Objective methods. Methods of objective psychology

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific research methods are the techniques and means by which information necessary for making practical recommendations and constructing scientific theories is obtained. The development of any science depends on how perfect the methods it uses are, how reliable and valid they are. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used. Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, “older” sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses methods of modern sciences such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its own methods. Psychology also has such methods. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective (Fig. 1.9).

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Validity and reliability of the psychodiagnostic test

To characterize the ability of a test to measure the actual level of a mental property or quality, the concept of “validity” is used. The validity of a test shows the extent to which it measures the quality (property, ability, characteristic, etc.) that it is intended to assess. Invalid, i.e., tests that do not have validity, are not suitable for practical use.

Validity and reliability are related concepts. Their relationship can be illustrated by the following example. Let's say there are two shooters A and B. Shooter A scores 90 points out of 100, and shooter 8 scores only 70. Accordingly, the reliability of shooter A is 0.90, and shooter 8 is 0.70. However, shooter A always shoots at other people's targets, so his results are not counted in competitions. The second shooter always selects the correct targets. Therefore, the validity of arrow A is zero, and arrow 8 is 0.70, i.e., numerically equal to reliability. If Shooter A starts choosing targets correctly, his validity will also be equal to his reliability. If he sometimes confuses the mi-

sheni, then some of the results will not be counted and the validity of shooter A will be lower than reliability. In our example, the analogue of reliability is the shooter’s accuracy, and the analogue of validity is also shooting accuracy, but not at any target, but at a strictly defined, “own” target.

There are cases in history when tests recognized as invalid for measuring some properties turned out to be valid for others. This means that reliability is a necessary condition for validity. An unreliable test cannot be valid, and, conversely, a valid test is always reliable. The reliability of a test cannot be less than its validity; in turn, validity cannot exceed reliability.

In modern psychometrics, there are three main types of validity: 1) content (logical); 2) empirical and 3) conceptual.

Based on: Melnikov 8. M., Yampolsky L. T. Introduction to experimental psychology of personality: Textbook. aid for listeners. IPI, teacher, ped. disciplines of universities and peds. Inst. - M.: Education, 1985.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

The observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and, at first glance, the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences. Scientific observation is characterized by systematicity and is carried out on the basis of a specific plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and contributes to the objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality.

Observation can be carried out in a variety of ways. For example, the method of participant observation is widely used. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which allows a more objective judgment of the events taking place. Participant observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Self-observation, i.e. observation of one’s experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to its advantages, has a number of disadvantages. Firstly, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation, or stop completely. Secondly, during self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening is subjective. Thirdly, during self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

Nevertheless, the method of introspection is very important for a psychologist. When confronted in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist strives to understand its psychological content. In most cases, he turns to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences. Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental settings. In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and is usually called experimental introspection. Its characteristic feature is that the interview of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account experimental conditions, at those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the self-observation method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

A survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of questioning: oral, written and free.

Oral questioning, as a rule, is used in cases where it is necessary to observe the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

A written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to predict the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content during the study.

A free survey is a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. When questioning this

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to to different subjects. There would be no serious ethical problems even if subjects were given a surprise test of words they were not expecting to be tested. But what if a researcher were to compare the learning of words by neutral subjects with the learning of words by subjects in a neutral state? anger or confusion? It is clear that this study will not yield reliable conclusions if subjects are told in advance that they will be intentionally angered (by being rude) or intentionally confused (by making them believe that they accidentally broke some device). In this regard, the instructions state that such studies can be carried out, but subjects should be brought out of ignorance as soon as possible after their participation.

It should explain to them why they had to be kept in the dark or deceived, and, in addition, their residual anger or confusion should be removed so that their dignity is not harmed and their appreciation of the research being conducted is enhanced. The Institutional Review Board must be satisfied that the procedure for removing subjects from the study complies with these requirements.

The third ethical principle of research is the right of subjects to confidentiality. Information about a person obtained during the research process should be considered confidential and other persons should not have access to it without his consent. Typically, this is done by separating the names of subjects and other identifying information from the data obtained. In this case, data identification is carried out using an alphabetic or numeric code. Thus, only the experimenter has access to the subject's results. Approximately 7-8% of all psychological experiments use animals (mostly rodents and birds), and very few of them subject the animals to painful or harmful procedures. However, recent years have seen increased interest in the issue and controversy over the use, housing and handling of animals in scientific research; Both federal and APA guidelines require that all procedures that are painful or harmful to the animal must be fully justified by the knowledge that results from such research. There are also special rules governing the living conditions of laboratory animals and procedures for caring for them.

In addition to specific instructions, there is a general ethical principle that states that participants in psychological experiments should be considered full partners of the researcher.

By: Atkinson R.P., Atkinson R.S., Smith E.E. et al. Introduction to psychology: Textbook for universities / Transl. from English under. ed.V. P. Zinchenko. - M.: Trivola, 1999.

visibility of results. How to compare the severity of a certain psychological characteristic in different people?

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made starting from the second half of the 19th century, when the need arose to make psychology a more accurate and useful science. But even earlier, in 1835, the book “Social Physics” by the creator of modern statistics, A. Quetelet (1796-1874), was published. In this book, Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of human behavior to certain patterns. Analyzing statistical material, he obtained constant values ​​that provide a quantitative description of such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc. These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Kegle was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to social phenomena, it introduced a number of new points. For example, Quetelet expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then behind it there must be a reality comparable to the physical one, making it possible to predict various phenomena

Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich (1857-1927) - Russian physiologist, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, psychopathologist. Based on the reflex concept of mental activity put forward by I.M. Sechenov, he developed a natural science theory of behavior, which was initially called objective psychology (1904), then psychoreflexology (1910), and later reflexology (1917). Bekhterev made a significant contribution to the development of experimental psychology. He was the creator of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia, which was opened in 1885 at the Kazan University Institute. Later, in 1908, Bekhterev founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg, which currently bears his name.

(including psychological) based on statistical laws. To understand these laws, it is hopeless to study each person individually. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variation statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws connecting the strength of a person’s sensations with stimuli expressed in physical units that affect the body. These include the Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, and Stevens laws, which are mathematical formulas that help determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased the objectivity of the study and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most practical sciences. The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology determined the need to develop methods that make it possible to repeatedly carry out the same type of research, i.e., it required solving the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main meaning of standardization is that in order to ensure the lowest probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e., regardless of external conditions measuring the same psychological characteristics.

These psychological methods include tests. This method is used most often. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and high-quality characterization of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare research results, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems. Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results obtained.

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

A test questionnaire as a method is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. The test task involves obtaining information about the psychological characteristics of a person based on an analysis of the success of completing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

One of the very first attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London). Over nine thousand subjects passed through it, in whom, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were later widely used to solve practical problems of life. This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called “psychotechnics”.

The term entered the scientific lexicon with the publication of D. Cattell's (1860-1944) article "Mental Tests and Measurement" in 1890 in the journal Mind, with an afterword by Galton. “Psychology,” Cattell writes in this article, “cannot become as solid and precise as the physical sciences unless it is based on experiment and measurement. A step in this direction can be taken by applying a series of mental tests to a large number of people. The results may have significant scientific value in revealing the constancy of mental processes, their interdependence and changes in different circumstances."

In 1905, the French psychologist A. Binet created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the 20th century. The French government commissioned Binet to compile a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it to correctly distribute schoolchildren according to levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create entire series of tests. Their focus on quickly solving practical problems led to the rapid and widespread dissemination of psychological tests. For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired workers were subjected to them. Obviously, the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​interdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of an activity and those structures thanks to which the subject copes with tests.

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread. At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have the same military potential as other warring parties. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's largest psychologists E. Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of using psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began working in this direction. Under Yerkes' leadership, the first group tests were created to mass assess the suitability (mainly on intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the military: the Army Alpha test for literate people and the Army Beta test for illiterate people. The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of nonverbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined. The indicative distribution was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to perform the duties of officers and who were subject to assignment to the appropriate military educational institutions. The three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the population under study.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was carried out in Russia. The development of this direction in Russian psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft ( 1837-1909).

A particularly notable contribution to the development of test methods was made by G. I. Rossolimo, who was known not only as a neurologist, but also as a psychologist. To diagnose individual mental properties, he developed a method for their quantitative assessment, which gives a holistic picture of the personality. The technique made it possible to evaluate 11 mental processes, which in turn were divided into five groups: attention, receptivity, will, memorization, associative processes (imagination and thinking). For each of these processes, tasks were proposed, depending on the completion of which the “strength” of each process was assessed on a special scale. The sum of positive responses was marked with a dot on the graph. Connecting these dots gave a “psychological profile” of a person. The tasks varied according to the categories of subjects (for children, for intelligent adults, for non-intelligent adults). In addition, Rossolimo proposed a formula for converting graphic data into arithmetic data.

Today, tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. However, it is necessary to note the fact that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods. This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the subjects' self-report, for example, questionnaire tests. When performing these tests, the test taker can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are also more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests. This category of tests does not use self-reports from subjects. They assume a free interpretation of the research.

the teacher of the tasks performed by the test subject. For example, based on the most preferred choice of color cards for a subject, a psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the subject’s interpretation of the depicted situation, a conclusion is drawn about the characteristics of his psyche. However, tests of the projective type place increased demands on the level of professional training and practical experience of the psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development in the test subject.

Objective data can be obtained using an experiment - a method based on creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied is isolated, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. They differ from each other in the conditions of the experiment.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are. One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time is inferior in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of methods of psychological science consists of modeling methods. They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc. In mathematical modeling, a mathematical expression or formula is used, which reflects the relationship of variables and the relationships between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomena being studied. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems. Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to the modeling of mental phenomena based on the laws of computer operation, since it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs operate. This led to attempts to imagine and describe human behavior by analogy with the operation of a computer. In connection with these studies, the names of American scientists D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Wekker became widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods for studying mental phenomena. For example, a conversation is a variant of a survey. The conversation method differs from a survey in greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and characteristics of the subject. Another method is the method of studying documents, or analyzing human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out through the integrated use of various methods.

Control questions

Tell us about the main structural elements of B. G. Ananyev’s approach to the study of man: the individual, the subject of activity, personality, individuality.

Describe the primary and secondary properties of a person as an individual.

Explain why the concept of “personality” refers only to humans and cannot apply to representatives of the animal world.

Describe the basic properties of a person as a subject of activity.

Explain the essence of the concept of “individuality”.

Tell us about modern sciences that study humans as a biological species.

What do you know about research into the problems of anthropogenesis and human sociogenesis?

Tell us about the relationship between man and nature. What are the main ideas contained in the biogeochemical theory of V.I. Vernadsky?

Define psychology as a science.

10 What are the differences between scientific and everyday psychology?

What is the subject of psychology? Give a classification of mental phenomena.

What mental processes do you know?

What is the main difference between mental states and mental processes?

Name the main personality traits.

What methods of psychological research do you know?

What is a test? What tests are there?

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Vernadsky V.I. Chemical structure of the Earth’s biosphere and its environment / Responsible. ed. A. A. Yaroshevsky. - 2nd ed. - M.: Nauka, 1987.

Vernadsky V.I. Biosphere: Selected works of biogeochemistry. - M.. Thought, 1967.

Voronin L.G. Comparative physiology of higher nervous activity of animals and humans: Izbr. works. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1989.

Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology: Course of lectures: Textbook for universities. - M.: CheRo, 1997.

Koehler V. Study of the intelligence of anthropoid apes. - M.: Com. Academician, 1930.

8. Ladygina-Kots N. N. Development of the psyche in the process of evolution of organisms. M., 1958. 9. Luria A. R. Evolutionary introduction to psychology. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1975.

10. Lewis D. Socialism and personality / Transl. from English - M.: Publishing house. foreign lit., 1963.

11. Mayorov F.P. Materials on the comparative study of higher and lower monkeys.
//Physiological Journal named after. I. M. Sechenov. - 1955. - T. XIX, issue. 4.

12. Nemov R. S. Psychology: Textbook for students. higher ped. textbook institutions: VZ-x book. Book 1: General fundamentals of psychology. - 2nd ed. - M.: Vlados 1998.

Psychology / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilova, prof. A. A. Smirnova, prof. B. M. Teplova. - Ed. 3rd, revised and additional - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1948.

Psychology: Dictionary / Under the general editorship. A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshsvsky. - M.: Politizdat, 1990.

15. Rubinshtein SL. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999.

Semenov Yu. I. How humanity arose. - M.: Nauka, 1966.

Smirnov A. A. Selected psychological works: In 2 volumes - M., 1987.

Fress P., Piaget J. Experimental psychology / Sat. articles. Per. from French: Issue. 6. - M.: Progress, 1978.

Shoshar P. Biological factors of progress. The human brain is the organ of progress. // What future awaits humanity / Under general. ed. Corresponding member USSR Academy of Sciences A. M. Rumyantsev. - Prague: Peace and Socialism, 1964.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest. It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

ü Oral survey, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject.

ü Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire.

ü Free poll - a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of performing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. Natural the experiment is organized and carried out in normal life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are.

Simulation. They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

12Next ⇒

LECTURE 2.

METHODS OF CLINICAL STUDY OF A PATIENT

All methods of examining a patient are conventionally divided into:

1. Basic:

− subjective method (questioning),

− objective or physical methods (inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation).

The main methods are so named because they are carried out on each patient and only after their application can it be decided what additional methods the patient needs.

2. Additional:

− laboratory methods, i.e. examination of blood, urine, feces, sputum, pleural fluid, bone marrow, vomit, bile, stomach contents, duodenum, study of cytological and histological material, etc.

− instrumental methods using equipment and tools. The simplest instrumental methods are: anthropometry (measurement of height and length of the body, measurement of body weight, waist and hip circumference), thermometry, measurement of blood pressure. However, most instrumental methods can only be performed by trained specialists. These methods include: ultrasound, X-ray, endoscopic and radioisotope methods, functional diagnostic methods (ECG, FVD, etc.), etc.,

− consultations with specialized specialists (ophthalmologist, neurologist, ENT doctor, etc.).

To carry out most of the additional studies, equipment, instruments, reagents, and specially trained personnel (radiologists, laboratory assistants, technicians, etc.) are required. Some additional methods are quite difficult to tolerate by patients or there are contraindications to their implementation. For high-quality performance of additional studies and obtaining reliable results, proper preliminary preparation of the patient, which is carried out by a nurse or paramedic, is of great importance.

Subjective method (questioning) – first stage of examination .

Meaning of questioning:

− diagnostic,

− allows you to establish a trusting relationship with the patient, as well as identify the patient’s problems associated with the disease.

The method of questioning the patient (anamnestic method) was developed by the Russian therapist of the 20th century, Professor G.A. Zakharyin.

Information about the patient is obtained from his words about sensations, memories of life and illness. If the patient is unconscious, the necessary information is obtained from relatives or accompanying persons.

Questioning is one of the most difficult methods of examining a patient, despite its apparent simplicity. Contact with a patient requires an ethical approach and compliance with the rules of medical deontology.

Approximate the questioning involves identifying only the main complaints and basic data on the development of the disease and is carried out in cases where a quick preliminary diagnosis and provision of medical care are necessary. An indicative questioning of the patient is often limited to the paramedic of the mobile emergency medical team. In all other cases it is carried out detailed questioning according to the generally accepted scheme (components of the questioning):

− general information about the patient (passport data, i.e. patient’s full name, year of birth, residential address, profession, place of work and position);

− the patient’s complaints are major and minor;

− Anamnesis morbi (Anamnesis – memory, history; morbus – disease) – data on the development of the underlying disease;

− Anamnesis vitae (vita – life) – data about the patient’s life.

Usually, at the beginning of the questioning, the patient is given the opportunity to speak freely about what brought him to the doctor. To do this, ask a general question: “What are you complaining about?” or “What is bothering you?” Next, a targeted questioning is carried out, each complaint is clarified and specified. Questions should be simple and clear, adapted to the level of general development of the patient. The conversation is conducted in a calm environment, preferably alone with the patient. The patient's complaints that forced him to seek medical help, i.e. those that the patient puts first are called main(major, they are usually associated with the underlying disease). After a detailed description of the main complaints, they move on to identifying additional(minor) complaints that the patient forgot to mention or did not pay attention to. It is also important to distinguish between current complaints and complaints that arise periodically.

Anamnesis morbi collection usually begins with the question: “When did you get sick?” or “When did you feel sick?” Anamnesis morbi gives an idea of ​​all stages of the disease:

a) onset of the disease - from what time does he consider himself sick, how did the disease begin (with what symptoms, acute or gradual), what was the cause of the disease, according to the patient;

b) the dynamics of the disease - how the disease developed, the frequency and cause of exacerbations, hospital stay, sanatoriums, what studies were carried out and what their results were, what treatment was carried out (independently and as prescribed by a doctor) and its effectiveness;

c) the leading reason for visiting a doctor; the last deterioration for which the patient came in (what it was expressed in, the reason for the visit).

The patient's life story represents his medical biography. The main goal is to find out the influence of the patient’s living conditions on the occurrence and course of the disease, to get an idea of ​​the presence of a hereditary predisposition to certain diseases. The significance of Anamnesis vitae is to identify risk factors for the disease, i.e. factors that negatively affect health, cause pathological changes in the body and can contribute to the development of the disease or provoke its exacerbation. The most significant and common risk factors are: poor diet, obesity, bad habits (alcohol abuse, smoking, drug use and other chemicals), stress, heredity, occupational hazards, etc.

In order to identify risk factors, the patient is consistently asked about childhood, the nature and conditions of production activity, life, nutrition, bad habits, previous diseases, operations and injuries, hereditary predisposition, gynecological (in women), allergic and epidemiological history (contacts with infectious diseases). patients, invasive research methods, visiting areas with unfavorable infectious and epidemiological conditions, etc.).

In the process of questioning, not only the paramedic collects information about the patient, but the patient also gets to know the paramedic, gets an idea about him, about his qualifications, attentiveness, and responsiveness. Therefore, the paramedic must remember the principles of medical deontology, monitor his appearance, speech culture, be tactful, and take into account the individual characteristics of the patient.

The results of the patient’s questioning are described in the medical history according to plan in the form of a professional interpretation of the “patient’s words.”

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Like all natural and social sciences, psychology has two methods of obtaining facts that are subject to further analysis: observation methods And experiment, which, in turn, have a number of modifications that do not change their essence.

Observation becomes a method of psychological study only if it is not limited to the description of external phenomena, but makes the transition to an explanation of nature these phenomena.

The essence of observation is not merely the recording of facts, but the scientific explanation of their causes.

The registration of facts is limited to the so-called everyday observations, in which a person searches by touch for the reasons for certain actions and actions.

Everyday observations differ from scientific observation primarily in their randomness, disorganization and lack of planning.

They rarely take into account all the essential conditions influencing the emergence of a mental fact and its course. However, everyday observations, due to the fact that they are countless and have everyday experience as a criterion, sometimes ultimately provide a rational grain of psychological wisdom. Countless everyday psychological observations are accumulated in proverbs and sayings and are of particular interest for study.

№ 3 Classifications of methods of psychological research.

Scientific psychological observation in contrast to everyday life, it presupposes the necessary transition from description observable fact of behavior to an explanation his inner psychological essence.

The form of this transition is hypothesis, arising during observation. Its verification or refutation is a matter of further observations. An essential requirement for psychological observation is the presence of a clear plan as well as recording the results obtained in special diary.

Type of observation - psychological analysis of activity products, In this case, it is as if it is not the activity itself that is being studied, but only its product, but essentially the object of study is the mental processes that are realized as a result of the action.

Thus, in child psychology, the study of children's drawings plays a significant role.

The main tool for obtaining new psychological facts and objective scientific knowledge is experimental method. Having gained its rights in psychology only over the past hundred years, it currently serves as the main provider of psychological knowledge and the basis for many theories.

Unlike observation A psychological experiment presupposes the possibility of active intervention by the researcher in the activities of the subject.

Thus, the researcher creates conditions in which a mental fact can be clearly revealed, can be changed in the direction desired by the experimenter, and can be repeated many times for comprehensive consideration.

There are two main types of experimental method: laboratory And natural experiment.

Characteristic sign laboratory experiment – not only that it is carried out in laboratory conditions with the help of special psychological equipment and that the actions of the subject are determined by instructions, but also the attitude of the subject, who knows that an experiment is being conducted on him (although, as a rule, he does not know what its essence is, that specifically investigated and for what purpose).

Using a laboratory experiment, you can study the properties of attention, features of perception, memory, etc. Currently, a laboratory experiment is often structured in such a way that it simulates some psychological aspects of the activity that a person performs under familiar conditions (for example, the experiment can simulate situations of significant emotional stress, during which the test subject, a pilot by profession, must take meaningful decisions, perform complex ones that require a high degree of coordination of movement, respond to instrument readings, etc.).

Natural experiment(first proposed by A.F.

Lazursky in 1910) by design should eliminate the tension that arises in the subject, who knows that he is being experimented on, and transfer the research to ordinary, natural conditions (lesson, conversation, game, preparing homework, etc.) .

A natural experiment that solves problems of psychological and pedagogical research is called psychological and pedagogical experiment.

Its role is extremely important in studying the cognitive capabilities of students at various age stages, in identifying specific ways of forming a student’s personality, etc.

The differences between laboratory and natural experiments are currently very conditional and should not be absolute.

All science is based on facts. She collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - she establishes the laws of the field of activity that she studies.

The methods of obtaining these facts are called methods of scientific research. The main methods of scientific research in psychology are observation and experiment.

Observation. This is a systematic, purposeful tracing of the manifestations of the human psyche under certain conditions. Scientific observation requires clear goal setting and planning. It is determined in advance exactly what mental processes and phenomena will interest the observer, by what external manifestations they can be traced, under what conditions the observation will take place and how its results are supposed to be recorded.

The peculiarity of observation in psychology is that only facts related to external behavior (movements, verbal statements, etc.) can be directly seen and recorded.

d.). The psychologist deals with the mental processes and phenomena that cause them. Therefore, the correctness of observation results depends not only on the accuracy of recording the facts of behavior, but also on their interpretation and determination of the psychological meaning.

Observation is usually used when it is necessary to obtain an initial understanding of any aspect of behavior and make assumptions about its psychological causes. Testing these assumptions is most often carried out using a psychological experiment.

Psychological observation must be purposeful: the observer must clearly imagine and understand what he is going to observe and why to observe, otherwise the observation will turn into the recording of random, secondary facts. Observation should be carried out systematically, and not from case to case.

Therefore, psychological observation, as a rule, requires a more or less long period of time. The longer the observation, the more facts the observer can accumulate, the easier it will be for him to find the typical from the random, the deeper and more reliable his conclusions will be.

Experiment in psychology is that the scientist (experimenter) deliberately creates and modifies the conditions in which the person being studied (subject) acts, sets certain tasks for him and, by how they are solved, judges the processes and phenomena that arise during this.

By conducting a study under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them. There are two main types of experiments used in psychology: laboratory And natural.

Laboratory experiment carried out in specially organized and, in a certain sense, artificial conditions, it requires special equipment, and sometimes the use of technical devices.

An example of a laboratory experiment is the study of the recognition process using a special installation, which allows, on a special screen (such as a television screen), to gradually present the subject with different amounts of visual information (from zero to showing the object in all its details) in order to find out at what stage the person recognizes the image being depicted. item. A laboratory experiment contributes to a deep and comprehensive study of the mental activity of people.

However, along with the advantages, the laboratory experiment also has certain disadvantages.

The most significant drawback of this method is its certain artificiality, which, under certain conditions, can lead to disruption of the natural course of mental processes and, consequently, to incorrect conclusions. This disadvantage of a laboratory experiment is eliminated to a certain extent during organization.

Natural experiment combines the positive aspects of the observation method and laboratory experiment.

Here, the naturalness of the observation conditions is preserved and the accuracy of the experiment is introduced. A natural experiment is structured in such a way that the subjects do not suspect that they are being subjected to psychological research - this ensures the naturalness of their behavior.

To correctly and successfully conduct a natural experiment, it is necessary to comply with all the requirements that apply to a laboratory experiment. In accordance with the purpose of the study, the experimenter selects conditions that provide the most vivid manifestation of the aspects of mental activity that interest him.

One of the types of experiments in psychology is sociometric experiment.

It is used to study relationships between people, the position that a person occupies in a particular group (factory team, school class, kindergarten group). When studying a group, everyone answers a number of questions regarding the choice of partners for joint work, recreation, and activities. Based on the results, you can determine the most and least popular person in the group.

Conversation method, questionnaire method. The specific meaning and methods of psychological research related to the collection and analysis of verbal testimony (statements) of subjects: Conversation method and questionnaire method.

When carried out correctly, they allow one to identify individual psychological characteristics of a person: inclinations, interests, tastes, attitudes towards life facts and phenomena, other people, oneself.

The essence of these methods is that the researcher asks the subject pre-prepared and carefully thought out questions, which he answers (orally in the case of a conversation, or in writing when using the questionnaire method).

The content and form of the questions are determined, firstly, by the objectives of the study and, secondly, by the age of the subjects. In progress conversations questions are changed and supplemented depending on the answers of the subjects. The answers are carefully and accurately recorded (possibly using a tape recorder). At the same time, the researcher observes the nature of speech statements (the degree of confidence in answers, interest or indifference, the nature of expressions), as well as the behavior, facial expressions, and facial expressions of the subjects.

Questioning is a list of questions that are given to the persons being studied for a written response.

The advantage of this method is that it makes it possible to obtain bulk material relatively easily and quickly.

The disadvantage of this method in comparison with a conversation is the lack of personal contact with the subject, which does not make it possible to vary the nature of the questions depending on the answers. Questions should be clear, clear, understandable, and should not suggest one answer or another.

The material from interviews and questionnaires is valuable when it is supported and controlled by other methods, in particular observation.

Tests. A test is a special type of experimental research, which is a special task or system of tasks.

The subject performs a task, the completion time of which is usually taken into account. Tests are used to study abilities, level of mental development, skills, level of knowledge acquisition, as well as to study individual characteristics of mental processes.

The test study is distinguished by its comparative simplicity of procedure; it is short-term, carried out without complex technical devices, and requires the simplest equipment (often just a form with the texts of the tasks).

The result of the test solution allows for quantitative expression and thereby opens up the possibility of mathematical processing. We also note that in the process of test research, the influence of numerous conditions that in one way or another influence the results is not taken into account - the mood of the subject, his well-being, attitude towards testing.

It is unacceptable to try to use tests to establish a limit, a ceiling of a given person’s capabilities, to forecast, to predict the level of his future successes.

Study of performance results. The results of people’s activities are the books they created, paintings, architectural projects, inventions, etc.

d. From them one can, to a certain extent, judge the characteristics of the activity that led to their creation, and the mental processes and qualities included in this activity. Analysis of performance results is considered an auxiliary research method, since it gives reliable results only in combination with other methods (observation, experiment).

Introspection. Self-observation is the observation and description by a person of the course of certain mental processes and experiences in himself.

The method of self-observation has no independent significance as a method of direct study of the psyche based on the analysis of one’s own mental manifestations. The reason for its limited use is the obvious possibility of involuntary distortion and subjective interpretation of observed phenomena.

In Soviet child and educational psychology, it was used. This is a unique form of natural experiment, since it is also carried out in the natural conditions of life and activity of children.

An essential feature of a psychological-pedagogical experiment is that its goal is not the study itself, but an active, purposeful change, transformation, formation of one or another mental activity, psychological qualities of the individual. Accordingly, there are two types of it - educational And educatingpsychological and pedagogical experiment.

So, psychology uses a number of methods.

Which of them is rational to apply is decided in each individual case, depending on the tasks and object of study.

In this case, they usually use not just one method, but a number of methods that mutually complement and control each other.

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In this article we would like to give an idea of ​​the methods of psychological research of both children and adults. Often, at an appointment with a psychologist, it is not clear to parents why the specialist carries out certain actions, asks questions that are not directly related to the problem, etc.

Let's consider research methods based on four main positions:

a) non-experimental psychological methods;
b) diagnostic methods;
c) experimental methods;
d) formative methods.

Non-experimental methods

Observation is one of the most commonly used research methods in psychology. Observation can be used as an independent method, but usually it is organically included in other research methods, such as conversation, study of products of activity, various types of experiment, etc.

Observation and self-observation is the purposeful, organized perception and registration of an object and is the oldest psychological method.

There are non-systematic and systematic observations:

• non-systematic observation is carried out during field research and is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology.

  For a researcher conducting non-systematic observation, what is important is not the fixation of causal dependencies and a strict description of the phenomenon, but the creation of some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions;

• systematic observation is carried out according to a specific plan.

  The researcher identifies recorded behavioral features (variables) and classifies environmental conditions. The systematic observation plan corresponds to a correlation study (discussed later).

There are “continuous” and selective observations:

• in the first case, the researcher records all behavioral features available for the most detailed observation.
• in the second case, he pays attention only to certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral acts, for example, he records only the frequency of aggression or the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, etc.

Observation can be carried out directly or using observation devices and means of recording results.

These include: audio, photo and video equipment, special surveillance cards, etc.

The observation results can be recorded during the observation process or delayed. The problem of the observer is of particular importance. The behavior of a person or group of people changes if they know that they are being observed from the outside. Participant observation assumes that the observer is himself a member of the group whose behavior he is studying.

When studying an individual, for example a child, the observer is in constant, natural communication with him.

In any case, the most important role is played by the personality of the psychologist—his professionally important qualities. With open observation, after a certain time, people get used to the psychologist and begin to behave naturally, if he himself does not provoke a “special” attitude towards himself.

Observation is an indispensable method if it is necessary to study natural behavior without outside interference in a situation, when it is necessary to obtain a holistic picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety. Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the experimentation process.

Objective methods of psychology.

The results of observing subjects as they perform an experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.

Questioning, like observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. Questionnaire surveys are usually conducted using observational data, which (along with data obtained through other research methods) is used to construct questionnaires.

There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology:

• These are questionnaires composed of direct questions and aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects.

  For example, in a questionnaire aimed at identifying the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to their age, the following question was used: “Do you prefer to become an adult now, right away, or do you want to remain a child and why?”;

• These are selective-type questionnaires, where subjects are offered several ready-made answers to each question on the questionnaire; The task of the subjects is to choose the most appropriate answer. For example, to determine a student’s attitude towards various academic subjects, you can use the following question: “Which academic subject is the most interesting?”

  And as possible answers, you can offer a list of academic subjects: “algebra”, “chemistry”, “geography”, “physics”, etc.;

• these are questionnaires - scales; When answering questions on scale questionnaires, the subject must not only choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but analyze (evaluate in points) the correctness of the proposed answers.

  So, for example, instead of answering “yes” or “no”, subjects can be offered a five-point response scale:
  5 - definitely yes;
  4 - more yes than no;
  3 - not sure, don’t know;
  2 - no more than yes;
  1 - definitely not.

There are no fundamental differences between these three types of questionnaires; they are all just different modifications of the questionnaire method. However, if the use of questionnaires containing direct (and even more so indirect) questions requires a preliminary qualitative analysis of the answers, which significantly complicates the use of quantitative methods for processing and analyzing the data obtained, then scale questionnaires are the most formalized type of questionnaires, since they allow for more accurate quantitative analysis of survey data.

Conversation is a psychology-specific method for studying human behavior, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of research is impossible.

A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research.

Conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview.

Researchers distinguish between a clinical interview, an integral part of the “clinical method,” and a focused, face-to-face inquiry—an interview. The content of conversations can be recorded in full or selectively, depending on the specific goals of the study. When compiling full protocols of conversations, the psychologist can use a voice recorder.

Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including the collection of preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective means of psychological research.

Therefore, it is advisable that the conversation be conducted taking into account data obtained through methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its goals may include checking preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained by using these methods of primary orientation in the psychological characteristics of the subjects under study.

Monographic method.

This research method cannot be implemented in any one technique. It is a synthetic method and is specified in a combination of a wide variety of non-experimental (and sometimes experimental) techniques. The monographic method is used, as a rule, for a deep, thorough study of the age and individual characteristics of individual subjects, recording their behavior, activities and relationships with others in all major spheres of life.

At the same time, researchers strive, based on the study of specific cases, to identify general patterns of the structure and development of certain mental formations.

Typically, psychological research uses not just one method, but a whole set of different methods that mutually control and complement each other.

Diagnostic methods.

Diagnostic research methods include various tests, i.e.

methods that allow the researcher to give a quantitative qualification to the phenomenon being studied, as well as various methods of qualitative diagnostics, with the help of which, for example, different levels of development of the psychological properties and characteristics of the subjects are identified.

Test- a standardized task, the result of which allows you to measure the psychological characteristics of the subject.

Thus, the purpose of the test study is to test, diagnose certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator correlated with previously established relevant norms and standards.

The use of specific and specific tests in psychology most clearly reveals the general theoretical attitudes of the researcher and the entire study. Thus, in foreign psychology, test research is usually understood as a means of identifying and measuring the innate intellectual and characterological characteristics of subjects.

In Russian psychology, various diagnostic methods are considered as means of determining the current level of development of these psychological characteristics. Precisely because the results of any testing characterize the current and comparative level of a person’s mental development, determined by the influence of many factors that are usually uncontrollable in a test test, the results of a diagnostic test cannot and should not be correlated with a person’s capabilities, with the characteristics of his further development, i.e.

these results have no prognostic value. These results cannot serve as a basis for taking certain psychological and pedagogical measures.

The need for absolutely strict adherence to instructions and the use of the same type of diagnostic examination materials imposes another significant limitation on the widespread use of diagnostic methods in most applied areas of psychological science.

Due to this limitation, a sufficiently qualified conduct of a diagnostic examination requires the researcher to have special (psychological) training, knowledge not only of the material and instructions of the test methodology used, but also of methods of scientific analysis of the data obtained.

So, the difference between diagnostic methods and non-experimental methods is that they not only describe the phenomenon being studied, but also give this phenomenon a quantitative or qualitative qualification and measure it.

A common feature of these two classes of research methods is that they do not allow the researcher to penetrate into the phenomenon being studied, do not reveal the patterns of its change and development, and do not explain it.

Experimental methods.

In contrast to non-experimental and diagnostic methods, a “psychological experiment” assumes the possibility of active intervention by the researcher in the activity of the subject in order to create conditions that clearly reveal a psychological fact.

The specificity of experimental methods is, therefore, that they assume:

• a) organization of special operating conditions that affect the psychological characteristics of the subjects under study;
• b) changes in these conditions during the study.

In psychology, there are three types of actual experimental method:

• natural experiment;
• modeling experiment;
• laboratory experiment.

Natural (field) experiment, as the name of this method itself says, is closest to non-experimental research methods.

The conditions used when conducting a natural experiment are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself (in a higher educational institution, for example, they are organically included in the educational process). In this case, the experimenter uses only a combination of different (contrasting, as a rule) conditions of activity of the subjects and records the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects using non-experimental or diagnostic techniques.

Simulation experiment. When conducting a modeling experiment, the subject acts according to the instructions of the experimenter and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject.

A characteristic feature of this type of experiment is that the behavior of the subjects in the experimental situation models (reproduces) at different levels of abstraction actions or activities that are quite typical for life situations: memorizing various information, choosing or setting goals, performing various intellectual and practical actions, etc. . A modeling experiment allows you to solve a wide variety of research problems.

Laboratory experiment- a special type of experimental method - involves conducting research in a psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices.

This type of experiment, which is also characterized by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used when studying elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions, differences in sensory thresholds, etc.) and much less often when studying more complex mental phenomena (thought processes, speech functions, etc.).

A laboratory experiment is more consistent with the subject of psychological research.

Formative methods.

All the research methods described above are distinguished by their ascertaining nature: empirical, spontaneously formed (or, in extreme cases, modeled within the narrow and artificial framework of a laboratory experiment) features and levels of mental development are subject to description, measurement and explanation.
The use of all these methods does not imply the task of significantly changing the existing subject of research, the task of formation.

Such a fundamentally new research goal requires the use of special, formative methods.

Formative research methods in psychology include various varieties of the so-called social experiment, the object of which is a certain group of people:

• transformative experiment
• psychological and pedagogical experiment,
• formative experiment,
• experimental genetic method,
• method of step-by-step formation, etc.

The use of formative research methods is associated with the restructuring of certain characteristics of the educational process and identifying the influence of this restructuring on the age, intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects. Essentially, this research method acts as a means of creating a broad experimental context for the use of all other methods of psychology.

Formative experiments are often used to compare the effects of various educational programs on the mental development of subjects.
The formative experiment is:

• mass experiment, i.e.

  statistically significant (this means that its area is the minimum - a school, a teaching staff);

• long, prolonged experiment;
• an experiment not for the sake of experimentation, but for the sake of the implementation of one or another general theoretical concept in a certain field of psychology (age, children's, pedagogical and other fields);
• the experiment is complex, requiring the joint efforts of theoretical psychologists, practicing psychologists, research psychologists, didactics, methodologists, etc.

  And therefore this is an experiment taking place in special institutions where all this can be organized.

It should be noted that in the process of development of psychology, not only theories and concepts change, but also research methods: they lose their contemplative, ascertaining character, and become formative or, more precisely, transformative.

The leading type of research method in the experimental field of psychology is the formative experiment.

Tags: psychological research methods, testing, questionnaires, diagnostic techniques

Measurement in psychological research

In the course of psychological research, the characteristics being studied can be expressed quantitatively, for example, scores on test scales.

The obtained quantitative experimental data are then subjected to statistical processing.

Measurement carried out in psychological research can be defined as the assignment of numbers to the phenomena under study, which is carried out according to certain rules.

The measured object is compared with some standard, resulting in its numerical expression.

Information encoded in numerical form allows the use of mathematical methods and the identification of what might otherwise remain hidden without recourse to numerical interpretation. In addition, the numerical representation of the phenomena being studied allows one to operate with complex concepts in a more abbreviated form. It is these circumstances that explain the use of measurements in any science, including psychology.

In general, the research work of a psychologist conducting experiments can be presented in the following sequence:

Researcher (psychologist)

2. Subject of research (mental properties, processes, functions, etc.)

3. Subject (group of subjects)

4. Experiment (measurement)

5. Experimental data (numeric codes)

6. Statistical processing of experimental data

7. Result of statistical processing (numeric codes)

8. Conclusions (printed text: report, diploma, article, etc.)

Recipient of scientific information (supervisor of coursework, diploma or candidate's work, customer, reader of the article, etc.).

Any type of measurement requires the presence of units of measurement. A unit of measurement is that “measuring stick,” as S. Stevens said, which is a conventional standard for carrying out certain measuring procedures.

In natural sciences and technology there are standard units of measurement, for example, degree, meter, ampere, etc.

Psychological variables, with a few exceptions, do not have their own measurement units. Therefore, in most cases, the value of a psychological trait is determined using special measuring scales.

According to S. Stevens, there are four types of measuring scales (or methods of measurement):

1) nominative (nominal or scale of names);

2) ordinal (ordinary or rank scale);

3) interval (scale of equal intervals);

4) scale of relations (scale of equal relations).

All names in brackets are synonyms of the original concept.

The process of assigning quantitative (numerical) values ​​to the information available to the researcher is called coding.

In other words, coding is an operation by which experimental data is given the form of a numerical message (code).

The measurement procedure can only be applied using the four methods listed above.

Moreover, each measuring scale has its own form of numerical representation, or code, that is different from others. Therefore, the encoded features of the phenomenon being studied, measured on one of the named scales, are recorded in a strictly defined numerical system, determined by the features of the scale used.

Measurements made using the first two scales are considered qualitative, and those carried out using the last two scales are considered quantitative. With the development of scientific knowledge, quantitative description based on measurement methods is becoming increasingly important.

This serves two specific purposes:

1. Increasing and assessing the degree of accuracy of the output. Quantitative data allows a higher degree of accuracy to be achieved than qualitative descriptions, while also allowing for more informed decisions.

Formulation of laws. The goal of every science is to describe through laws the essential relationships between the phenomena under study. If these relationships can be expressed quantitatively in the form of functional dependencies, then the predictive capabilities of the law of nature formulated in this way increase significantly.

Nominative scale (name scale)

A measurement in a nominative scale consists of assigning a certain designation or symbol (numeric, alphabetic, etc.) to any property or feature.

In fact, the measurement procedure comes down to classifying properties, grouping objects, combining them into classes, provided that objects belonging to the same class are identical (or similar) to each other in relation to some attribute or property, while objects , differing on this basis, fall into different classes.

In other words, when measuring on this scale, objects are classified or distributed (for example, types of accentuation of a person’s character) into non-overlapping classes and groups.

There can be several such disjoint classes.

Subjective research method

A classic example of measuring on a nominative scale in psychology is the division of people into four temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic.

The nominal scale determines that different properties or characteristics are qualitatively different from each other, but does not imply any quantitative operations with them.

So, for traits measured on this scale, it cannot be said that some of them are greater and some are less, some are better and some are worse. We can only say that the characteristics that fall into different groups (classes) are different. The latter characterizes this scale as qualitative.

Let us give another example of measurement in a nominative scale. A psychologist studies the motives for leaving a job:

a) was not satisfied with the earnings;

b) inconvenient shift;

c) poor working conditions;

d) uninteresting work;

e) conflict with superiors, etc.

The simplest nominative scale is called dichotomous.

When measuring on a dichotomous scale, the characteristics being measured can be coded with two symbols or numbers, for example 0 and 1, or the letters A and B, or any two symbols that differ from each other.

A trait measured on a dichotomous scale is called an alternative trait.

In a dichotomous scale, all objects, signs or properties being studied are divided into two non-overlapping classes, and the researcher raises the question of whether the trait of interest “appeared” in the subject or not. For example, in a study of 30 subjects, 23 women, coded 0, and 7 men, coded 1, took part.

Here are some more examples related to measurements on a dichotomous scale:

• the subject answered the questionnaire item either “yes” or “no”;
• someone voted “for”, someone “against”;
• a person is either an “extrovert” or an “introvert”, etc.

In all of the above cases, two disjoint sets are obtained, in relation to which one can only count the number of individuals possessing one or another characteristic.

the number of subjects, phenomena, etc., falling into a given class (group) and possessing a given property.

Ordinal (rank, ordinary) scale

Measurement on this scale divides the entire set of measured characteristics into sets that are interconnected by relations such as “more - less”, “higher - lower”, “stronger - weaker”, etc. If in the previous scale it was unimportant in what order the measured characteristics were located, then in the ordinal (rank) scale all characteristics are arranged by rank - from the largest (tall, strong, smart, etc.) to the smallest (low, weak, stupid, etc.) or vice versa.

A typical and very well-known example of an ordinal scale is school grades: from 5 to 1 point.

The ordinal (rank) scale must contain at least three classes (groups): for example, answers to a questionnaire: “yes”, “I don’t know”, “no”.

Let us give another example of measurement on an ordinal scale.

A psychologist studies the sociometric statuses of team members:

1. “Popular”;

2. “Preferred”;

3. "Neglected";

4. "Isolated";

5. "Rejected."

Interval scale (interval scale)

In an interval scale, or interval scale, each of the possible values ​​of the measured quantities is separated from the nearest one at an equal distance.

The main concept of this scale is the interval, which can be defined as the proportion or part of the property being measured between two adjacent positions on the scale. The size of the interval is a fixed and constant value in all areas of the scale.

When working with this scale, the property or item being measured is assigned a corresponding number. An important feature of the interval scale is that it does not have a natural reference point (zero is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of the property being measured).

Thus, in psychology the semantic differential Ch is often used.

Osgood, which is an example of measuring on an interval scale various psychological characteristics of a person, social attitudes, value orientations, subjective personal meaning, various aspects of self-esteem, etc.:

Relationship scale (equal relationship scale)

The relationship scale is also called the equal relationship scale . A feature of this scale is the presence of a firmly fixed zero, which means the complete absence of any property or characteristic.

The ratio scale, in fact, is very close to the interval scale, since if the starting point is strictly fixed, then any interval scale turns into a ratio scale.

It is on the scale of ratios that precise and ultra-precise measurements are made in such sciences as physics, medicine, chemistry, etc.

Let's give examples: gravity, heart rate, reaction speed. Basically, measurements on the relationship scale are made in sciences close to psychology, such as psychophysics, psychophysiology, psychogenetics. This is due to the fact that it is very difficult to find an example of a mental phenomenon that could potentially be absent in human activity.

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Methods of psychological research

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Scientific research methods are the techniques and means by which information necessary for making practical recommendations and constructing scientific theories is obtained. The development of any science depends on how perfect the methods it uses are, how reliable and correct they are. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used.

Psychology became an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, “older” sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses methods of modern sciences such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its own methods. Psychology also has such methods. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, introspection and questioning.

Observation method in psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the simplest.

It is based on systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out under normal living conditions without any deliberate intervention on the part of the observer.

Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, based on the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation- This is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences.

Scientific observation is characterized by systematicity and is carried out on the basis of a specific plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and contributes to the objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality.

Observation can be carried out in a variety of ways.

For example, the method of participant observation is widely used. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which allows a more objective judgment of the events taking place.

Participant observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Introspection, i.e. observation of one’s experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to its advantages, has a number of disadvantages.

Firstly, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation or stop altogether. Secondly, during self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening is subjective.

Thirdly, during self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

However, the method of introspection is very important for a psychologist. When faced with the behavior of other people in practice, the psychologist strives to understand its psychological content and turns to his own experience, including the analysis of his own experiences.

Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental settings.

In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and is usually called experimental introspection. Its characteristic feature is that the interview of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account experimental conditions, at those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the self-observation method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers.

There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of questioning: oral, written and free.

Oral survey, as a rule, is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject.

This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey allows you to reach a larger number of people in a relatively short time.

The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to predict the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content during the study.

Free poll- a type of written or oral survey in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. When conducting a survey of this type, you can change the tactics and content of the study quite flexibly, which allows you to obtain a variety of information about the subject.

At the same time, a standard survey requires less time and, most importantly, the information obtained about a particular subject can be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of questions does not change.

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made starting from the second half of the 19th century, when the need arose to make psychology a more accurate and useful science.

But even earlier, in 1835, the book “Social Physics” by the creator of modern statistics A. Quetelet (1796-1874) was published. In this book, Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of human behavior to certain patterns.

Analyzing statistical material, he obtained constant values ​​that provide a quantitative description of such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc.

These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Quetelet was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to social phenomena, it introduced a number of new points. For example, Quetelet expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then behind it there must be a reality comparable to the physical one, making it possible to predict various phenomena (including psychological ones) on the basis of statistical laws.

To understand these laws, it is hopeless to study each person individually. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variation statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws connecting the strength of a person’s sensations with stimuli expressed in physical units that affect the body.

These include the Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, and Stevens laws, which are mathematical formulas that help determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased the objectivity of research and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most practical sciences.

The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology determined the need to develop methods that make it possible to repeatedly conduct the same type of research, i.e.

e. required to solve the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main point of standardization is that in order to ensure the lowest probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e.

that is, regardless of external conditions measuring the same psychological characteristic.

These psychological methods include tests. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and high-quality characterization of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare research results, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems.

Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results obtained.

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire as a method it is based on the analysis of test subjects' answers to questions that allow one to obtain reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic.

Judgment about the development of this characteristic is made on the basis of the number of answers that coincide in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about a person’s psychological characteristics based on an analysis of the success of performing certain tasks. In tests of this type, the test taker is asked to complete a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks completed is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality.

Most tests to determine the level of mental development fall into this category.

One of the very first attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London).

Over nine thousand subjects passed through it, in whom, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were later widely used to solve practical problems of life.

This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called “psychotechnics”.

Subjective research method

French psychologist A. Vinet created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the twentieth century. The French government commissioned Binet to compile a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it to correctly distribute schoolchildren according to levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create entire series of tests. Their focus on quickly solving practical problems led to the rapid and widespread dissemination of psychological tests.

For example, G. Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired workers were subjected to them.

Obviously, the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​interdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of an activity and those structures thanks to which the subject copes with tests.

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread.

At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have the same military potential as other warring parties. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's largest psychologists, E.

Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of applying psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began working in this direction. Under Yerkes' leadership, the first group tests were created to mass assess the suitability (mainly on intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the military: the Army Alpha test for literate people and the Army Beta test for illiterate people.

The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of nonverbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined.

The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to perform the duties of officers and who were subject to assignment to the appropriate military educational institutions. The three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the population under study.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was carried out in Russia.

The development of this direction in Russian psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft ( 1837-1909).

Today, tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. Still, it is necessary to note the fact that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods.

This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the subjects' self-report, for example, questionnaire tests. When performing these tests, the test taker can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are also more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests.

This category of tests does not use self-reports from subjects. They assume free interpretation by the researcher of the tasks performed by the subject. For example, based on the most preferred choice of color cards for a subject, a psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the subject’s interpretation of the depicted situation, a conclusion is drawn about the characteristics of his psyche.

However, tests of the projective type place increased demands on the level of professional training and practical experience of the psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development in the test subject.

Objective data can be obtained using an experiment - a method based on creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied is isolated, manifested and assessed best.

The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than other psychological methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural.

They differ from each other in the conditions of the experiment.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be assessed. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they are.

One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the experimenter’s lack of ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time is inferior in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of methods of psychological science consists of modeling methods.

They should be classified as a separate class of methods. They are used when using other methods is difficult.

Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, their use, as a rule, does not require the participation of subjects or taking into account the real situation. Therefore, it can be very difficult to classify various modeling techniques as objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc.

d. In mathematical modeling, a mathematical expression or formula is used, which reflects the relationship of variables and the relationships between them, reproducing the elements and relationships in the phenomena being studied. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems.

Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to the modeling of mental phenomena based on the laws of computer operation, since it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs operate.

This led to attempts to imagine and describe human behavior by analogy with the operation of a computer. In connection with these studies, the names of American scientists D. Miller, Y. Galanter, K. Pribram, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Wekker became widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods for studying mental phenomena.

For example, a conversation is a variant of a survey. The conversation method differs from a survey in greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and characteristics of the subject.

Another method is the method of studying documents, or analyzing human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out through the complex application of various methods.

We will not consider in detail the history of Russian psychology, but will dwell on the most significant stages of its development, since Russian psychological schools have long gained well-deserved fame throughout the world.

A special place in the development of psychological thought in Russia is occupied by the works of M.

V. Lomonosov. In his works on rhetoric and physics, Lomonosov develops a materialistic understanding of sensations and ideas and speaks of the primacy of matter. This idea was reflected especially clearly in his theory of light, which was subsequently supplemented and developed by G. Helmholtz. According to Lomonosov, it is necessary to distinguish between cognitive (mental) processes and mental qualities of a person.

The latter arise from the relationship between mental abilities and passions. In turn, he considers human actions and suffering to be the source of passions. Thus, already in the middle of the 18th century. The materialistic foundations of Russian psychology were laid.

The formation of Russian psychology took place under the influence of French educators and materialists of the 18th century.

This influence is clearly noticeable in the works of Ya. P. Kozelsky and the psychological concept of A. N. Radishchev. Speaking about Radishchev’s scientific works, it is necessary to emphasize that in his works he establishes the leading role of speech for the entire mental development of a person.

In our country, psychology as an independent science began to develop in the 19th century. A major role in its development at this stage was played by the works of A. I. Herzen, who spoke about “action” as an essential factor in the spiritual development of a person.

It should be noted that the psychological views of domestic scientists in the second half of the 19th century. largely contradicted the religious point of view on psychic phenomena.

One of the most striking works of that time was the work of I. M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the Brain.” This work made a significant contribution to the development of psychophysiology, neuropsychology, and the physiology of higher nervous activity. It should be noted that Sechenov was not only a physiologist, whose works created the natural scientific basis for modern psychology.

From early youth, Sechenov was interested in psychology and, according to S. L. Rubinstein, was the largest Russian psychologist of that time. Sechenov the psychologist not only put forward a psychological concept in which he defined the subject of scientific knowledge of psychology - mental processes, but also had a serious influence on the formation of experimental psychology in Russia. But perhaps the greatest significance of his scientific activity is that it influenced the research of V.

M. Bekhterev and I. P. Pavlova.

Pavlov's works were of great importance for world psychological science. Thanks to the discovery of the mechanism of formation of the conditioned reflex, many psychological concepts and even directions were formed, including behaviorism.

Later, at the turn of the century, experimental research was continued by such scientists as A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, G.I. Chelpanov. A.F. Lazursky worked a lot on personality issues, especially the study of human character.

In addition, he is known for his experimental work, including his proposed method of natural experiment.

Having started a conversation about the experiment, we cannot help but mention the name of N. N. Lange, one of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia. He is known not only for his study of sensation, perception, and attention. Lange created one of the first experimental psychology laboratories in Russia at Odessa University.

Simultaneously with experimental psychology in Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries.

Other scientific psychological areas are also developing, including general psychology, zoopsychology, and child psychology. Psychological knowledge began to be actively used in the clinic by S. S. Korsakov, I. R. Tarkhanov, V. M. Bekhterev. Psychology began to penetrate into the pedagogical process. In particular, the works of P. F. Lesgaft on the typology of children became widely known.

A particularly noticeable role in the history of Russian pre-revolutionary psychology was played by G.

I. Chelpanov, who was the founder of the first and oldest Psychological Institute in our country. Preaching the position of idealism in psychology, Chelpanov could not engage in scientific research after the October Revolution. However, the founders of Russian psychological science were replaced by new talented scientists. It with.

L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, who not only continued the research of their predecessors, but also raised an equally famous generation of scientists. These include B. G. Ananyev, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin. The main works of this group of scientists date back to the period 30–60s of the twentieth century.

SUBJECTIVE METHOD

a way of knowing and describing social phenomena in history and sociology, which takes into account the nature and degree of influence of the subjective on the objective. Developed by populist theorists Lavrov and Mikhailovsky. Its philosophical premises are D. Hume’s ideas about the boundaries of knowledge determined by the possibilities of human experience, the concept of B.

Bauer about the critical personality (see Critically thinking personality) as the engine of history. Lavrov and Mikhailovsky were also interested in the questions posed by O. Comte - about the limits of intervention of the subject of knowledge in the natural course of social events.

Both rejected, following Comte, systems of metaphysical thinking as unsatisfactory. Metaphysics proved unable to unite the “truth of the theoretical heaven” with the “truth of the practical earth.”

In the search for new paths in philosophy and sociology, it is necessary to rely on self-evident truths. One of these truths is the recognition that the natural forces of nature do not depend on man, his thoughts and desires, but society is built on other foundations.

There are living personalities at work here. They quite consciously set specific goals for themselves and achieve their implementation. Hence, “social goals can be achieved exclusively in individuals” (Lavrov).

In the natural sciences, truth is achieved through rigorous, objectively “verified” research methods. These methods are based on the recognition of the regulatory significance of the law of causality. In society, the law of causality is modified. The existing appears here in the form of the desirable, the necessary is corrected by the should. In general, society studies (and changes it) not some disembodied spirit (or abstract subject), but a “thinking, feeling and desiring personality.”

Natural science and social cognition also have something in common. Both natural science and sociology encounter “the existence of a fact, its probable causes and consequences, its prevalence, etc.” Unlike a fact of nature, the approval or censure of which is meaningless, the assessment of a social fact, supporters of S. believed.

m., is for the most part vitally important for the subject of cognition. Therefore, in social cognition, indications of the “desirability or undesirability” of a fact from one point of view or another are especially valuable. A person constantly passes judgment on social phenomena (facts), evaluating them or passing his verdict on them, the truth of which depends on the degree of development of his moral consciousness.

“The sociologist does not have, so to speak, the logical right, the right to eliminate from his work man as he is, with all his sorrows and desires” (Mikhailovsky). S. m. is, therefore, a way of cognition, in which the observer puts himself mentally in the position of the observed.

This determines the “size of the study area legally belonging to it.” S. m. is intended to establish the degree and nature of the influence of the subjective on the objective. It guarantees that the subject does not distort the objective evidence of an object or event.

Such a method, Mikhailovsky explained, “does not at all oblige one to turn away from generally binding forms of thinking”; he uses the same techniques and methods of scientific thinking - induction, hypothesis, analogy. Its peculiarity lies in something else: it involves taking into account the nature and admissibility of the intervention of the subjective into the objective.

F. Engels noted that, from his point of view, within certain limits, S. m., which is better called the “psychic method,” is acceptable, since it implies an appeal to moral feeling (letter from P.

SUBJECTIVE METHOD

L. Lavrov from November 12-17, 1873). S. m. allows, according to Mikhailovsky, to discover and justify the social ideal necessary for the individual. If, he reasoned, “throwing away all phantoms, I look reality straight in the eye, then at the sight of its ugly sides, an ideal is naturally born in me, something different from reality, desirable and, in my extreme understanding, achievable.”

The concept of an ideal allows us to better understand the moral side of history: an ideal is capable of “giving perspective to history in its whole and in its parts.” Ideas about the ideal and happiness have the greatest value for the individual (“under what conditions can I feel the best?”).

They determine a lot in her self-knowledge and understanding not only of her purpose, but also of the meaning of history. The task of the sociologist is, therefore, to reflect the idea of ​​justice and morality and, depending on the height of this ideal, to more or less come closer to understanding the meaning of the phenomena of social life. For these purposes, the sociologist is called upon to reject the undesirable, pointing out its harmful consequences, and propose the desirable, which brings closer to the ideal.

Based on S.M., the ideologists of populism concluded that the development of capitalism in Russia as a system fraught with negative social consequences was undesirable, and the desirability of socialism as an ideal of social progress.

Based on these criteria, in their opinion, a critically thinking person should act.

The main research methods in psychology - as in natural science in general - are observation and experiment . In psychology, each of these general methods appears in different forms; There are different types of observation and experiment. Specific research methods of psychology include methods testing, survey, analysis of activity products. Also widely used in psychology mathematical modeling methods, statistical analysis And etc. (Fig. 3).

The observation method is the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of a person’s external behavior for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation.. Objective observation in psychology is aimed not at external actions in themselves, but at their psychological content; here the external side of activity is only the initial material of observation, which must receive its psychological interpretation and be comprehended within the framework of a certain theory.

The success of observation and explanation of its results ultimately depends on the state of knowledge in the field under study. Based on a certain understanding of the nature of the phenomenon under study, a hypothesis is put forward about its dependence on specific factors and their manifestation in external behavior. The hypothesis is tested during observation and can be confirmed, clarified, or refuted. “Objective observation becomes scientifically fruitful insofar as it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses.”

Observation as a scientific method must meet a number of requirements. It must be selective, those. proceed from a clearly defined goal, highlight a certain fragment of the reality being studied. Observation must be planned Andsystematic , those. be built on the basis of a plan and carried out on reading a certain period of time. It is important to record the behavior being studied in as much detail as possible, i.e. necessary completeness observations.

The objectivity of the observation method increases if the researcher uses technical means, such as a video recorder. In such an observation, the researcher takes a completely outside position, or even completely removes himself from the situation. It is no coincidence that the ideal version of the observation method in psychology was considered to be observation using a “Gesell mirror”, transmitting light in one direction: the researcher could see everything that was happening while remaining invisible. A similar effect can be achieved using a VCR. In other words, a special task is set to achieve the effect absence of a researcher, make sure that the subjects do not know that they are being observed and behave naturally, as under normal conditions

The fundamental difficulty of objective observation in psychology is associated with unambiguity understanding, interpretation, explanation of external factors of behavior in psychological concepts. The results of observation are significantly affected by the level of experience and qualifications of the observer. In other words, external observation can be objective in relation to the systematic and complete recording of behavioral facts, but subjective in their psychological interpretation. This difficulty can be overcome by using other objective methods of psychology.

In pedagogical practice, the teacher rarely uses the method of external observation in its pure form. Pedagogical activity excludes an outside position, the position of an impartial, objective and disinterested observer. At the same time, in the process of activity, the teacher notices certain features of the behavior of schoolchildren, and by external manifestations judges the psychological reasons, the emotional state, the peculiarities of perception and understanding of the material, difficulties, etc. The desire to record the psychological characteristics of students during activities, try to comprehend them, and use them in their work leads to the formation of an important professional quality in a teacher - observation skills .

Experimental method is the main method of explanatory psychology. Let us recall that psychology acquired the status of an independent science simultaneously with the experimental method. The main task of a psychological experiment, like observation, is to make the essential features of the internal mental process accessible to objective external perception. But experiment differs from observation in a number of features.

S.L. Rubinstein identifies four main features of the experiment. Firstly, in an experiment the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying in contrast to observation, in which the observer cannot actively intervene in the situation. Secondly, the experimenter can vary, change flow conditions and manifestations of the process being studied. Third, possible in experiment alternate exclusion of individual conditions (variables) in order to establish natural connections that determine the process being studied. Fourthly, the experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of the conditions, allows mathematical processing of data obtained in the study .

There are three types of psychological experiments: laboratory, natural and formative (psychological-pedagogical).

Laboratory psychological experiment occurs under specially created and controlled conditions, usually using special equipment and devices. The initial object of a laboratory experiment in psychology was elementary mental processes: sensations, perceptions, reaction speed. A distinctive feature of the experiment in the laboratory is strict adherence to the research conditions and the accuracy of the data obtained. Cognitive psychology, which studies human cognitive processes, has achieved great perfection in the use of laboratory experiments. Cognitive processes have constituted a major area of ​​laboratory research in human psychology.

The scientific objectivity and practical significance of the data obtained in a laboratory experiment is reduced artificiality created conditions. This is due both to the remoteness of the problems solved in the experiment from the real life conditions of the subject, and to the impossibility of recording the nature of the experimenter’s influence on the subject during the study. Therefore, the problem arises of transferring data obtained in the laboratory to real conditions of human life. In other words, Does the experimental situation simulate the essential conditions of human life? This question always remains open in laboratory psychological research. The use of a laboratory experiment in real teaching activities, due to its artificiality, abstractness, and labor intensity, is actually not practiced.

Natural psychology experiment removes the noted limitations of the laboratory experiment. The idea of ​​conducting a psychological experiment in natural conditions of human life belongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazursky. The natural experiment grew out of teaching practice; here it gained recognition and widespread use.

A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) - Russian doctor and psychologist; developed “characterology” - the psychological concept of individual differences and built a system of classification of personalities (“General and Experimental Psychology”, 1912).

Its main difference lies in the combination of experimental research with the naturalness of the conditions. The researcher’s influence on the subjects, based on a preliminary assumption (hypothesis) about his character, is carried out in the usual conditions of activity or behavior. Subjects participating in a natural experiment are unaware that they are being tested.

Pedagogical practice provides great opportunities for the use of natural experiment. Real pedagogical activity is carried out, as a rule, in several parallels and is cyclical. The teacher can vary the content, methods, forms, and techniques of teaching in different classes and study the nature of the influence of these changes on the characteristics of students’ assimilation of the material, on the pace of progress in studying the subject, on the characteristics of understanding, memorization, emotional attitude of students to what they are studying, etc.

An experiment in natural conditions of the pedagogical process is combined with observation of the progress and results of its course. The combination of experiment and observation under teaching conditions gives good results for the psychological study of schoolchildren.

The famous psychologist S.L. Rubinstein wrote: “We study the child by teaching him. For this purpose, we do not abandon experimentation in favor of observing the pedagogical process, but introduce elements of pedagogical influence into the experiment itself, building the study according to the type of experimental lesson. When teaching a child, we do not strive to fix the stage or level at which the child is, but to help him move from this stage to the next higher stage. In this advancement, we are studying the patterns of development of the child’s psyche.”

It can be assumed that the use of natural experiment opportunities by teachers contributes to the rapid growth of their professional skills, the formation of pedagogical thinking, and fosters a creative attitude towards their activities. Well-known innovative teachers in our country - Sh.A. Amonashvili, I.P. Volkov, I.P. Ivanov, E.N. Ilyin, S.N. Lysenkova, V.F. Shatalov and others - have achieved significant success in teaching and educating schoolchildren through creative experimentation in everyday work conditions.

Formative experiment - This is a method for studying the mental development of children in the conditions of a specially organized experimental pedagogical process. The essence of this experiment is manifested in its names: transformative, creative, educational, educational, psychological-pedagogical, method of active formation of the psyche, genetic modeling.

The researcher is not limited to studying the existing forms of the psyche, recording and explaining the mental development achieved by students, which is typical for a ascertaining (laboratory) experiment. Based on a preliminary theoretical analysis of the patterns of mental development of children of a certain age or the conditions and nature of the formation of the most important human abilities, a hypothetical model of the formation of the studied abilities is constructed in specially designed conditions, as a rule, in experimental classes or schools.

The implementation of the developed model is carefully monitored and assessed by specialists of various profiles - teachers, psychologists, methodologists, doctors, etc. During the experiment, patterns, mechanisms, dynamics, and trends in the mental development of schoolchildren are revealed. The results of the experiment make it possible to confirm, clarify or refute the previously developed model of the development of the ability being studied.

In the formative experiment myself the pedagogical process becomes experimental. In psychological experimental research, new forms of the teaching and educational process are searched for and designed, a kind of “cultivation” of productive forms of cooperation between teachers and schoolchildren is carried out, and at the same time, promising paths of mental development are studied at a certain age stage.

P.Ya.Galperin (1902-1988) - domestic psychologist, student of L.S. Vygotsky; creator of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions.

In the formative experiment, patterns of development of cognitive abilities in preschoolers were established (research by P.Ya. Galperin, L.F. Obukhova, G.I. Minskaya, N.N. Poddyakov, L.A. Venger, A.V. Zaporozhets and others ), features and conditions of the transition from preschool to school childhood (research by E.E. Shuleshko and others), the possibility and feasibility of forming the foundations of scientific and theoretical thinking in younger schoolchildren and the decisive importance for this content and teaching methods have been proven (research by V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin and others). The formative experiment has become the main method of domestic educational psychology. Its advantages are its focus on student development in the educational process, the theoretical validity of the experimental model for organizing this process, and the duration of the study, which guarantees the validity and reliability of the data obtained.

D.B. Elkonin (1904-1984) - domestic psychologist, student of L.S. Vygotsky; creator of the psychological theory of children's play and periodization of mental development in childhood.

An important advantage of the formative experiment is a new type of scientificity in pedagogical practice - design and software , whose focus is not so much the study of what is, what has developed and exists, but rather the construction, creation, “growing” of the possible, the future, the promising. An indispensable condition for the deployment of a formative psychological and pedagogical experiment is anticipation of possible consequences, responsibility of researchers for the course and results of the experiment , for the subjects participating in it.

Objective methods of psychology also include testing, used for purposes psychological diagnostics , to recognize or assess states, characteristics, characteristics of a particular person, group of people, a particular mental function, etc. In this regard a test is like an experiment. They are also united by the fact that both methods represent a system of tasks offered by the researcher to the subject. The true relationship between experiment and test is that test grows out of experiment , created on its basis.

Testing is a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values.

The methodological basis of objective methods of psychology is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. This group includes the following methods:

• observation (continuous, selective);
• experiment (laboratory, natural, formative);
• testing (achievements, abilities, professional suitability, etc.);
• analysis of activity products (graphological, content analysis, analysis of drawings, etc.);
• survey (questionnaire, conversation, interview);
• mathematical modeling and statistical analysis.

Observation is the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of a person’s external behavior for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation. Observation must be selective, planned and systematic, i.e., based on a clearly defined goal, highlighting a certain fragment of the reality being studied, built on the basis of a plan and carried out over a certain period of time.

Experiment- one of the main methods of psychology. Psychology acquired the status of an independent science thanks to the emergence of experimental methods. S. L. Rubinstein identifies four main features of the experiment:

1. in an experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying, in contrast to observation, in which the observer cannot actively intervene in the situation;
2. the experimenter can vary, change the conditions for the occurrence and manifestation of the process being studied;
3. in an experiment it is possible to alternately exclude individual conditions (variables) in order to establish natural connections that determine the process being studied;
4. The experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions and allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study.

There are three types of experiment: laboratory, natural and formative.

Laboratory experiment carried out in specially created and controlled conditions, usually using special equipment and devices.

The idea of ​​holding natural experiment belongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazursky (1874–1917). Its essence lies in the fact that the researcher influences the subjects in the usual conditions of their activity. Subjects often have no idea that they are participating in an experiment. For example, a teacher has the opportunity to vary the content, forms, and methods of teaching in parallel classes or student groups and compare the results.

Formative experiment is a research method under the conditions of a specially organized experimental pedagogical process. It is also called a transformative, creative, teaching method or a psychological and pedagogical method of active formation of the psyche. A number of pedagogical techniques are based on it, for example, immersion in a problem, group training. The results of the experiment make it possible to confirm, clarify or reject a previously developed model of influence on an individual or group of people.

Testing– a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. It is used to recognize or assess states, characteristics, characteristics of a particular person, group of people, a particular mental function, etc. The result of the test is assessed in quantitative terms. Tests have different types of norms and scales of values: age, social, etc. The individual test performance indicator correlates with its norm. There is a special area of ​​psychology - testology, which is the theory of using and creating tests. Currently, the development of a scientifically based psychological test is labor-intensive and time-consuming.

Analysis of activity products comes from the general premise of the connection between internal mental processes and external forms of behavior and activity. By studying the objective products of activity, one can draw conclusions about the psychological characteristics of its subject or subjects. A specific form of the method of analyzing performance results is graphology. Psychologists have found that the characteristics of handwriting are associated with certain psychological properties of the author of the letter; They developed norms and techniques for psychological analysis of handwriting. Content analysis allows you to identify and evaluate specific characteristics of literary, scientific, journalistic texts, and then, based on them, determine the psychological characteristics of the author.

Survey used in psychology in the form of questionnaires and conversations (or interviews). The sources of information in the survey are the written or oral judgments of the individual. To obtain reliable information, special questionnaires are created, the questions in which are arranged in a certain order, grouped into separate blocks, etc. When surveying, the survey is conducted in writing using a questionnaire. The advantage of this method is that a group of people can simultaneously participate in such a survey, and the data obtained during the survey can be statistically processed and analyzed. During the conversation, there is direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent (or interviewee). The most important condition for a successful conversation is to establish contact between them and create a trusting atmosphere of communication. The researcher must win over the interviewee and encourage him to be frank.

Mathematical method It is not used in psychology as an independent method, but is included as an auxiliary means of increasing the reliability, objectivity, and accuracy of the data obtained. A number of statistical methods have been created specifically to test the quality of psychological tests.