whaling products from Norway.

In May 1996, the largest labor conflict in recent times broke out in shipbuilding and metallurgy. After an industry-wide strike, trade unions managed to achieve a reduction in the retirement age from 64 to 62 years.

In October 1996, Prime Minister Brundtland resigned in the hope of giving her party a better chance in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The new cabinet was headed by the chairman of the NRP, Thorbjörn Jagland. But this did not help the CHP win the elections, despite the strengthening of the economy, reduced unemployment and lower inflation. The prestige of the ruling party was undermined by internal scandals. The planning minister, who was accused of previous financial manipulation during his time as a trade manager, resigned, the energy minister (she sanctioned illegal surveillance practices while she was justice minister), and the justice minister, who was criticized for her position on the issue of entitlement. for asylum for foreign citizens. After losing the elections in September 1997, Jagland's cabinet resigned.

In the 1990s, the royal family attracted media attention. In 1994, unmarried Princess Mertha Louise became involved in divorce proceedings in Great Britain. In 1998, the King and Queen were criticized for overspending public funds on their apartments.

Norway is actively involved in international cooperation, in particular in resolving the situation in the Middle East. In 1998 Bruntland was appointed director general of the World Health Organization. Jens Stoltenberg served as UN High Commissioner for Refugees.

Norway continues to be criticized by environmentalists for ignoring agreements to limit fishing for marine mammals such as whales and seals.

The 1997 parliamentary elections did not reveal a clear winner. Prime Minister Jagland resigned because his ILP lost 2 seats in the Storting compared to 1993. The far-right Progress Party increased its representation in the legislature from 10 to 25 deputies: because the other bourgeois parties did not want to enter into a coalition with it , this forced her to create a minority government. In October 1997, HPP leader Kjell Magne Bondevik formed a three-party cabinet with the participation of the Center Party and the liberals. Government parties had only 42 mandates. The government managed to hold on to power until March 2000 and fell when Prime Minister Bondevik opposed a gas power plant project that he believed could have adverse effects on the environment. The new minority government was formed by CHP leader Jens Stoltenberg. In 2000, the authorities continued privatization, selling a third of the shares of the state oil company.

Stoltenberg's government was also destined to have a short life. In the new parliamentary elections held in September 2001, the Social Democrats suffered a heavy defeat: they lost 15% of the vote, showing their worst result since World War II.

After the 2001 elections, Bondevik returned to power and formed a coalition government with the participation of conservatives and liberals. Government parties had only 62 seats out of 165 in parliament. Representatives of the Progress Party were not included in the cabinet, but provided support to it in the Storting. However, this union was not stable. In November 2004, the Progress Party refused to support the cabinet, accusing it of insufficient funding for hospitals. The crisis was averted as a result of intensive negotiations. The Bondevik government has also been criticized for its handling of the devastating earthquake and tsunami in Southeast Asia, which killed many Norwegian tourists. The left opposition intensified its agitation against the government in 2005, condemning the project for the development of private schools.

In the beginning In the 2000s, Norway experienced an economic boom associated with the oil boom. Throughout the entire period (except 2001), stable economic growth was observed; a reserve fund of 181.5 billion US dollars was accumulated from oil revenues, the funds of which were placed abroad. The opposition called for using part of the funds to increase spending on social needs, promised to reduce taxes on people with low and middle incomes, etc.

The left's arguments were supported by the Norwegians. The parliamentary elections in September 2005 were won by the opposition left coalition consisting of the CHP, the Socialist Left Party and the Center Party. CHP leader Stoltenberg took over as prime minister in October 2005. There are still differences between the winning parties on the issues of joining the EU (the CHP supports such a step, the SLP and the PC are against), on NATO membership, on increasing oil production and the construction of a gas power plant.

Literature:

Andreev Yu.V. Economy of Norway. M., 1977
Andreev Yu.V. Economy of Norway. M., 1977
History of Norway. M., 1980
Sergeev P.A. Oil and gas industry in Norway: economics, science, business. M., 1997
Vachnadze G., Ermachenkov I., Kats N., Komarov A., Kravchenko I. Business Norway: Economy and relations with Russia 1999–2001. M., 2002
Danielson R, Dürvik S, Grenley T, et al. History of Norway: from the Vikings to the present day. M., 2002
Riste U. History of Norwegian foreign policy. M., 2003
Krivorotov A. Linguistic and regional studies of Norway. Economy. M., 2004
Karpushina S.V. Norwegian language textbook: From the cultural history of Norway. M., 2004
Russia – Norway: Through the Ages. Catalog, 2004

A state in northern Europe, occupying the northern and western parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the island of Jan Mayen and the Spitsbergen archipelago.
Territory - 324 thousand square meters. km. The capital is Oslo.
Population - 4.4 million people. (1998).
The official language is Norwegian.
The dominant religion is Lutheranism.
In the 9th century. Early feudal Norwegian statehood began to take shape on the basis of individual tribes. In the 10th century Christianity was accepted. Since 1380 - in a union with Denmark, since 1537 - a province of Denmark. In 1814, Norway came under Swedish rule with the right of self-government. In 1905, the Norwegian parliament adopted a resolution to dissolve the union with Sweden, approved by referendum.

State structure

Norway is a unitary state consisting of 19 regions (fylkes). Each region is headed by a governor (fülkesman) appointed by the King. In the regions (except Oslo and Bergen) there are elected councils (fylkestings).
The current Constitution was promulgated on May 17, 1814. According to the form of government, Norway is a constitutional parliamentary monarchy.
The head of state is the King. The Constitution calls the person of the King "sacred and revered"; he is not liable for his actions. The king has legislative and executive powers. A constitutional amendment passed in 1913 gave him the right of suspensive veto. During breaks between sessions, the King can independently adopt regulations that have the force of law on issues of industry, trade, and law enforcement. The king is vested with certain powers in relation to parliament: he opens parliamentary sessions, giving a speech from the throne at the first meeting, and has the right to convene emergency sessions. On the advice of the government, the King appoints and dismisses senior officials, and he has the right to pardon. He decides foreign policy issues: concludes and terminates treaties with foreign states, receives diplomatic representatives, has the right to start a war to defend the country and make peace. The king is the supreme commander of the land and sea forces. All acts of the King must be countersigned by the relevant ministers who are responsible for them.
Legislative power belongs to the Norwegian parliament, the Storting. It consists of 165 people elected for 4 years by general elections on the basis of proportional representation. During its work, parliament is divided into 2 chambers: 1/4 of the deputies form the upper house Lagting (41 seats), the rest - the lower house, Odelsting (124 seats). Parliament meets annually in sessions, which usually begin on the first weekday following 10 January. The session continues for as long as the Storting deems necessary. The chambers sit separately; at least half of the members of the chamber must be present at meetings. The Prime Minister and ministers have the right to participate in parliamentary debates, but they do not have a casting vote. The powers of parliament are listed in the Constitution: it issues laws, sets taxes and duties, and provides loans at the expense of the kingdom. Parliament has control powers: it exercises control over finances, checks protocols and official reports of the government, and can require information about treaties concluded by the King with foreign states.
All bills introduced by deputies or members of the government must first be considered by the Odelsting. Then they are sent to Lagting, which either approves them or returns them with its amendments to Odelsting.
If a bill passes through the Odelsting twice and is rejected twice by the Lagting, it can be passed if approved by a 2/3 majority at a joint meeting of the Storting. The adopted bill is sent to the King for approval. Amendments to the Constitution are submitted to Parliament only in the first, second or third session after new elections. The Storting must determine whether to accept these amendments for discussion or not. If the issue is resolved positively, the amendments are considered at a joint meeting of the chambers and, if accepted by 2/3 of the deputies, come into force without royal approval.
The government (headed by the King, it forms the State Council) consists of the Prime Minister (usually the leader of the party of the parliamentary majority) and at least 7 ministers, who are appointed and dismissed by the King. The government's powers are very broad. After the constitutional monarchy was established in 1884, most of the rights of the King passed to the Council of State. Nowadays, the overwhelming majority of public administration issues are concentrated in the hands of this body. The government also has some legislative powers: it prepares most bills. Important rights are reserved for the Prime Minister: he can dismiss ministers, he has a decisive role in determining government policy, and he participates in the appointment of senior officials. The government carries out its functions through departments headed by ministers. The list of departments is not established by law, but there are relatively few of them (10-20). The government is responsible to parliament.

Legal system

General characteristics

The Norwegian legal system is part of an independent Scandinavian (also called “Nordic”) legal family, which combines some features of both the Romano-Germanic and Anglo-American systems.
The first records of Norwegian legal customs date back to the 12th century. By this time, the entire territory of the country, although considered a single kingdom, was divided into 4 tings - associations of clans with their own meetings of clan representatives, stable legal and other customs, etc. Collections of legal customs of 2 of these associations - “Gulating Laws” (1150 .) and the “Laws of Frostating” (1190) have survived to this day almost completely and are the most valuable documents on the history of medieval law.
On the basis of these collections, during the reign of King Magnus, nicknamed the “improver of laws,” the first national code “Law of the Land” (1274-1276) was published, which regulated issues related to the legal status of the church, set out the rules of criminal, land and trade law. The effect of this set of laws was extended to the territories that at that time belonged to Norway, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Orkney and Shetland. In addition to the "Law of the Land", the "Law of Cities" was issued (1276), which replaced local city collections of customs with national rules of trade and navigation. These codified collections of laws remained in force in Norway for several centuries, although some of their provisions were replaced by new laws.
After the Danish conquest of the country (1380), the development of Norwegian law was strongly influenced by Danish legal traditions, since most judicial positions were held by Danes and decisions made by local courts were subject to appeal to the Supreme Court of Denmark. And yet, although at the beginning of the 16th century. Norway became almost an ordinary Danish province, its legal system always remained fairly independent, and the Danish kings, who were also considered the kings of Norway, issued separate laws for it, sometimes, however, coinciding with the laws issued for Denmark. In 1602-1604. for Norway, the “Code of Laws of King Christian IV” was prepared and published, which was essentially a new edition of the legislative collections of Magnus “the improver of laws” - translated from Old Norse and including all legislative acts (later published for Norway).
A truly radical reform of all legislation was carried out in 1687 with the publication of the Norwegian Code of Laws of King Christian V in 6 books. It covered all branches of law and is considered the basis of the country's modern legal system, although very few of its provisions remain formally in force. In preparing this code of laws, the Danish legislation of that time was widely used, but it was influenced to a certain extent by the concepts of Roman law, as well as, apparently, by some traditions of Norwegian law itself.
The further development of Norwegian legislation, including during the period when the country, liberated from Danish rule, was forcibly annexed by Sweden (1814-1905), followed the path of issuing individual laws, rather than a one-time continuous codification (carried out every two years by the legal Faculty of the University of Oslo, publications of current Norwegian laws since 1682 contain their collections in chronological order).
Along with legislation, customs are recognized as an important source of Norwegian law, especially in the field of trade, where they often play a decisive role. Customs often serve as significant additions to existing laws, including in the field of constitutional law, and in the absence of relevant laws they can independently regulate legal relations.
Judicial precedents are also one of the main sources of Norwegian law. Decisions of the Supreme Court, and sometimes other courts, rendered in a particular case, essentially have the force of “convincing precedent” and are carefully studied by courts deciding on cases where legal issues of similar content arise. It should be noted that the Supreme Court of Norway in its decisions seeks to formulate not generalizing legal norms, but provisions relating to the specific circumstances of the case before it.
In the Norwegian legal system, great importance is attached to the works of legal scholars interpreting the provisions of the law or court decisions, as well as materials from the discussion of bills, which make it possible to identify the “true intentions” of the legislator (often this issue becomes the subject of discussion during judicial debate in a particular case).
Among the sources of Norwegian law from the end of the 19th century. The role of legislative acts is increasing, which are increasingly issued on issues previously regulated exclusively by customs or judicial precedents.
Since 1880, there has been a tendency towards convergence of the legislation of Norway and other Scandinavian countries, primarily on issues of trade, navigation, as well as family law, inheritance law, etc. An important role in this process is played by committees from representatives of all Scandinavian countries, developing draft laws that then submitted to the parliaments of the respective states.
Legal research in Norway is carried out mainly at the Faculty of Law at the University of Oslo.

Civil and related
branches of law

The area of ​​civil law, which, according to the concept adopted in Norway, includes issues classified in many other countries as commercial law, remains generally uncodified, although a commission was created in 1953 with a corresponding mandate. The most important role is played by major legislative acts adopted already in the 20th century. : laws on merchant shipping (1907), purchase and sale (1907), contracts (1918), real estate (1935), insurance (1930), prices, competition and monopolies (1953), corporations (1957), money and lending (1961 ), obligations arising from offenses (1969), etc., the drafts of which, as a rule, were prepared jointly with lawyers from other Scandinavian states.
The provisions of these laws are often supplemented by principles developed by judicial precedents. Thus, in the sphere of obligations from offenses, in a number of cases the principle is applied (according to the rules developed by judges at the end of the 19th century) of strict liability, in which it is not necessary to prove the guilt of the person who caused the damage, or, say, the employer, who is obliged to answer for the actions of his employees . In the area of ​​company laws, there are no rules governing the relations of participants in companies with unlimited liability. They are subject to rules developed in judicial precedents.
In the field of family law, Norway was the first of the Scandinavian countries to introduce a number of progressive principles: full equality of property rights of spouses was enshrined (Family Property Law 1927), civil marriage was equal in its consequences to church marriage, very liberal rules for divorce were established (Marriage and Divorce Law 1918 as amended in 1969), illegitimate children are in many ways equal to legitimate ones (children laws of 1956), adoption is regulated in detail (Law of 1927). In the area of ​​inheritance law, Norwegian law seeks to secure the rights of the surviving spouse and direct descendants, regardless of whether it is an intestate or testamentary succession (Succession Act 1972).
Labor relations in Norway are regulated by law and collective agreements between employee representatives and employers or their associations. According to the Industrial Democracy Act 1976, enterprises with more than 200 employees must create joint enterprise councils, including representatives of management and a trade union if more than 2/3 of the employees are members. The Worker and Work Environment Protection Act of 1977 requires, among other things, that employees be fired only “for just cause.” Current legislation requires the payment of “family allowances” to wages, taking into account the number of children.
From the late 1880s - early 1900s. the country began to create, and after the Second World War, a social security system was significantly expanded: payment of old-age and disability pensions, benefits to the unemployed, as well as widows and orphans. These activities are paid for from insurance premiums of employees and entrepreneurs, as well as from funds of local governments and central authorities.
Environmental protection measures are based on the Nature Conservation Act 1970, the Outdoor Recreation Act 1957, the Wildlife Act 1981, as well as hunting and fishing laws and regulations from the Ministry of the Environment.

Criminal law

Criminal legislation in Norway, unlike other branches of law, has long been codified. The first Criminal Code was adopted in 1842. The current Norwegian Criminal Code of 1902 occupies a special place in the history of bourgeois criminal legislation. Drafted by the prominent Norwegian criminologist Goetz (university professor, Prosecutor General since 1887), the Criminal Code of 1902 was the first of the codes to reflect the ideas of the sociological school of criminal law, although in general it followed the traditional interpretation of most institutions of the General and Special Parts . All criminal acts are divided in the code into crimes punishable by more than three months of imprisonment and misdemeanors. This distinction determines jurisdiction in a number of other respects. The traditional system of punishments in the Criminal Code of 1902 was supplemented by provisions on security measures applied to repeat offenders and mentally disabled persons. Such persons were subject to preventive detention for an indefinite period or detention in special closed medical institutions. At the same time, the Criminal Code of 1902 provided for some liberal measures (deferment of the pronouncement and execution of a sentence, suspended sentence, etc.). A significant addition to the code was the Law on Liability for Vagrancy, Begging and Drunkenness, adopted in 1900. Subsequently, the Criminal Code of 1902 was repeatedly subject to changes and additions, including regarding the aforementioned security measures (there is a permanent commission under the Ministry of Justice to update the Criminal Code).
The death penalty has been abolished for ordinary crimes since 1902, and for all crimes since 1979. Death sentences have not been carried out for ordinary crimes since 1876, and for crimes during the Nazi occupation since 1948.
Issues of judicial system and procedural law are traditionally regulated in Norway by large legislative acts, each of which covers a wide range of issues. Back in 1887, the Criminal Procedure Code was adopted, in 1915 - the Civil Procedure Code and, at the same time, the Law on Courts, concerning the organization and activities of both civil and criminal courts.

Judicial system. Control authorities

The system of common courts in Norway is headed by the court established in the 17th century. The Supreme Court, consisting of a chairman (by tradition, he is called justiciar) and 17 judges belonging to one of two chambers. It considers, as a last resort, complaints against decisions and sentences of lower courts in civil (in panels of 3 judges) and criminal (in panels of 5 judges) cases. When considering a civil case, the Supreme Court can consider all its factual and legal aspects, while a criminal case can only consider issues related to the application of the law, the nature of the punishment and procedural violations committed in lower courts.
Because the Supreme Court does not hear oral arguments or testimony from parties or witnesses, it generally avoids assessing the facts of a case differently than lower courts have done.
The Supreme Court has a Special Verification Appeal Committee (composed of 3 judges appointed by the Chairman of the Supreme Court). It preliminarily considers all incoming complaints against decisions of lower courts and has broad powers. The Committee has the right not to allow complaints to be considered by the Supreme Court that are clearly unfounded or with a claim amount below 12 thousand crowns, unless it finds reasons to make an exception. He may also reject complaints in civil cases based on certain other considerations. At the same time, under certain circumstances, the committee may allow an appeal against a decision of a district or city court in a civil case to be sent directly to the Supreme Court, bypassing other authorities. In criminal cases, the committee can independently overturn the sentence passed by a lower court or change it in favor of the convicted person.
Provincial courts operate in the country's 5 largest cities - Oslo, Skeena, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromsø. They perform the functions of an appellate instance in civil and criminal cases, as well as a court of first instance in a certain category of criminal cases. Provincial courts, in panels of 3 judges, hear appeals against decisions in civil cases made by district and city courts if the amount of the claim is at least 2 thousand crowns. At the request of one of the parties or by decision of the court itself, 2 or 4 lay judges may be additionally included in its composition. To consider cases related to trade and navigation, non-professional judges with special knowledge may be involved in court sessions.
Criminal convictions handed down in city or county courts may be appealed to a provincial court only on the issue of finding the defendant guilty and are subject to a new trial on the merits. At first instance, the provincial court hears criminal cases involving crimes that carry a punishment more severe than 5 years' imprisonment, and can also hear a case of a less serious crime if the prosecution so requests. Criminal cases are tried by 3 professional judges and a separate jury of 10 jurors (the votes of at least 7 jurors are required to reach a guilty verdict).
District and city courts (there are about 100 of them in the country) represent the central link of the judicial system; they handle the bulk of civil and criminal cases. These courts have jurisdiction in the first instance over all civil cases, with the exception of those within the competence of some special courts. Cases in them are considered by a judge, as a rule, alone or, at the request of the parties, together with two lay judges who enjoy the same rights as him (this composition of the court is mandatory when considering disputes related to shipping and real estate). In some cases, a panel of 3 professional judges is formed by decision of the provincial court to consider complex civil cases. The legal procedure adopted in Norway (in most civil cases) requires that before going to court, an attempt is made to reconcile the parties by hearing the case in a conciliation council (of 3 members) formed in each municipality (members of these councils, elected for 4 years, as usually not lawyers). An agreement reached as a result of such preliminary proceedings acquires the force of a court decision, but in some circumstances may be appealed to the court. However, claims addressed to the state or municipal authorities, disputes about the property of spouses, cases of establishing paternity, patent issues and some others are not subject to proceedings in the conciliation council.
District and city courts hear at first instance all criminal cases, with the exception of those within the jurisdiction of the provincial court. They handle cases of all thefts, fraud and other property crimes, as well as offenses involving minors under the age of 18. Criminal cases are considered by a panel consisting of one professional and two lay judges. Single judges decide whether to stand trial and also hear misdemeanor cases.
Along with general courts, Norway has special courts operating in a wide variety of areas. These include courts on issues of public property management with a very unique hierarchy of judges hearing cases on the management of property of divorcing spouses, deceased, bankrupts, etc. Civil and criminal cases on issues related to fishing are subject to trial in special courts created for this purpose. There are guardianship courts, housing courts, where disputes about the rental of houses or apartments are considered, etc. As a rule, they all consist of 1 professional and 2 lay judges, and their decisions can be appealed to the provincial courts or to the Supreme Court court.
The Labor Disputes Act 1927 created the Labor Court, which acts as an appellate body to hear appeals against industrial decisions made by the district and city courts. Its decisions, in turn, can be appealed to the Supreme Court. Along with professional judges, representatives of associations of entrepreneurs and trade unions are appointed to its composition. In 1952, in addition to it, a special Labor Court was created in Oslo, designed to prevent strikes and boycotts (they can only take place after the hearing of the case in this court). This court is formed on the same basis as the Labor Court.
A special place in the Norwegian judicial system is occupied by the Court of Impeachment, which, as the first and only instance, considers charges of criminal abuse brought against members of the government, parliament or the Supreme Court. It consists of 10 members of the second chamber of parliament and 5 members of the Supreme Court. It is convened at intervals of sometimes several decades.
There are no courts of administrative justice in Norway, but judicial practice has developed an unwritten rule according to which the general courts can accept complaints against decisions of any administrative body, including the government and the Crown. Only some judicial functions are performed by the State Insurance Court, which receives complaints against acts of relevant government bodies.
Appointment to judicial positions in general and most special courts is made by the King on the proposal of the Minister of Justice for life, but with mandatory retirement upon reaching 70 years of age. To hold a judicial position, you must pass the relevant exams in legal disciplines in the civil service, have certain work experience (as a lawyer, prosecutor, lower court judge) and reach 30 (Supreme Court) or 25 years of age. In practice, the average age of newly appointed judges in recent decades has been 45 years, and that of chief judges - over 45. Lay judges are selected by a judge to consider a specific case from a general list of persons elected for this purpose by the relevant municipal council every 4 years.
Criminal investigations are usually carried out by the police. Police chiefs have the right to limit themselves, if it is a misdemeanor that carries a fine or imprisonment for up to 3 months, to an official “warning” or imposing a fine without taking the case to court. In this case, the accused may refuse to pay the fine and demand a trial. Criminal prosecution in court is carried out in this category of cases by police officers, in more serious cases by district attorneys ("government lawyers"), who have the power to limit themselves to a "warning", imposing a fine or deferring charges if the person meets certain conditions. District attorneys oversee police operations and have the power to issue orders to police agencies and override their orders.
The investigation and prosecution of the most complex criminal cases, especially those where the accused faces life imprisonment, is carried out by the Attorney General (“Advocate General”). He also oversees the activities of district attorneys.
Only persons who have received permission or the rights of an attorney from the Ministry of Justice can perform the duties of a defense attorney in a criminal case or a representative of the interests of parties in civil proceedings. To do this, you must have a legal education, pass the exams established for civil servants, provide certain insurance coverage, etc. To appear in the provincial court and the Supreme Court, you must fulfill correspondingly even more stringent requirements: obtain permission from the Minister of Justice and first obtain the title of “lawyer at the provincial court” ", and then "Advocate to the Supreme Court."
Since 1962, Norway has introduced the position of Ombudsman, elected by parliament for four years and called upon to investigate, based on complaints from citizens or on their own initiative, all cases of “injustice” towards citizens on the part of central and local authorities or individual civil servants. The Ombudsman does not have the right to cancel decisions of administrative bodies, but in practice his negative conclusions lead to their cancellation.

Literature

Loedrup P. Norway // International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Vol. 1. 1972. P.N73-86.