Introduction

production social economic capitalism

At the basis of any specific society, that is, a social organism, lies a certain system of economic and production relations. This system of relations, which makes up the economic structure of a given society, determines all other social relations existing in it, determines the historical type of society, i.e., its belonging to one or another socio-economic formation. Therefore, analysis of the development of industrial relations and their impact on the economic structure of society is very important in the social sciences. Only such an analysis can provide the key to understanding a given social organism, its past, present and future, and to revealing the patterns of its development.

The relevance of the work is beyond doubt, since knowledge and correct use of the laws of development of production relations and productive forces, as well as the relationships between them, form the fundamental prerequisite for managing economic development. Their importance is increasing literally every day, since in connection with economic integration the scale is expanding and the dynamism of economic processes is increasing.

The purpose of the work is to analyze the mechanism and dynamics of the development of industrial relations, as well as their impact on the economic life of society. Based on the goal, the following tasks were identified:

Study economic categories such as production relations and productive forces

Describe their relationship

Analyze the evolution of industrial relations using the example of five socio-economic formations

Make an analysis of the dynamics of production relations and productive forces

Consider the state of economic relations in modern Russia

Determine measures to eliminate the structural crisis associated with the discrepancy between the productive forces and the current level of industrial relations.

The object of research is the economic system.

The subject of the course work is production relations in their relationship with production forces.

When writing the course work, literature on the research topic, as well as periodicals, were studied. Particularly noteworthy are books such as “Dialectics of productive forces and relations of production” by V. Eichorn and “Capital” by K. Marx.

The methods used in this work to solve the problems are description, systemic and comparative analysis, comparison and presentation of statistical data, as well as analysis of cause-and-effect relationships and the historical method.

Industrial relations and the economic system

The social nature of production

Any economic system cannot exist without production. It permeates all the threads of the economic process and is a natural condition of human life, forming its material basis. It is to production that humanity owes its development.

Production is the process of human influence on the substance of nature in order to create material goods and services necessary for the existence and development of society.

The production process includes, first of all, material production, because without the production and reproduction of material conditions and means of life, human life itself is impossible. It also includes spiritual production, the production of people as social individuals and the production of “the very form of communication” Marx K. Capital. Criticism of political economy. In 2 volumes. - M.: Political publishing house, 1983., i.e. a certain type of social connection between people. This approach allows us to consider it as the production of social life, an expression of the organic integrity of human activity.

Production has two interconnected sides. On the one hand, this is the relationship of people to nature, in which people modify the substance of nature to satisfy their needs. Man's dominance over nature is characterized by the level of development of the productive forces and, above all, the means of production. This reflects the material content of production, its technical side.

On the other hand, it includes the relationship of people to each other in the production process, or the relationships of people in the production process. This is nothing more than the production relations of people, the central place among which is occupied by property relations. This is the social side, the social nature of production. It is the production and reproduction of individuals in their relationships, which, in turn, is inseparable from the creation by people of the material and spiritual conditions of their life, and constitutes the main content of production when considered in relation to society as a whole. In other words, production is social primarily because its final product is always society.

As part of the analysis of the interaction of the components of the structure of social production, it is necessary to note the following. Of course, the basis of the social nature of production is the joint labor of individuals, on the basis and within the framework of which consciousness and collective forms of social communication and life activity arise and develop. In addition, as a person moved from the appropriation of finished products to labor, the formation of human consciousness and the very mechanisms of conscious activity took place. Thus, the production of consciousness is included directly in the real process of production by people of the conditions and circumstances of their lives. In addition, the objective basis for the formation and development of the structure of social production is the division of labor. Social production is a combination of various industries and productions that arose as a result of the general and private division of labor. With the social division of labor, the process of separating various types of specific labor into independent spheres of activity takes place, in which producers specialize in the manufacture of products in certain industries and types of production and are interconnected by the exchange of results of labor activity.

The category of social production gives an idea of ​​the integrity of the very basis of social life, noting the unity and interaction of the material and spiritual processes of people's lives. The foundation of this unity is the activity of people in the production and reproduction of the conditions of their existence, and the criterion of the social nature of production is the development of man as a social being.

The concept of social production, as a set of ideas about the practical nature of social life, the objective-active nature of man, as well as the holistic nature of people’s social activities, acquires the meaning of a fundamental principle that considers the entire historical process as a single whole, where all moments and factors are interconnected. .

Social production is the initial and decisive sphere of human life. This is the basis of life and the source of the progressive movement of human society, the development of all human civilization.

Social production is the total organized activity of people to transform substances and forces of nature in order to create material and intangible goods necessary for their existence and development.

Any production, regardless of its social form, has certain characteristics:

Production always acts as social production;

In the process of production, production relations arise between people, socio-economic content, which is determined by the form of ownership of the means of production;

Social production is continuous, that is, it is constantly repeated and restored;

Social production is an important component of a particular socio-economic system.

In political economy, production is considered in a narrow and broad sense. In a narrow sense, it means the direct creation of goods.

In a broad sense, four main phases are considered: d direct production (narrow meaning of the term); d distribution;

g exchange; g consumption.

Production as a continuous process that is constantly repeated is called reproduction. The most important elements of the production process in any society are labor, objects of labor and means of labor.

Labor force is the totality of human physical and intellectual abilities that it uses in the labor process.

Labor is a conscious, purposeful activity of a person, which is aimed at creating certain goods in order to satisfy needs.

It is necessary to distinguish between production and labor.

Labor is the purposeful activity of people aimed at creating the necessary goods with the help of various factors. But nature has a special influence on the production of goods, which is most noticeable in agriculture, for example, plant vegetation. Thus, the overall interaction of human labor and natural factors creates the direct production process.

Social production is divided into material and intangible production (Fig. 1.13, a) and has an appropriate structure (Fig. 1.13, b).

Productivity (productive force) as a result of the activity of a specific employee in terms of product production;

Labor intensity as a characteristic of stress and effort during the implementation of activities;

Labor quality as the level of professional skill of the worker;

The complexity of work as a feature of the skill level based on experience, education, habits;

The severity of work as the level of influence of work on a person’s health;

Labor equipment as the level of its equipment.

Objects of labor are all substances of nature to which human labor is directed and which form the material basis of the future product.

Social production

Figure 1.13 (a) - Social production

Figure 1.13 (b) - Production structure

Means of labor are a thing or a set of things with which a person acts on objects of labor.

The totality of objects and means of labor constitute the means of production, which are one of the elements of the productive forces.

More on topic 1.3.1 The essence and structure of social production:

1. 3.1. Social production: content, goals, structure
2. 2.1. Social production: concept, essence, conditions of organization
3. 4. Concept, factors and structure of social production
4. 1.1. THE ESSENCE OF SOCIAL PRODUCTION AND ITS TWO SIDES
5. 2.3. Scientific and technological revolution, its essence, characteristic features and contradictions. The influence of scientific and technological revolution on the position of man in the system of social production

Human life activity is studied by a variety of sciences, representing separate branches of knowledge, each of which can be a complete master in a limited area, within the boundaries of research precisely delimited by it.

Economic theory studies the economic activities of people.

Economic activity is a purposeful activity, i.e. the efforts of people in the economic process, based on a well-known calculation and aimed at satisfying various types of their needs.

Human life activity in the economic process is manifested, on the one hand, in the waste of energy, resources, etc., and on the other hand, in the corresponding replenishment of living expenses, while the economic subject (i.e., a person in economic activity) strives to act rationally, that is, by comparing costs and benefits (which does not exclude errors in making business decisions). And this behavior is explained as follows.

An essential feature of human life and activity is dependence on the material world. Some material goods (air, water, sunlight) are found in such quantities and in such a form that their use is available to a person everywhere, at all times. Satisfying their needs does not require any effort or sacrifice. These are free and gratuitous goods. As long as such conditions persist, these goods and the needs for them are not the concerns and calculations of man.

Other material goods are available in limited quantities (various kinds of “rarities”). In order to satisfy the needs for them and to have them in accessible quantities, efforts are required to obtain and adapt them to the needs. These goods are called economic goods. They are the ones that interest the practical business manager and theoretician economist. The loss of these benefits constitutes loss, damage, the compensation of which requires new efforts, costs, and donations. The well-being of people depends on them, so the business manager treats them carefully, economically, and prudently.

Human economic activity is a very complex and intricate complex of various phenomena and processes, in which economic theory distinguishes four stages: actual production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Production is the process of creating material and spiritual goods necessary for human existence and development. Distribution is the process of determining the share, quantity, proportion in which each economic person takes part in the produced product. Exchange is the process of movement of material goods and services from one subject to another and a form of social connection between producers and consumers, mediating social metabolism. Consumption is the process of using the results of production to satisfy certain needs. All these stages are interconnected and interacting (Fig. 2.1.1).

But before characterizing the relationship between these four stages, it is important to note that all production is a social and continuous process; Constantly repeating itself, it develops historically - it goes from the simplest forms (prehistoric man obtaining food using primitive means) to modern automated high-performance production. Despite all the dissimilarity of these types of production (both from the point of view of the material basis and from the point of view of the social form), it is possible to identify common points inherent in production as such.

Production in general is the process of human influence on objects and forces of nature in order to adapt them to satisfy certain needs.

Although production in general is an abstraction, it is a reasonable abstraction, since it really highlights the general, fixes it, and therefore saves us from repetition.

Any production is characterized by the interaction of three simple elements: labor, objects of labor and means of labor.

Human labor plays a decisive role in the production process. It is a fundamental condition for the life of society. It is labor that plays an active, creative, constructive role. Labor is the source of wealth. All material goods and services are the result of human labor. Even the ancients understood the special role of labor. For example, Horace’s words are known: “Nothing is given to mortals without great difficulty” (Fig. 2.1.2).

The interaction of labor and means of production is realized through technology and production organization. Technology reflects the technical side of production and is a way of human influence on objects of labor, based on the use of mechanical, physical, chemical properties of the means of production. The organization of production ensures the unity and interaction of all workers involved in production, interconnected by the division of labor, as well as the organization of the use of labor and means of production. Through such forms as specialization, combination, cooperation, concentration of production, etc., the interrelation of production along sectoral and territorial lines develops. Improving a complex and flexible system of organizational relationships is an important condition for economic growth.

The social nature of production, which gives rise to the existence of the concept of “social production,” is explained by the fact that the production process is carried out not by isolated economic entities, but in society in a system of social division of labor and specialization.

The social division of labor means that in any more or less numerous community of people, none of the participants in the economy can live on complete self-sufficiency in all production resources and all economic benefits. Different groups of producers are engaged in certain types of economic activity, which means specialization in the production of certain goods.

It is precisely because of organization, cooperation and division of labor that production has a social character. Since production is always of a social nature, people, regardless of their will and consciousness, enter into certain relationships with each other in it, and not only in terms of the systemic organization of factors of production, but also in terms of the social form of participation in it and the nature of the appropriation of its results.

Today the importance of energy and information is seriously increasing. Until recently, the main motive force and the main source of energy used in production were mechanical and especially electric motors. In 1924, at the International Energy Conference in London, the German physicist O. Wiener calculated that mechanical engines throughout the world, at a time when no more than 2 billion people lived on earth, replaced the labor of approximately 12 billion people. Since then, the power of mechanical engines on the globe has increased significantly, more powerful energy sources began to be used, such as atomic, intranuclear, laser, energy of chemical processes, etc. It is estimated that by the end of the 21st century.

nuclear power plants will provide up to 45% of the world's electricity. Information is of great importance today, which is a condition for the operation of a modern machine system, which includes a control device, and the conditions for improving the quality and qualifications of the workforce, as well as a necessary prerequisite for the successful organization of the production process itself.

The relationship and interconnection of the four stages of human economic activity is expressed as follows.

Production is the starting point of economic activity, consumption is the final point, distribution and exchange are the mediating stages connecting production with consumption. Although production is the primary stage, it serves consumption. Consumption forms the final goal and motive of production, since in consumption the product is destroyed, it dictates a new order for production. A satisfied need gives rise to a new need. The development of needs is the driving force behind the development of production. But the emergence of the needs themselves is determined by production - the emergence of new products causes a corresponding need for this product and its consumption.

The distribution and exchange of the product depend on production, because only what has been produced can be distributed and exchanged. But, in turn, they are not passive in relation to production, but have an active feedback effect on production. In the most general form, according to accepted accounting methods, the structure of social production can be presented as follows (Fig. 2.1.3).

Material production, according to official statistics, includes industries and enterprises where material goods are produced: industry, agriculture and forestry, construction, as well as industries providing material services: transport, communications, utilities and personal subsidiary farming. This solution to the issue is far from indisputable, and in the economic literature positions are expressed that deny the legitimacy of classifying sectors of the national economy representing the sphere of circulation (i.e. trade, public catering, logistics, sales and procurement) as material production on the grounds that that their main function - buying and selling - does not create a new product and does not increase the cost of the product.

The non-production sphere, or the sphere of intangible production, should be distinguished from the sphere of material production. This includes: healthcare, education, science (debatable), culture, art, housing, utilities, consumer services, management, financing and lending, passenger transport, service communications, sports, etc.

Labor expended in the sphere of material production and creating material wealth acts as productive labor.

Unproductive labor is labor that does not participate in the creation of material wealth.

Productive and unproductive labor is socially useful labor, necessary for the development of society, influencing the increase in the efficiency of the total social product of labor.

Not only things and material goods can be socially useful, but also services of a material (repair, transport, storage) and non-material nature (education, healthcare, cultural, everyday life services). Production needs are met by scientific, information, transport and other services. The totality of all services forms the service sector.

Production and personal services are an integral part of the social product, and the labor spent on their production acts as part of productive, socially useful labor.

HTP has led to the rapid development of the service sector, which does not create an independent material product, but performs important social functions. This area includes production and social infrastructure.

For modern reproduction, the sphere of military equipment also plays a significant role. In addition, in some countries (with monospecialization - for example, oil) there is also a zero division - oil production.

The minimum acceptable for social reproduction is the presence of two divisions in reproduction: Iu II. I is the production of means of production, II is the production of consumer goods. This division is due to the fact that means of production and consumer goods perform significantly different functions in the reproduction process. If the former serve to reproduce primarily the material, material elements of the productive forces, then the latter serve to reproduce the personal factor of production.

All of the above processes are carried out under certain conditions, in a certain situation, economic environment.

The doctrine of the environment of the human economy distinguishes between the natural and social environment. This is explained by the fact that in their economic activities people are limited and conditioned by: firstly, nature; secondly, a public organization.

The natural environment determines the natural conditions of management. These include climatic and soil conditions, conditions of heredity, population size, quality of food, housing, clothing, etc. We already know that a person carries out his activities in conditions of natural limited resources. Thus, it is known that the area of ​​the globe is 510.2 million square meters. km, and most of it (3/4) falls on the seas. At the same time, the soil conditions of the earth's crust are different, the volume of minerals is limited, the flora and fauna are diverse (forests, furs, etc.) - all this determines certain economic conditions.

The climatic conditions of human life are also varied. Thus, the hot zone of the earth's surface is 49.3%, moderate - 38.5, cold - 12.2%. The climate determines the duration and effectiveness of agricultural work. Thus, the duration of agricultural work in Europe ranges from 11 to 4 months (in Russia - 4 months, in Germany - 7, Southern England - 11 months). The duration also determines the time of freezing of navigable rivers, which certainly affects the results of economic activities (the Volga freezes for 150 days, the Rhine - for 26 days, and the rivers of the Arkhangelsk region - for 200 days). According to Humboldt's calculations, a field of bananas growing in southern latitudes could feed 133 times more people than an equal-sized field of wheat. The amount of precipitation also affects the yield. Thus, in the Tula region there is a relatively dry climate (no more than 200 mm of rain); in rainy years, the yield increases almost 1.5 times. Regions with average precipitation (from 250 to 1000 mm) are considered the most favorable for economic activity, these include: Central and Western Europe, Eastern China, and the eastern half of the USA.

Heredity plays a very significant role in achieving certain economic results. In ancient Sparta, children of weak constitution were killed, and on the island of Kondii there was a law according to which young people of both sexes who were distinguished by beauty and strength were selected. They were forced to marry in order to improve the "breed" of people. Science today certainly recognizes the law of heredity. Children inherit not only external resemblance, but also mental qualities, not only health, but also diseases (diabetes, arthritis, cancer, sclerosis, epilepsy, hysteria, etc.). Poverty associated with poor nutrition and poor hygienic conditions affect not only the increase in mortality and illness of the present, but also of the future generation. It is very important to remember that all reforms to improve the situation of the population have their beneficial effect not immediately, but gradually.

From the perspective of modern science about human life in the natural environment, it is necessary to take into account the connection between man and space. The idea of ​​human life and activity as a cosmic phenomenon has existed for a long time. At the end of the 17th century. Dutch scientist H. Huygens noted in his work “Cosmoteoros” that life is a cosmic phenomenon. This idea was fully developed in the works of the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky on the noosphere. The noosphere is a new phenomenon on Earth. In it, man for the first time becomes the largest geological force, because with his work and thought he can radically rebuild his life, change the conditions of life in comparison with the past. The power of man on Earth, according to this teaching, is connected not with his matter, but with his brain, with his mind and the direction of this mind - his work.

It is possible to separate man from nature only mentally. Not a single living organism is found in a free state on Earth. All of them are inextricably and continuously connected, first of all, by nutrition and breathing with the surrounding material and energy environment. Outside of it, in natural conditions, they cannot exist, much less engage in economic activity. Materially, the Earth and other planets are not solitary, but are in communication. Cosmic matter falls on the Earth and affects the life of people, and earthly matter (the results of this life activity) goes into outer space, the so-called “breath of the Earth.” The state of the biosphere depends entirely on life activity on Earth. Strengthening consciousness, thoughts in the economic activities of people, the creation of forms that increasingly enhance the influence of life on the environment, lead to a new state of the biosphere - the noosphere (the kingdom of the human mind).

Biological unity and equality of all people is a law of nature. Hence, the implementation of the ideal of equality, and of economic life - the principle of social injustice, is natural and inevitable. It is impossible to go against the conclusions of science with impunity. This is precisely what makes reforms in economic activity inevitable.

In the 21st century humanity, through its life activity, becomes a single whole, because today there is not a single corner of the Earth where a person could not live and work, communications and communication have increased using radio, television, computers, information, etc. All this thanks to technology created by the mind person. In these conditions, universal human values ​​come to the fore, and in the development of the world economy, the main problems are global, universal ones.

The importance and significance of the natural environment of economic activity is unconditional, but their influence should not be exaggerated, because man is so cleverly created that his body adapts to certain conditions, people’s knowledge about the properties of materials and the ability to use them develop based on the development of science and technology, growth level of social culture, which can facilitate or complicate their struggle with nature.

Economic activities of people are carried out within the framework of certain rules of the game, the main of which are property relations. It is these relationships that determine the social environment of economic activity, which is reflected in the effectiveness of economic activity. Adam Smith wrote that "a man who is unable to acquire any property can have no interest but to eat more and work less." The motivation to work here is either extremely weak or completely absent. This theoretical position is confirmed by the economic practice of “post-communist” countries, where until recently “nobody’s” public property prevailed. Private property creates conditions for free competition and encourages proactive, creative and more productive work.

A significant influence on the conditions of economic activity is exerted by various kinds of state organizations that establish laws, business rules that regulate working conditions, as well as societies, partnerships, parties and trade unions that demand improved working conditions. Replacing an absolutely bureaucratic management system with free institutions, as it were, “cleanses” the social atmosphere, freeing business executives from the oppressive sense of coherence and subordination, awakening in them personal initiative, business scope, and among hired workers it raises self-esteem, accustoms them to consistent and persistent, although more calm and correct, defending their interests.

Property relations give rise to differentiation of producers, poor and rich appear. Upbringing, education and average life expectancy in these social groups are different. Upbringing and education, promoting physical and mental development, improve the human body, make it more capable of work and affect heredity. Therefore, by studying at universities, you, dear students, benefit not only yourself, but also your children, grandchildren, and descendants! The French physiologist Florence argued that under favorable conditions a person at the end of the 19th century. could live 100 years, but the average life expectancy then was 40 years (for comparison: today in France - 76 years, in Russia - 69.5 years). The French doctor Dipson showed that the average life expectancy of the rich at the end of the 19th century. was 57 years old, and the poor - 37 years old.

Property relations largely determine working conditions. Even the ancients understood that a person cannot work without rest. The commandment of Moses states that the seventh day of the week is to be dedicated to rest: “On that day you shall not do any work, you, your son, your daughter, your male servant, your maidservant, your ox, your donkey, or anyone.” your livestock, nor the stranger who is within your gates." In addition to the Sabbath day, the Jews also had a Sabbath year (every seventh and 50-year anniversary). At this time, it was commanded to forgive debts under pain of great punishment.

During the emergence of capitalism, the working day was 15, 16, 17 or more hours a day. Today our farmers work just as hard.

The desire for an "unreasonable" increase in working hours is caused by the erroneous belief that profit depends on the length of the working day. There is no doubt that a person can and should work without damage to his body only for a certain, certain number of hours a day. It is assumed that during the day a person should work 8 hours, sleep 8 hours, and rest 8 hours. If these limits are exceeded, then the person will shorten the period of life during which he will be able to work, and will become a victim of premature death. Excessive physical stress causes expansion of the lung tissue, large veins are pressed down, less blood flows to the heart, blood pressure increases, palpitations, liver and spleen disorders. A prolonged sitting position with the torso bent forward leads to circulatory disorders in the chest, abdominal cavity, difficulty breathing, improper digestion, hemorrhoids, cramps, stomach pain, etc., constant standing during work is no less harmful.

Thus, the behavior of “economic man” is determined not only by natural, but also by social conditions, and, consequently, not only by social laws, but also by the laws of biology, the cosmos and the entire system of laws of natural science. The difference between economic laws is that the former manifest themselves through the activities of people, which are determined by consciousness, usually appear on average as trends and are (most of them) historically transitory in nature.

Production is the activity of creating material and intangible goods (Fig. 2.1.). Ultimately, it comes down to the “metabolism” between nature and society in order to satisfy human needs.

Rice. 2.1 – Production structure

There are two sides of production – productive forces and productive (economic) relations. In interconnection they form mode of production , characteristic of this stage of development of society (Fig. 2.2.)

Rice. 2.2. - Scheme of the production method.

Productive forces reveal the content of the method of production. They characterize the degree of human impact on nature in the production of goods. They reflect relationship between societies by nature. As for production relations, they constitute the social form of production; they constitute the social form of production, characterizing relationships between people in the process of production activities.

The progressive development of production is based on shifts in productive forces. In an effort to produce more and better, people improve the means and tools of labor, and through them the objects of labor. This leads to changes in the production appearance of workers.

Production relations depend on the productive forces. If they correspond to the latter, then they open up scope for their development and, therefore, scope for the development of production. If they become outdated, they turn into a hindrance to economic activity.

Production is social in nature. People work and organize production activities together. Workers, one way or another, are connected to each other, mutually dependent, and act on the basis of a broad division of labor.

They are employed in a system of social production, where the labor of each individual worker acts as a component of the total labor, and all workers together act as an AGGREGATE WORKER, in which each individual person is a partial worker.

The aggregate worker operates on the basis of a broad division of labor , that is, based on the interrelationships of separate types of work activity. There is a natural division of labor (by gender and age of people) and a social division of labor caused by the development of production. Initially, humanity went through three major historical stages of social division and labor: the separation of agriculture from cattle breeding, the separation of crafts from agriculture, the separation of trade from crafts.

In modern conditions, the division of labor has acquired a branched and complex character. From the standpoint of scale, three levels are distinguished: general division of labor when they imply the interaction of large spheres and branches of activity; production and non-production spheres, industry, agriculture, construction, transport and various types of labor (physical, mental, skilled and unskilled, manual and machine); private - distribution of activities within large areas; between narrower industries and sub-sectors (mining and manufacturing industries; crop farming and livestock farming); single - division of labor within enterprises, workshops, areas. There are also territorial, international, professional and other types of division of labor.

The social division of labor continues in concentration, centralization, specialization, cooperation and combination of production. Concentration means increasing the size of production. Centralization - the union of several enterprises into one company; cooperation - development of production relations between enterprises; combination-connection in one enterprise of dissimilar industries. Specialization means the transition of production from the production of many products to the production of one or several products or parts similar to each other.

In the course of the social division of labor, two general trends are combined - differentiation and integration production. On the one hand, there is a desire to form new industries and specialized enterprises, and, on the other hand, to organically combine various industries in order to achieve a higher socio-economic effect.

With the development of productive forces, the social nature of production increases, which means the growth of production relations at various economic levels. The size is growing, the means of communication are multiplying, and the possibilities for industrial cooperation are increasing. This process is called the socialization of production. It occurs continuously and is historically irreversible.

Production needs infrastructure. It includes the service sector, those industries and organizations that create general conditions for production activities. The production infrastructure includes roads, communications, water pipelines, energy and hydraulic structures, ports, airfields, gas pipelines, storage facilities, telecommunications, research and development institutions.

In addition to the production infrastructure, there is an institutional (training) and social infrastructure that provides social services for production (schools, hospitals, clubs, shops).

The concept of infrastructure can be applied to many economic processes and phenomena. The market has a unique infrastructure, which will be discussed later.

Russia suffers from an underdeveloped modern infrastructure system. For example, the lack of own port facilities for transporting oil abroad forces us to use the ports of neighboring countries, which increases costs.

2.1. The social nature of production

Production is a natural condition of human life, forming its material basis. Production is the activity of creating material and intangible goods (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Production structure

Ultimately, production comes down to the “metabolism” between nature and society in order to satisfy human needs. Social production includes two sides: 1) the process of human interaction with nature and 2) the set of relationships that arise between people in the process of this interaction. There are two sides of production – productive forces and production (economic) relations. In interaction, they form a mode of production characteristic of a given stage of development of society (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Production method diagram

Productive forces reveal the content of the method of production. They characterize the degree of human impact on nature in the production of goods. They reflect the relationship between society and nature. The structure of productive forces includes workers, means of production, means of labor and objects of labor.

What a person uses to influence the object of labor is the means of labor. Means of labor are objects or instruments of labor used by people to produce the goods of life. Whether a given thing will be a means of labor or a tool depends on how a person will use it. Means of labor are divided into active and passive. Active are machines, machine tools, automated lines, equipment, i.e. all mechanical devices that are directly involved in the production process. They are also called instruments of production. Passive buildings include buildings, structures - all those means of labor that contribute to the production process, but do not directly participate in it. The universal means of labor is land. The means of labor transfer their value to the created product in parts, as they wear out. With the help of means of labor, people influence objects of labor.

In a broad sense, means of labor include all material working conditions. This includes land, industrial buildings, structures, roads, communications, etc.

Objects of labor are everything that human labor is directed towards and that is processed. Objects of labor are either given by nature, for example coal, oil, or are products of labor - wood, flax, cotton. Therefore, objects of labor are divided into two types: directly extracted from nature and raw materials or raw materials. Objects of labor participate in the production process once, so they immediately transfer their value to the created product. For example, as a result of refining 1 ton of oil, 700 kg of fuel oil is obtained. The cost of used oil is included, along with other costs, in the cost of fuel oil. With the development of society, the range of objects of labor increases, its structure changes, and it becomes more diverse.

The totality of means of labor and objects of labor used in the process of producing vital goods forms the means of production. They are part of the country's national wealth. The means of production have a valuation. By combining with labor power in the labor process, the means of production create the vital benefits people need.

Labor power represents a person’s ability to work, being the totality of his physical and spiritual forces used in the production process. In other words, the labor force characterizes the capabilities of the economically active, able-bodied population. With the development of tools of production, a person’s ability to work also develops, his skills improve, experience accumulates, and skill grows.

The means of production and human labor are inextricably linked. They cannot exist without each other. In this unity appears the total labor, consisting of past labor and living labor. Past labor is embodied in tools. They are created by people and used for many years. Living labor is represented by the direct labor process. Therefore, every labor combines past and present labor.

A person adapts objects of labor to satisfy his needs. With their help, he creates food, clothing, housing and other material goods, called personal consumption items. In addition, consumer goods are also created. These include tools, auxiliary materials, raw materials and other means of production.

This differentiation allows us to draw two significant conclusions:

firstly, all labor is productive;

secondly, the labor process is a production process.

As for production (economic) relations, they constitute a social form of production. As already noted, these are the relationships between people in the process of production, as well as distribution, exchange and consumption of goods.

Production relations are based on forms of ownership of the means of production, on the division of people into social groups and forms of distribution of products. Under the conditions of the dominance of private ownership of the means of production, the lower social strata are forced to work for those who own machines, mechanisms, industrial buildings and structures.

In conditions of public ownership of the means of production, when society fully owns them, cases of equalization are not uncommon. But here everyone works for themselves, for their society. History knows both forms of ownership. It is believed that the best possible option is a skillful combination of them.

Distribution relations are determined by production relations. Distribution links production and consumption. There is personal and industrial consumption. Personal consumption is the satisfaction of human needs for food, clothing, shelter, etc. Industrial consumption includes the use of means of production to create material goods.

The distribution of labor products depends on the ownership of the means of production. If the means of production are privately owned, then the distribution of labor products satisfies only the needs of these owners and partly the hired personnel. If the means of production are concentrated in the hands of society, then the products of labor are distributed in the interests of the whole society.

Exchange relations are also determined by the nature of production. Depending on the relations of production, exchange can be planned or spontaneous. In addition, it can be associated with direct distribution, and also take the form of commodity transactions.

Consumption relations are one of the most important forms of economic relations. Consumption does not exist outside of production and vice versa. Even if we imagine the opposite, then both the process of production itself loses all meaning, because without consumption there is no production, and the process of consumption, since without production there is nothing to consume.

Thus, production, distribution, exchange and consumption are a single process of reproduction. The basis for unity here are the relations of ownership of the means of production. Consequently, the relations of production themselves are determined by the individuals who possess this property. Subsequently, these relations extend to the entire system of relations in the spheres of production, distribution, exchange and consumption, determining their nature. Moreover, production relations shape the social structure of the entire society, dividing or uniting it.

The nature and level of development of productive forces determine the economic relationships of people. The social form of development of productive forces is production relations. Thus, production relations always exist in conjunction with productive forces.

Factors of production play a major role in the production process. Factors of production refer to the conditions of production activity. In a narrower interpretation, factors of production are represented by primary resources that become elements of the production process. They enter the economic system from the outside. Economic science knows two approaches to the classification of production factors (Fig. 10).

Marxist political economy distinguishes labor, the object of labor and the means of labor as factors of production. Labor is a personal factor of production. The object of labor and the means of labor, embodied in the means of production, form material factors. Personal and material factors combine to form a complex system of relationships. In it, the leading role is played by property relations, which form the social principle of production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

Rice. 10. Various approaches to identifying factors of production and their classification

Marginalist classification 1 includes land, labor, capital, entrepreneurial ability and computer science as factors of production.

The earth acts as a natural factor. The “land” factor refers to all natural resources: natural resources, forests, agricultural land, all natural resources that can be used in the production process. It is believed that the quantity of this factor is conditionally fixed, and the demand for it is derived, i.e. depends on the demand for the products produced with its help. This factor, unlike others, is not the result of human activity.

Labor is the most important factor of production. It can be qualified as a process of conscious, purposeful human activity, with the help of which he modifies objects of nature and adapts them to meet his needs. According to Jevons, labor is any mental or physical effort undertaken in part or in whole with the aim of achieving some result, other than the satisfaction derived directly from the work itself. The labor process includes three aspects: the labor itself, the object of labor and the means of labor with the help of which a person influences the object of labor. Labor personifies labor power and its carriers – workers. In the modern world, the qualifications of the workforce are of great importance. The higher the qualifications of the labor force, the greater the potential of its bearer, the higher the level of vital benefits created by such labor. Labor can be classified as follows (Fig. 11).

Rice. 11. Types of labor

Abstract labor represents the expenditure of physiological energy of commodity producers, which does not take into account the specific conditions of commodity production. According to the labor theory of value, abstract labor creates the value of a commodity.

Specific labor is associated with the expenditure of energy in a certain useful form, which creates use value. Concrete labor forms a dialectical unity with abstract labor. In market conditions, concrete labor is private labor, and its social character is expressed through abstract labor. Here, however, there is a contradiction, which is expressed in the social nature of production and the private capitalist form of appropriation.

Living labor is the expenditure of human mental and physical energy aimed at creating material and spiritual benefits. It is divided into necessary and surplus.

Past labor is materialized labor embodied in the means of production and consumer goods.

Labor producing goods is simple if it does not require special training. This includes the labor of unskilled workers. Complex work is any work for which the worker must be specially trained. Complex work is skilled work. It can be expressed by multiplying simple labor.

Capital as a factor of production implies tangible and intangible assets created by people: buildings, structures, equipment, machines, mechanisms, tools, vehicles, computer programs, patents, property rights, etc., as well as funds used in the production process. This is one of the most difficult economic categories.

Entrepreneurial ability is a set of human qualities and skills that allows him to rationalize the combination of resources for the production process. This is a special type of human capital, represented by activities that combine all factors of production. It is associated with the ability to make intelligent, consistent decisions, create and apply innovations under conditions of risk and uncertainty. Entrepreneurial ability is realized in the ability to organize a business.

Land, labor, capital, entrepreneurial ability are the traditional factors of production. New factors of production include information. Through information, the efficiency of using intangible levers in production is increased. Information systematizes knowledge, facilitates making the most profitable decisions for production purposes, and optimizes marketing strategies.

Each economic system is endowed with factors of production differently. Differences in the relative abundance of factors of production are determined by an indicator called factor saturation . It determines the resource potential of society. It is also possible to determine the relative intensity of the use of various factors in the production process. This indicator is called factor intensity. The result will show the level of technological development of society.

The factor saturation indicator determines the country's provision with production factors.

The progressive development of production is based on shifts in productive forces. In an effort to produce more and better, people improve the means and tools of labor, and through them the objects of labor. This leads to changes in the production appearance of workers.

The new state of the productive forces affects production relations. They also undergo transformations and adapt to new conditions.

Production relations depend on the productive forces. If they correspond to the latter, then they open up scope for their development and, therefore, scope for the development of production. If they become outdated, they turn into a hindrance to economic activity.

Production is social in nature. People work and organize production activities together. Workers are one way or another connected in their work with each other, mutually dependent, and act on the basis of a broad division of labor.

There is a natural division of labor (by gender and age of people) and a social division of labor caused by the development of production.

The social division of labor is in constant development. Due to this, production capabilities increase.

From the standpoint of scale, three levels are distinguished: general, specific and individual.

General division of labor - implies the interaction of large spheres and branches of activity: production and non-production spheres, industry, agriculture, construction, transport and various types of labor (physical, mental, skilled and unskilled, manual and machine).

Private – distribution of activities within large spheres, between narrower industries and sub-sectors (mining and manufacturing industries, crop production and livestock production).

Single – division of labor within enterprises, workshops, areas.

There are also territorial, international, professional and other types of division of labor.

Production needs infrastructure. Infrastructure, as a rule, is understood as a complex of production and non-production industries that provide conditions for reproduction. Infrastructure includes the service sector, those industries and organizations that create general conditions for production activities, as well as production infrastructure, which includes roads, communications, water pipelines, energy and hydraulic structures, ports, airfields, gas pipelines, storage facilities, telecommunications, scientific research and design and engineering institutions.

In addition to the production infrastructure, there is an institutional (training) and social infrastructure that provides social services for production (schools, hospitals, clubs, shops). There is also a distinction between information infrastructure and service infrastructure. Information infrastructure is a set of channels and repositories of information technologies, the legal, financial and economic basis for the activities of the information community, as well as other methods and means that support information activities. The infrastructure of the service sector is expressed in a complex of activities that support the production and sale of services, including trade, transport, marketing and information components.

The concept of infrastructure can be applied to many economic processes and phenomena. The market has a unique infrastructure, which will be discussed below.