Determining the sides of the horizon in various ways on the ground. Methods for determining the sides of the horizon

Terrain orientation means the process of determining a location based on the sides of the horizon and terrain objects (landmarks). Orientation on the ground can be done using the following things:

map
compass
celestial bodies
local facilities

Using the map, you can easily determine your location, as well as choose your future route, taking into account obstacles such as off-road conditions or limited visibility. A compass and celestial bodies will help you accurately determine the direction of the horizon.

Features of terrain orientation

Using the map as a guide, you should go to the nearest objects: a road, a river bank, a clearing, and find them on the map. Make sure that the objects shown on the map coincide with their real location.

You cannot use the compass near military equipment, iron objects and power lines - the magnetic needle will go astray from its course and point you in the wrong direction.

In order not to get lost, it is best to mark with sweeps those objects that were depicted on the map and met on your way.

Determining the sides of the horizon

You can determine the sides of the horizon using a compass. To do this, the prior must be placed on a flat horizontal surface - only in this position is the magnetic needle brake released. After the needle stops oscillating, the luminous end will point you in the north direction.

The sides of the horizon can also be determined by the clock and the Sun. To do this, you need to face the Sun and place the watch so that its hand is directed towards the Sun.

The angle formed between the large arrow and the number 1 will indicate the south direction. It should be noted that this method is valid only in the CIS. At night, you can find out the sides of the horizon in the same way by pointing the clock hand at the Moon.

Determining the sides of the horizon by objects

Knowing some signs of wildlife, you can easily determine the direction of the horizon in unfamiliar terrain. On the north side of the tree the bark is much thicker than on the south side. On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side of the trunk.

You can determine the southern direction if you look at an ordinary anthill: the southern slope is gentle, the northern slope is steeper. In trees that grow alone, the southern crown is more luxuriant than the crown on the northern side.

Mosses grow on the northern part of the trunk, while on the southern part there are much fewer of them or none at all. The main entrance to the chapels and temples is located from the north.

Using a compass, you can determine the direction to the horizon at any time of the day and in any weather.

First, I note that Adrianov’s compass is widely used when navigating the terrain. Then I tell you about its structure using a compass.

Rules of circulation . To make sure the compass is working properly, you need to check the sensitivity of its needle. To do this, the compass is placed motionless in a horizontal position, a metal object is brought to it, and then removed. If after each shift the arrow remains at the same reading, the compass is in good working order and suitable for use.

To determine the sides of the horizon using the compass, release the needle brake and set the compass horizontally. Then turn it so that the northern end of the magnetic needle coincides with the zero division of the scale. With this position of the compass, the signatures on the scale N, S, E, 3 will respectively face north, south, east, and west.

Determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies

According to the position of the Sun. The tables show the time of day at which in the northern hemisphere of the Earth the Sun is in the east, south, west at different periods of the year.

According to the Sun and the clock. If you have a mechanical watch, the sides of the horizon in cloudless weather can be determined by the Sun at any time of the day.

To do this, you need to set the clock horizontally and turn it so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun (see figure); Divide the angle between the hour hand and the direction from the center of the dial to the number “1” in half. The line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south. Knowing the directions to the south, it is easy to determine other directions.

According to the North Star. At night, with a cloudless sky, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the North Star, which is always in the north. If you stand facing the North Star, then north will be ahead; from here you can find other sides of the horizon. The position of the North Star can be found in the constellation Ursa Major, which has the shape of a ladle and consists of seven bright stars. If you mentally draw a straight line through the two outermost stars of the Big Dipper, put five segments on it equal to the distance between these stars, then at the end of the fifth segment there will be the North Star.

By the Moon. If, due to cloudiness, the North Star is not visible, but at the same time the Moon is visible, it can be used to determine the sides of the horizon. So, knowing the location of the Moon in various phases and time, you can approximately indicate the directions to the sides of the horizon.

Based on local items.

When working on this educational question, I hand out task cards to students with drawings of local objects. Students identify signs of local objects, with the help of which they can determine directions to the sides of the horizon. I convince them that this method is less reliable than those outlined above. However, in a certain situation it can be useful, and sometimes the only possible one.

From long-term observations it has been established that:

· the bark of trees on the north side is usually rougher and darker than on the south;

· moss and lichen cover tree trunks, stones, rocks on the north side;

· anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps, bushes; their southern side is flatter than the northern;

· on coniferous trees, resin accumulates on the south side;

· berries and fruits during the ripening period acquire a mature color on the south side;

· tree branches are usually more developed, denser and longer on the south side;

· near isolated trees, pillars, large stones, grass grows thicker on the south side;

· clearings in large forests, as a rule, are cut strictly along the line

· North South West East;

· at the ends of the pillars there are numbers of forest blocks from west to east;

· altars and chapels of Orthodox churches face east, bell towers face west;

· the lower crossbar of the cross on the church is raised to the north;

· on south-facing slopes, snow melts faster in spring than on north-facing slopes; The concave side of the moon, on the minaret of Muslim mosques, faces south.

· 3. WAYS TO DETERMINE DIRECTIONS FOR A SUBJECT.

· When orienting on the ground, the horizontal angle is determined approximately by eye or using improvised means.

Most often, when orienting on the ground, magnetic azimuth is used, since the direction of the magnetic meridian and the magnitude of the magnetic azimuth can be easily and quickly determined using a compass. If you need to set the angle, you first need to find the initial direction. This will be the magnetic meridian.

The purpose of the lesson:

Teach students to navigate the terrain without a map, determining the sides of the horizon in the most common ways, determine their location relative to the sides of the horizon, determine the distance on the ground in various ways, determine directions to an object and correctly reach the intended point.

Methodology of conducting the lesson:

In the first lesson, the educational material is presented to students in the form of a theoretical presentation. For the second lesson, choose an area on the ground where there were as many local objects as possible. Prepare a route diagram in azimuths in advance.

Material support:

compasses, mechanical watches, posters, filmstrip “Tourism”, handouts, textbooks on NVP.

During the classes.

I. INTRODUCTORY PART.

a) formation, report from the duty officer, greeting;

b) examination of the students’ appearance;

c) performing individual drill exercises.

II. MAIN PART.

1. THE ESSENCE OF TERRAIN ORIENTATION .

The essence of orientation consists of 4 main points:

determining the sides of the horizon;

determine your location relative to surrounding local objects;

finding the desired direction of movement;

maintain the chosen direction along the way.

You can navigate the area with or without a topographic map. The presence of a topo map makes it easier to navigate and allows you to understand the situation over a relatively large area of terrain. In the absence of a map, they navigate using a compass, celestial bodies and other simple methods.

Topographic orientation is carried out in the following sequence:

directions to the sides of the horizon are determined and in these directions
There are clearly visible local objects (landmarks). Local objects, forms
and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, names
are provided as landmarks.

are determined relative to the sides of the horizon, directions to several local
objects, the names of these objects are indicated and the distances to
them.

The selected landmarks are numbered from right to left. For ease of remembering, each landmark is given a conventional name in addition to the number (landmark 1 - oil rig, landmark 2 - green grove).

To indicate your location (standing point) relative to known landmarks, you need to name them and tell them in which direction from them the standing point is located. For example: “I am at an altitude of 450 m south of the oil derrick. To the left 500 m is a “green grove”, to the right 300 m is a ravine.”

2. THE SIMPLE WAYS OF DETERMINING THE SIDES OF THE HORIZONT.

The sides of the horizon during orientation are usually determined by:

by magnetic compass;

according to the heavenly bodies;

based on the characteristics of some local objects.

The figure shows the relative position of the sides of the horizon and the intermediate directions contained between them. Looking at the figure, it is easy to understand that to determine the directions on all sides of the horizon, it is enough to know only one thing. Intermediate directions are used to clarify orientation if the direction to an object does not strictly coincide with the direction to one of the sides of the horizon.

Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass,

Using a compass, you can determine the direction to the horizon at any time of the day and in any weather.

First, I note that Adrianov’s compass is widely used when navigating the terrain. Then I tell you about its structure using a compass.

Rules of circulation . To make sure the compass is working properly, you need to check the sensitivity of its needle. To do this, the compass is placed motionless in a horizontal position, a metal object is brought to it, and then removed. If after each shift the arrow remains at the same reading, the compass is in good working order and suitable for use.

To determine the sides of the horizon using a compass You need to release the needle brake and set the compass horizontally. Then turn it so that the northern end of the magnetic needle coincides with the zero division of the scale. With this position of the compass, the signatures on the scale N, S, E, 3 will respectively face north, south, east, and west.

Determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies

According to the position of the Sun . The tables show the time of day at which in the northern hemisphere of the Earth the Sun is in the east, south, west at different periods of the year.

April, August,
September October

may June July

January January

in the east

at 7.00

at 9.00

not visible not visible

on South

at 13.00

at 14.00

at 13.00 at 13.00

in the West

At 19.00

at 19.00

not visible not visible

According to the Sun and the clock . If you have a mechanical watch, the sides of the horizon in cloudless weather can be determined by the Sun at any time of the day.

By the North Star . At night, with a cloudless sky, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the North Star, which is always in the north. If you stand facing the North Star, then north will be ahead; from here you can find other sides of the horizon. The position of the North Star can be found in the constellation Ursa Major, which has the shape of a ladle and consists of seven bright stars. If you mentally draw a straight line through the two outermost stars of the Big Dipper, put five segments on it equal to the distance between these stars, then at the end of the fifth segment there will be the North Star.

By the Moon . If, due to cloudiness, the North Star is not visible, but at the same time the Moon is visible, it can be used to determine the sides of the horizon. So, knowing the location of the Moon in various phases and time, you can approximately indicate the directions to the sides of the horizon.

Based on local items.

From long-term observations it has been established that:

the bark of trees on the north side is usually rougher and darker than on the south;

moss and lichen cover tree trunks, stones, rocks on the north side;

anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps, bushes; their southern side is flatter than the northern;

on coniferous trees, resin accumulates on the south side;

During the ripening period, berries and fruits acquire a mature color on the south side;

tree branches, as a rule, are more developed, denser and longer on the south side;

near isolated trees, pillars, and large stones, the grass grows thicker on the south side;

clearings in large forest areas, as a rule, are cut strictly along the line

North South West East;

at the ends of the pillars there are numbers of forest blocks from west to east;

altars and chapels of Orthodox churches face east, bell towers face west;

the lower crossbar of the cross on the church is raised to the north;

on south-facing slopes, snow melts faster in spring than on north-facing slopes; The concave side of the moon, on the minaret of Muslim mosques, faces south.

3. WAYS TO DETERMINE DIRECTIONS FOR A SUBJECT.

When orienting on the ground, the magnitude of the horizontal angle is determined approximately by eye or using improvised means.

Magnetic meridian is the direction (imaginary line) indicated by the magnetic needle and passing through the standing point.

Magnetic azimuth is called a horizontal angle, measured from the north direction of the magnetic meridian clockwise to the direction towards the object (see figure). Magnetic azimuth (Am) has a value of O 0 up to 360 0 .

How to determine magnetic azimuths for an object?

In order to determine the magnetic azimuth of an object using a compass, you need to stand facing this object and orient the compass. Holding the compass in an oriented position, install the sighting device so that the sighting line of the notch coincides with the direction of the local object.

In this position, the reading on the dial opposite the pointer at the front sight will show the value of the magnetic (direct) azimuth (direction) to the object.

Tasks to determine the magnetic azimuth of an object.

To find the return path, a reverse azimuth is used, which differs from the direct one by 180 0 . To determine the reverse azimuth, you need to add 180 to the forward azimuth. 0 "(if it is less than 180 0 ) or subtract 180 0 (if it is more than 180 0 ).

Exercise 1.

Determine back azimuths. Direct azimuth 260 0 ; Direct azimuth 38 0

How to determine directions on the ground at a given azimuth? To do this you need:

Set the compass pointer to a scale reading equal to the specified azimuth;

Holding the compass horizontally with the slot of the sighting device towards you, turn it so that the northern end of the magnetic needle is opposite the zero division of the scale;

Holding the compass in an oriented position, notice a distant object (landmark) on the ground along the sighting line. This direction as a reference point will be
the desired direction corresponding to the given azimuth.

Exercise 2.

Determine directions based on a given azimuth. Am= 270 0 ; Am=93 0 ; Am=330 0 .

4. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE ON THE TERRAIN.

When performing various tasks in reconnaissance, when observing the battlefield, during target designation and terrain orientation, etc. there is a need to quickly determine distances to landmarks, local objects, targets and objects.

There are various methods and devices for determining distance.

Here are easier ways to measure.

Eye meter . The main methods of visual determination are by segments of terrain, by the degree of visibility of an object.

By terrain segments consists in the ability to mentally imagine a familiar distance on the ground, for example, 50,100,200 m. It must be taken into account that as the distance increases, the apparent size of the segment constantly decreases.

By degree of visibility . A table is recommended to determine distances by degree of visibility and apparent size of objects.

Name of objects (objects) and their parts (details)

Distance from which

objects become visible, m

Detached houses

5000

Pipes on the roofs, individual trees

3000

Windows in houses, tree trunks

1000

Movement of the legs and arms of a walking person

700

Frame bindings in windows

500

Determination of distance by angular dimensions.

If the size (height, width or length) is known, it can be determined using the thousandth formula,

Where the distance to an object is equal to the height (width, length) of the object in meters multiplied by 1000 and divided by the angle at which the object is visible in thousandths.

The angular magnitudes of targets are measured in thousandths using field binoculars, as well as available means. (see picture)

The thousandth formula is widely used in terrain orientation and firefighting. With their help, many problems are quickly and easily solved, for example:

1 . A person whose average height is 1.7 m is visible at an angle of 0-07. Determine the distance to the person. Solution D=B*1000/U = 1.7*1000/7 = 243m

2 . Enemy tank, height 2.4m, visible at an angle of 0-02.

Determine the range to the tank.

Solution. D=B*1000/U = 2.4*1000/2 = 1200m.

Measuring distances in steps. When measuring distances, steps are counted in pairs. After every hundred pairs of steps, the count starts again. In order not to lose count, it is recommended to mark every hundred pairs of steps completed on paper or in some other way. To convert the distance measured in steps into meters, you need to know the length of the step. If it is enough to determine the distance traveled approximately, then it is assumed that the distance in meters is equal to the number of pairs of steps increased by one and a half times, since a pair of steps is on average 1.5 m.

For example, a person walked 450 pairs of steps. The distance traveled is approximately 450 * 1.5 = 675 m.

To automatically count the number of steps taken, a special pedometer device can be used.

5. MOVEMENT IN AZIMUTH.

The essence of movement along azimuths is the ability to find and maintain the desired or given direction of movement using a compass and accurately reach the intended point, i.e. you need to know the data for movement - magnetic azimuths from one landmark to another and the distance between them. This data is prepared and presented in the form of a route diagram or table.

Scheme for movement along azimuths

Table for movement by azimuths

Landmark number and name

Magnetic azimuth

Azimuth distance

Pairs of steps

1-separate conifer

900

600

2-bend of the road

600

400

3-bush

155

1050

700

4-mound

450

300

5-water tower

1350

900

When moving along azimuths, intermediate (auxiliary) landmarks are used. In open areas without landmarks, the direction of movement is maintained along the target. For control, the direction of movement is periodically checked using the reverse azimuth and celestial bodies.

To avoid obstacles, they notice a landmark in the direction of movement on the opposite side of the obstacle, determine the distance to it and add this value to the length of the path traveled, bypass the obstacle and continue moving, determining the direction of the interrupted path using a compass.

III. FINAL PART

Summing up the lessons.

Grading.

Homework.

Seminar of teachers of the organizers of the NVP

Topography lesson plan

Topic: Determining the sides of the horizon by compass, sun, clock. Determination of magnetic azimuth to an object.

Teacher-organizer of the NVP: Kasymov E.S.

North, south, east and west are the main sides of the horizon. Between them are the intermediate sides of the horizon. The ability to determine one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent objects is called orientation.

Ways to navigate the terrain

You can navigate the terrain in different ways: by the sun, by the stars, with the help of a compass, by some features of surrounding local objects, that is, by local signs. When using all these methods, the direction to the north is determined. The North Star is always above the northern side of the horizon, the midday shadow of objects is directed north, the lichens covering the trees grow thicker on the darkened northern side. If you face north, then behind you will be south, to the right is east, and to the left is west.

Azimuth

In order to determine the exact direction of an object, it is not enough to know which side of the horizon it is located on. In such cases, the azimuth to the object is determined using a compass.

When determining azimuth, first set the compass so that the dark end of its arrow points to the north. Then a thin stick is placed on the compass in the direction from the center of the compass to the object. The azimuth is counted from the dark end of the arrow to the stick clockwise.

Determining directions according to the plan

When depicting directions on a plan, we conventionally consider the top edge of a sheet of paper to be northern, the bottom edge to be southern, the right to be eastern, and the left to be western. On the left side of the sheet, an arrow is drawn with the point up, the letter C (north) is written above it, and the letter Y (south) is written below it.

If you put a point on the plan and draw a line upward from it, you will get an image of the direction to the north; a line drawn down will show the direction to the south; to the right - to the east, to the left - to the west. Intermediate directions can also be shown between these lines. Knowing how directions are determined, you can determine the directions of objects and indications. On the plan. For example, in what direction from the village of Elagino is a wooden bridge across a ravine?

To complete this task you need to find the center of the village. The bridge is located below and to the right of the center, that is, southeast of the village of Elagino.

How to determine the direction of curved lines, such as a river, road, land boundaries? To do this, they need to be divided into straight segments and the directions of these segments determined.

Sides of the horizon. Orienteering Wikipedia
Site search:

Job: Orienteering 2

Abstract on the topic:

"TERRAIN ORIENTATION"

I've done the work

10th grade student

Samirkhanov Ranis

THE ESSENCE OF TERRAIN ORIENTATION

SIMPLE WAYS TO DETERMINE THE SIDES OF THE HORIZON

WAYS TO DETERMINE DIRECTIONS FOR A SUBJECT

MEASURING DISTANCE ON TERRAIN

MOVEMENT IN AZIMUTHS

LITERATURE

1. THE ESSENCE OF TERRAIN ORIENTATION

The essence of orientation consists of 4 main points:

determining the sides of the horizon;

determine your location relative to surrounding local objects;

finding the desired direction of movement;

maintain the chosen direction along the way.

Topographic orientation is carried out in the following sequence: directions to the sides of the horizon are determined and clearly visible local objects (landmarks) are noticed in these directions. Local objects, shapes and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, are called landmarks.

Directions to several local objects are determined relative to the sides of the horizon, the names of these objects are indicated, and the distances to them are determined.

Selected landmarks are numbered from right to left. For ease of remembering, each landmark is given a conventional name in addition to the number (landmark 1 - oil rig, landmark 2 - green grove).

To indicate your location (standing point) relative to known landmarks, you need to name them and tell them in which direction from them the standing point is located. For example: “I am at an altitude of 450 m south of the oil rig. To the left 500 m is a “green grove”, to the right 300 m is a ravine.”

2. SIMPLE WAYS TO DETERMINE THE SIDES OF THE HORIZON

The sides of the horizon during orientation are usually determined by:

by magnetic compass;

according to the heavenly bodies;

based on the characteristics of some local objects.

Figure 1 shows the relative position of the sides of the horizon and the intermediate directions between them. Looking at the figure, it is easy to understand that to determine the directions on all sides of the horizon, it is enough to know only one thing. Intermediate directions are used to clarify orientation if the direction to an object does not strictly coincide with the direction to one of the sides of the horizon.

Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass.

Using a compass, you can determine the direction to the horizon at any time of the day and in any weather.

First, I note that Adrianov’s compass is widely used when navigating the terrain. Then I tell you about its structure using a compass.

Rules of circulation. To make sure the compass is working properly, you need to check the sensitivity of its needle. To do this, the compass is placed motionless in a horizontal position, a metal object is brought to it, and then removed. If after each shift the arrow remains at the same reading, the compass is in good working order and suitable for use.

Determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies

According to the position of the Sun. The tables show the time of day at which in the northern hemisphere of the Earth the Sun is in the east, south, west at different periods of the year.

April, August, September, October, May, June, July, January

in the east

not visible not visible

on South

at 13.00 at 13.00

in the West

According to the Sun and the clock. If you have a mechanical watch, the sides of the horizon in cloudless weather can be determined by the Sun at any time of the day. To do this, you need to set the clock horizontally and turn it so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun (see figure); Divide the angle between the hour hand and the direction from the center of the dial to the number “1” in half. The line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south. Knowing the directions to the south, it is easy to determine other directions.

According to the North Star. At night, with a cloudless sky, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the North Star, which is always in the north. If you stand facing the North Star, then north will be ahead; from here you can find other sides of the horizon. The position of the North Star can be found in the constellation Ursa Major, which has the shape of a ladle and consists of seven bright stars. If you mentally draw a straight line through the two outermost stars of the Big Dipper, put five segments on it equal to the distance between these stars, then at the end of the fifth segment there will be the North Star.

By the Moon. If, due to cloudiness, the North Star is not visible, but at the same time the Moon is visible, it can be used to determine the sides of the horizon. So, knowing the location of the Moon in various phases and time, you can approximately indicate the directions to the sides of the horizon.

Based on local items.

—PAGE_BREAK—

From long-term observations it has been established that:

the bark of trees on the north side is usually rougher and darker than on the south;

moss and lichen cover tree trunks, stones, rocks on the north side;

anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps, bushes; their southern side is flatter than the northern;

on coniferous trees, resin accumulates on the south side;

During the ripening period, berries and fruits acquire a mature color on the south side;

tree branches are usually more developed, denser and longer on the south side;

near isolated trees, pillars, and large stones, the grass grows thicker on the south side;

clearings in large forest areas, as a rule, are cut strictly along the line

North South West East;

at the ends of the pillars there are numbers of forest blocks from west to east;

the altars and chapels of Orthodox churches face east, the bell towers face west;

the lower crossbar of the cross on the church is raised to the north;

on south-facing slopes, snow melts faster in spring than on north-facing slopes; The concave side of the moon, on the minaret of Muslim mosques, faces south.

3. WAYS TO DETERMINE DIRECTIONS FOR A SUBJECT

When orienting on the ground, the magnitude of the horizontal angle is determined approximately by eye or using improvised means.

Magnetic meridian is the direction (imaginary line) indicated by the magnetic needle and passing through the standing point.

Magnetic azimuth is the horizontal angle measured from the north direction of the magnetic meridian clockwise to the direction towards the object.

Magnetic azimuth (Am) has a value from 00 to 3600.

How to determine magnetic azimuths for an object?

In this position, the reading on the dial opposite the pointer at the front sight will show the value of the magnetic (direct) azimuth (direction) to the object.

4. MEASURING DISTANCE ON THE TERRAIN

There are various methods and devices for determining distance.

Here are easier ways to measure.

Eye meter. The main methods of visual determination are by segments of terrain, by the degree of visibility of an object.

By degree of visibility. To determine distances by degree of visibility and apparent size of objects, a table is recommended.

Name of objects (objects) and their parts (details)

Distance from which objects become visible, m

Detached houses

Pipes on the roofs, individual trees

Windows in houses, tree trunks

Movement of the legs and arms of a walking person

Frame frames in windows

Determination of distance by angular dimensions.

If the size (height, width or length) is known, it can be determined using the thousandth formula,

Where the distance to an object is equal to the height (width, length) of the object in meters multiplied by 1000 and divided by the angle at which the object is visible in thousandths.

The angular magnitudes of targets are measured in thousandths using field binoculars, as well as available means.

(see Fig. 2)

The thousandth formula is widely used in terrain orientation and firefighting. With their help, many problems are quickly and easily solved, for example:

1. A person whose average height is 1.7 m is visible at an angle of 0-07. Determine the distance to the person. Solution D=B*1000/U = 1.7*1000/7 = 243m

2. Enemy tank, height 2.4m, visible at an angle of 0-02.

Determine the range to the tank.

Solution. D=B*1000/U = 2.4*1000/2 = 1200m.

Measuring distances in steps. When measuring distances, steps are counted in pairs. After every hundred pairs of steps, the count starts again. In order not to lose count, it is recommended to mark every hundred pairs of steps completed on paper or in some other way. To convert the distance measured in steps into meters, you need to know the step length. If it is enough to determine the distance traveled approximately, then it is assumed that the distance in meters is equal to the number of pairs of steps increased by one and a half times, since a pair of steps is on average 1.5 m.

For example, a person walked 450 pairs of steps.

The distance traveled is approximately 450 * 1.5 = 675 m.

To automatically count the number of steps taken, a special pedometer device can be used.

5. MOVEMENT IN AZIMUTH

Scheme for movement along azimuths

Landmark number and name

Magnetic azimuth

Distance to azimuths, m

Pairs of steps

1-separate conifer

2-bend of the road

3-bush

4-mound

5-water tower

Literature

1.docs.google.com

When there were no compasses, navigators and maps, people navigated the terrain based on the nature around them. In ancient times, the most popular method was orientation by the stars and the Sun. At night they determined the sides of the horizon with the help of the stars and the Moon, and during the day with the help of the Sun. Today, these methods are often used by tourists who love hiking. In order to navigate by the Sun, you need to know the sides of the horizon.

So, the East is the side of the world where the celestial body appears in the morning to replace the stars. South is the side of the horizon where the Sun is located most of the time. There is no Sun in the North - this is the side that is opposite to the South. Well, the West is the side of the horizon where the Sun marks the end of the day. You can always find out the sides of the horizon on the ground by a sundial, namely by the sunset, as well as the rise of the heavenly body.

If you wake up at dawn and see the rising Sun, then you need to face it. On this side there will be East, and on the opposite side there will be West. South will be on your right and North on your left. Please note that this rule applies to all geographic areas. If you stood facing the Sun at noon, then the south side is in front of you, and the north side is behind you. To your left is East, to your right is West. But only this truth is true if you are in the Northern Hemisphere. For the Southern Hemisphere, the rule is: behind - South, in front - North, left - West, right - East.

You also need to know that in winter in the Northern Hemisphere the Sun sets in the South-West and rises in the South-East. But in the summer it’s the other way around: the sun sets in the North-West. It is already rising in the Northeast. Twice a year, namely on September 23 and March 21 (the days of the equinoxes), the Sun sets in the West and rises in the East.

You can also determine the sides of the horizon by the noon line. To determine the north direction, a special device is used - a gnomon. Since such a device may not be at hand, you can use a regular stake or long stick instead. The object must cast a shadow.

The stake must be installed vertically in the ground. At noon the shadow will show the north direction. Mark the top of the cast shadow. Make a note and wait two hours until the Sun moves a little across the sky. Then mark the top of the shadow again. Connect the marks with a line. You have the East-West direction.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the side of the world that is closer to the notch is West, but the opposite side is East. Where the Sun is located will be South, and on the opposite side will be North. Things change a little in the Southern Hemisphere. West and East are defined in the same way, and North and South vice versa. Another very simple way. Stand at noon with your back to the Sun. Place your arms to the sides. The shadow will indicate where the north side is. South will be behind. On the left side there will be West, and on the right side there will be East.

You can also determine all sides of the horizon with a regular wristwatch at hand. They need to be set to local time and installed in the horizontal direction. The hour hand must be directed towards the Sun. Now you need to halve the angle between this hour hand, as well as the direction to the number one. Divide in half using a line. This line will show us the South. Note that before noon the arc is divided in half, which the arrow passes until thirteen o'clock in the afternoon. After noon the arc is divided, which it passes after thirteen hours.

From six in the morning. There is no need to use this method after six in the evening, it will not be correct. A slight error is also inevitable, especially in autumn and spring. In winter the error is the smallest. In summer the error can be large - up to twenty-five degrees. We also note that in Northern latitudes, this method more accurately determines the sides of the horizon. But the error in southern latitudes is much greater.

Determining the sides of the horizon.

When navigating the terrain, it is first necessary to determine the sides of the horizon.

The sides of the horizon can be determined by the compass, celestial bodies and various local signs.

In order to determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, you must perform the following steps:

1) place the compass in a horizontal position;

2) release the brake;

3) let the arrow calm down, which will indicate the direction to the north;

4) select a clearly visible landmark in this direction, which will subsequently be used as the direction to the north;

5) turn around and mark a landmark in the south;

6) after that, mark a landmark in the west and in the east.

In the absence of a compass, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the luminaries.

According to the position of the Sun.

For mid-latitudes you can use the following data:

According to the Sun and the clock(see Fig. 17). Holding the watch in front of you, turn it in a horizontal plane so that the hour hand is directed to the place on the horizon above which the Sun is located; then the straight line bisecting the angle between the hour hand and the number I on the dial will point its end to the south; the opposite direction will be north, and the directions to the east and west are determined from them.

To increase accuracy, you can use a slightly modified technique:

a) the watch is given not a horizontal, but an inclined position at an angle of 40-50° to the horizon; in this case, the watch must be kept as shown in Fig. 17;

b) having found the middle of the arc on the dial between the number 1 and the hour hand, apply a match as shown in the figure;

c) without changing the position of the clock, rotate with it in relation to the Sun so that the shadow of the match passes through the center of the dial.

At this moment, number 1 will be facing south.

Fig. 17. Determination of the sides of the horizon by the sun and the clock.

By the North Star(see Fig. 18). At night, the direction of the true meridian can be determined by the North Star, which is always in the north direction.

To find this star in the sky, located in the constellation Ursa Minor, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major: it appears as a bucket of seven bright stars; then mentally continue the straight line passing through the two outermost stars of the Big Dipper, as shown in the figure, to a distance equal to five times the distance between them. At the end of this straight line it is easy to find the North Star.

By the Moon. The cardinal directions can also be determined by the Moon. Data for mid-latitudes are shown in the table.

Determining the sides of the horizon based on local characteristics. This method is less reliable than the methods discussed above. Therefore, the signs listed below must be used carefully, checking the orientation results using other signs.

Section 5. Location orientation

§ 1.5.1. Essence and methods of orientation

Terrain orientation includes determining one’s location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or chosen direction of movement and understanding the location of landmarks, boundaries, friendly troops, enemy troops, engineering structures and other objects on the ground.

Methods of orientation. Depending on the nature of the task being performed, orientation can be carried out on the spot from individual points (for example, from observation points during reconnaissance) or on the move (on the march, on the offensive, etc.). In both cases, the main method is to navigate using a topographic map using a compass.

Reliable route keeping in difficult conditions and poor visibility is most successfully carried out using a topographic map using data provided by navigation equipment (coordinator and course plotter). A generally available way to maintain the direction of movement at night, as well as in areas with rare landmarks, is to move along azimuths prepared in advance from the map. In some cases, orientation (determining the direction of movement) can be done without a map (using a compass, landmarks, celestial bodies, signs of local objects).

When orienting on the ground during reconnaissance, topographical and then tactical orientation is performed first.

Topographical orientation includes determining the sides of the horizon, the point of one’s standing, and the position of surrounding terrain objects. During topographical orientation, they first show the direction to the north of any object and their location relative to the nearest and clearly visible landmark. Then the necessary landmarks and other terrain objects are named, directions to them and approximate distances are indicated. Directions to landmarks are indicated relative to your position (straight ahead, right, left) or along the sides of the horizon. The order of indicating landmarks is from right to left, starting from the right flank. Example of a report on topographical orientation: “ The direction to the north is the mound. We are located on the northern outskirts of Timonovka; on the right, 5 km - Semenovka; straight ahead, 4 km - “Dark” grove; further, 10 km - the settlement of Ivanovka; to the left, 2 km - height 125.6».

Tactical orientation consists of determining and showing on the ground the location and nature of the actions of enemy troops and friendly units by a certain time.

§ 1.5.2. Navigation without a map

Orientation without a map consists of determining the sides of the horizon (directions north, east, south, west) and your location on the ground relative to landmarks and takes place in a limited area.

Landmarks are clearly visible local objects and relief details, relative to which they determine their location, direction of movement and indicate the position of targets and other objects.

Landmarks are chosen as evenly as possible along the front and in depth. The selected landmarks are numbered from right to left along the lines and away from you towards the enemy. In addition to the number, each landmark is usually given a conventional name corresponding to its external characteristics, for example, “ Dry wood», « House with a red roof" and so on.

Sides of the horizon and methods for determining them

It must be remembered that if you stand facing north, then the east will be on your right hand, the west will be on your left, respectively, the south will be behind your back . To determine the sides of the horizon, the following methods can be recommended:

by compass;
by the Sun and analogue clock;
by the Sun and digital clock;
using improvised means;
for local facilities;
according to the North Star;
on the Moon.

Let us consider in more detail the indicated methods for determining the sides of the horizon, as well as the recommended sequence for their development during training sessions.

Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass . A magnetic compass is a device that allows you to determine the sides of the horizon, as well as measure angles in degrees on the ground. The principle of operation of a compass is that a magnetized needle on a hinge rotates along the lines of force of the Earth's magnetic field and is constantly held by them in one direction.

The most common are various versions of the Adrianov compass and the artillery compass. Rice. 5.1

Compass Adrianov 1 - cover with stands for sighting; 2 - limb; 3 - count indicator;

4 – magnetic needle; 5 - brake Compass Adrianov

(Fig. 5.1) allows you to measure angles in degrees and inclinometer divisions. A dial with two scales is used to measure angles. Degrees are marked in 15° intervals (division value is 3°) clockwise, protractor divisions are marked in 5-00 intervals (division value is 0-50). The dial reading is read using a pointer mounted on the inner wall of the compass cover opposite the front sight. The northern end of the magnetic needle, the reference and division indicator on the dial, corresponding to 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°, are covered with a glow-in-the-dark composition. There is a mechanism that slows down the movement of the arrow. Rice. 5.2

Artillery compass 1 – compass body; 2 – rotating dial body; 3 - limb; 4 – compass cover with a mirror “a”, a cutout for sighting “b” and a latch “c”; 5 – magnetic needle;

6 – protrusion of the brake lever arrows Artillery compass

(Fig. 5.2) thanks to some improvements, it is more convenient to use than Adrianov’s compass. Its body is rectangular, which allows you to accurately position the compass along the map lines and draw directions. The compass cover with a mirror surface allows you to observe the position of the magnetic needle and at the same time sight the object. The magnetic needle more steadily records the direction of the magnetic meridian; Its braking is carried out by closing the lid. The scale division value is 1-00, their signatures are given after 5-00 clockwise. Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and an analog clock

An analog watch is held in a horizontal plane and turned until the hour hand aligns with the direction of the Sun, the position of the minute hand is not taken into account. The angle between the hour hand and the number “1” on the watch dial is divided in half. A line dividing this angle in half will indicate the direction to the south (Fig. 5.3). It is important to remember that before one o'clock in the afternoon the angle not traversed by the clock hand is divided in half, and after one o'clock in the afternoon - the angle which it has already passed.

Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock . This method of determining the sides of the horizon is used when the light of the Sun is sufficient for objects to cast a shadow.

On a horizontal surface (on the ground) a circle with a diameter of 25-30 cm is drawn with a point in the center. Then, on the outer side of the circle from the side of the Sun, a small load (for example, a bunch of keys) is suspended on a rope or cord so that the shadow of the rope passes through the center of the drawn circle. Next, through the point of intersection of the shadow from the rope with the sunny side of the circle and the center of the circle, a radius is drawn, indicating the hour hand of an imaginary clock. Using a digital clock, the actual time is specified, according to which divisions of an imaginary dial are drawn in the circle.

Further, as on an analog watch, the angle between one o'clock in the afternoon and the drawn hour hand is divided in half (before one o'clock in the afternoon the angle not passed by the hour hand is divided in half, and after one o'clock in the afternoon - the angle which it has already passed). The resulting direction is south (Fig. 5.4).

Rice. 5.4 Determining the sides of the horizon using the Sun and a digital clock

Determining the sides of the horizon using available tools . The situation becomes more complicated when on a cloudy day it is impossible to determine exactly where the Sun is. However, even in this case, there are ways to fairly accurately determine the sides of the horizon.

Rice. 5.5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a float and a needle

A flat round float with a diameter of 15-20 mm and a thickness of 5-6 mm is made from bark or a piece of wood. A shallow diametrical cut is made on the float, into which it is necessary to carefully place the needle and lower the float onto the existing water surface (any puddle; water poured into a plastic or wooden container; a small depression in the ground, lined with a plastic bag and filled with water from a flask, etc. ). Under the influence of earthly magnetism, the needle will certainly turn and, swinging between east and west, will be positioned with its tip to the north and its ear to the south, that is, along the magnetic force lines of the Earth (Fig. 5.5).

If there is no needle, then a thin steel nail or steel wire can replace it. But in this case, it is important to remember that the needle turns with its tip to the north due to the peculiarities of the manufacturing technology - the so-called “broaching”. With a piece of wire or a nail, the direction of pulling is unknown; therefore, it is unclear which end points to the north and which to the south. Therefore, for alignment, it is necessary to perform the same operations once near a noticeable landmark (anthill, growth rings, etc.) as with a needle, then mark the end of the wire or nail that will turn to the north.

Interesting fact: even an automatic cleaning rod on a float of the appropriate size can play the role of a compass needle - the cleaning rod will always turn to the north with a thread (true only for AKs manufactured before 1984). Determining the sides of the horizon using local objects

. The sides of the horizon can be determined by local objects, but it must be remembered that the error in this case may be 15-20°.
One of the most reliable indicators of the sides of the horizon are forest anthills - they are usually located at the roots of a tree with a thick crown that protects them from rain and always on the southern side of this tree. In addition, the southern side of the anthill is always flatter compared to the northern.
The sides of the horizon can be determined by the annual rings of trees. To do this, you can find a free-standing stump or cut a small, free-standing tree with a diameter of 70-80 mm. Having carefully cleaned the cut, we will see that the core, that is, the center of the concentric annual rings, is shifted relative to the geometric center of the stump, and it is necessarily shifted to the north. By drawing a straight line through the geometric center of the stump and the center of the concentric annual rings, we get the direction to the north.
The bark of most trees is coarser on the north side, thinner, more elastic (birch is lighter) on the south.
In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.
On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tiled and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi.
On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side.
In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern outskirts of the meadows, warmed by the sun's rays, and in the hot period of summer - on the southern, darkened ones.
Berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) on the south side.
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch.
Snow melts faster on the southern sides of snowdrifts, resulting in the formation of notches in the snow - spikes directed to the south.
In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes.
Clearings in forests are usually oriented in the north-south or west-east direction.
The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side.
The altars of Catholic churches (cathedrals) face west.
The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
Kumirni (pagan chapels with idols) face south.
On Christian graves, the gravestone or cross stands at the feet, that is, on the east side, since the grave itself is oriented from east to west.

Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star . Let us recall the remarkable property of the Polar Star - it is practically motionless during the daily rotation of the starry sky and, accordingly, is very convenient for orientation - the direction towards it practically coincides with the direction to the north (the deviation from the north point does not exceed 3°).

To find this star in the sky, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which consists of seven fairly noticeable stars located so that if you connect them with an imaginary line, a bucket will be drawn.

If you mentally continue the line of the front wall of the bucket, approximately 5 distances equal to the length of this wall, then it will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

If you are in the mountains or in the forest, you may not see the bucket if it is currently located under the North Star. In this case, another noticeable constellation will help - the Constellation Cassiopeia. This constellation is formed by six fairly bright stars and represents the Russian letter “Z” when located to the right of the North Star, and the irregular letter “M” when located above the North Star.

Rice. 5.6 Finding the North Star in the sky

To find the North Star, you need to mentally draw a median from the top of the large triangle of the constellation (i.e., a straight line connecting the top of the triangle with the middle of the opposite side) to its base, which, when continued, will rest against the North Star (Fig. 5.6).

Determining the sides of the horizon by the Moon . The sides of the horizon are determined on a cloudy night, when it is not possible to find the North Star. To do this, you need to know the location of the Moon in various phases (Table 5.1)

The table shows that it is most convenient to determine the sides of the horizon during the full moon. In this phase, the Moon is at any time in the direction opposite to the Sun.

Table 5.1

§ 1.5.3. Movement in azimuths

Movement along azimuths is a method of maintaining the intended path (route) from one point (landmark) to another along known azimuths and distances.

Movement along azimuths is used at night, as well as in the forest, desert, tundra and in other conditions that make it difficult to navigate on the map. Determining the direction on the ground at a given azimuth using Adrianov's compass

. By rotating the compass cover, the pointer is set to a reading corresponding to the value of the specified azimuth. Then, having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass so that the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the needle. At the same time, they stand facing the desired direction and, raising the compass to approximately shoulder level, sight along the slot-front sight line and notice some landmark on the ground in this direction. This direction will correspond to the specified azimuth. . The compass cover is set at an angle of 45° and by rotating the dial, the given reading is aligned with the pointer at the slot in the cover. The compass is raised to eye level and, observing in the lid mirror, is turned until the zero stroke of the dial aligns with the northern end of the arrow. In this position of the compass, one sights through the slot and notices any landmark. The direction to the landmark will correspond to the specified azimuth.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with Adrianov's compass . Having freed the magnetic needle, turn the compass to draw a zero stroke under the northern end of the needle. Without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the ring, direct the sighting device with the front sight towards the object to which you want to measure the azimuth. Aiming the front sight at an object is achieved by repeatedly moving the gaze from the sighting device to the object and back; For this purpose, you should not raise the compass to eye level, since this may cause the needle to move away from the zero stroke of the dial and the accuracy of azimuth measurement will sharply decrease. Having aligned the sighting line of the front sight slot with the direction towards the object, take a count from the front sight pointer. This will be the azimuth of the direction to the object. The average error in measuring azimuth with Adrianov's compass is 2-3°.

Measuring magnetic azimuth with an AK artillery compass . Having placed the compass cover at approximately an angle of 45?, sight the object. Then, without changing the position of the compass, by rotating the dial, observing in the mirror, bring the zero stroke of the dial to the northern end of the magnetic needle and take a reading from the pointer. The average error in measuring azimuth with an AK artillery compass is approximately 0-25.

Preparing data for azimuth movement . The route is marked on the map with clear landmarks at turns and the directional angle and length of each straight section of the route are measured. Directional angles are converted into magnetic azimuths, and distances are converted into pairs of steps if the movement is on foot, or into speedometer readings when marching in cars. Data for movement along azimuths is drawn up on the map, and if there is no map on the way, then

draw up a route diagram (Fig. 5.7) or a table (Table 5.2). Rice. 5.7

*Landmark number and name*	*Route diagram for movement in azimuths*	*Magnetic azimuth, degrees*
*Landmark number and name*	*Route diagram for movement in azimuths*	*Distance*	*in meters*
in a couple of steps	-	-	-
1 – separate yard	15	1557	1038
2 – the place where the road enters the forest	330	645	430
3 – intersection of clearings	356	1020	680
4 – hole near the clearing	94	705	470

5 – forester’s house

Table 5.2 . At the initial (first) landmark, using a compass, the direction of movement to the second landmark is determined by azimuth. They notice some distant landmark (auxiliary) in this direction and begin to move. Having reached the intended landmark, they again mark the direction of movement using the compass to the next intermediate landmark and so continue moving until they reach the second landmark.

In the same order, but in a different azimuth, they continue moving from the second landmark to the third, etc. On the way, taking into account the distances covered, they look for landmarks at the turns of the route and thereby control the correctness of the movement.

To make it easier to maintain the direction, you should use the celestial bodies and various signs: the straightness of a walking column or your own track when skiing, the direction of ripples in the sand and sastrugi in the snow (sastruga is a long and narrow snow bank swept by the wind), wind direction, etc. Based on the celestial bodies, you can confidently maintain the direction of movement, clarifying it with a compass approximately every 15 minutes.

The accuracy of reaching a landmark depends on the accuracy of determining the direction of movement and measuring the distance. Deviation from the route due to the error in determining the direction using a compass usually does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled. If the direction of movement is clarified by the compass often enough, then the deviation from the route will be about 3% of the distance traveled.

Avoiding Obstacles . If there are obstacles on the route, then detour routes are marked on the map and the necessary data is prepared for this - azimuths and distances.

Obstacles not taken into account when preparing data for movement are avoided in one of the following ways. First way

is used when the obstacle is visible to the end. In the direction of movement, mark a landmark on the opposite side of the obstacle. Then they go around the obstacle, find the noticed landmark and continue moving from it in the same direction; The width of the obstacle is estimated by eye and added to the distance traveled to the obstacle. Second way. An obstacle, the opposite side of which is not visible, is walked around in directions forming a rectangle or parallelogram, the azimuths and lengths of the sides of which are determined on the ground. An example of such a bypass is shown in Fig. 5.8. From point A and having measured the resulting distance (200 pairs of steps), they continue moving along the given azimuth (in the example - along the 45° azimuth) to the point WITH. From point WITH enter the main route in the opposite direction azimuth AB(in the example - in azimuth 100°, since the reverse azimuth is equal to the forward azimuth ±180°), measuring 200 pairs of steps in this direction (distance CD , equal AB). Here is the line length Sun added to the distance traveled from point No. 2 to point A, and continue moving to point No. 3.

§ 1.5.4. Orientation on the map

Orientation at a location includes orienting a map, identifying landmarks, determining a standing point, and comparing the map with the terrain.

Orienting a map is giving it, by rotating it in a horizontal plane, a position in which the north side of the frame faces north, and the lines and directions on the map are parallel to the corresponding lines and directions on the ground. The map is oriented by a compass, terrain line or direction to a landmark.

Orienting the map using a compass . The technique is used mainly in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in a forest, desert, etc.). Under these conditions, the compass is used to determine the direction to the north, and then the map is turned with the top side of the frame in this direction. The compass map can be oriented more accurately taking into account magnetic declination. In this case, a compass with an open magnetic needle is installed on one of the vertical lines of the map coordinate grid so that the line passing through the 0 and 180° strokes of the scale (or the corresponding edge of the AK compass) coincides with the map line. The map is then rotated so that the north end of the magnetic needle deviates from the 0° line by the amount of direction correction indicated in the lower left corner of the given map sheet. An example of map orientation using a compass is shown in Fig. 5.9.

Rice. 5.9 Orienting the map using a compass

Orienting the map along the terrain line . The map is rotated so that the line of the symbol of a local object, for example a road, coincides with the direction of the local object itself, and the images of all objects located to the right and left of it are located on the same sides as on the ground (Fig. 5.10).

Rice. 5.10 Orienting the map along the terrain line

Orienting the map by towards a landmark . The technique is used when the standing point is known and the landmark marked on the map is visible from it. The map is rotated so that the direction “standing point - landmark” coincides with the corresponding direction on the ground. For more accurate orientation of the map, apply a ruler to these points and use it to sight the landmark.

Landmark identification - the most critical stage of orientation on the map, since the standing point can only be determined by landmarks, common to the map and the area.

Identification of landmarks begins with the largest, most prominent objects in the area, and those that are relatively rare in a given area. When searching for objects observed on the map on the map, their relative position and position relative to the sides of the horizon are taken into account. The correct identification of landmarks is checked using the surrounding elements of the terrain.

In cases where it is not possible to identify landmarks that are common to the map and the area, you should move so that other landmarks become visible and try to identify these landmarks on the map.

Determining the standing point on the map is done by eye using the nearest landmarks, measuring distances, measured distances and directions, and resection. When choosing a method, the nature of the terrain, visibility conditions, time availability, as well as the accuracy with which it is desirable to determine the standing point are taken into account.

Determining the standing point on the map by eye It is recommended to determine the standing point using the nearest landmarks on moderately rough terrain, when the point is located near a terrain feature shown on the map. To do this, they orient the map, identify two or three nearest landmarks on it and determine the distances to them by eye. Based on certain distances to landmarks, taking into account directions, a standing point is marked on the map. The accuracy of determining a standing point on a map using this method depends mainly on the distances to landmarks: what are these The longer the distance, the less reliably the standing point is determined. When located from landmarks at a distance of up to 500 m, the standing point, with sufficient experience, is determined with an average error of the order of 20% of the average distance to landmarks.

Determining a standing point on a map by measuring the distance . The method is used mainly when driving on a road or along a linear contour, mainly in closed areas or under poor visibility conditions. The essence of the method: measure the distance (for example, in steps) from a landmark located near the road or some other linear landmark to a designated standing point; then this distance is plotted on the map along the road (linear landmark) in the appropriate direction. The accuracy of determining the standing point using this method depends mainly on the magnitude of the error in measuring the distance on the ground.

Determining a standing point on a map by direction and distance . The method is used when only one landmark is identified. In this case, the map is oriented according to the compass, taking into account the magnetic declination. Then apply a ruler to a landmark on the map, aim it at the same landmark on the ground and draw a line (Fig. 5.11- A). You can also sight using a pencil mounted vertically (Fig. 5.11- b).

Rice. 5.11 Sighting techniques:

a – along a ruler;
b – by pencil

To do this, the oriented card should be in a horizontal position at approximately chin level. The pencil is placed vertically on the image of a landmark on the map, they are sighted through it at the landmark and, without changing the position of the eye and the map, they slowly move the pencil towards themselves. On the drawn line of sight from the landmark image, a distance is set aside, which is previously measured by steps, binoculars, rangefinder, or estimated by eye. Under the same conditions, the standing point can be determined using another technique (Fig. 5.12).

Rice. 5.12 Determining the standing point by direction and distance

At the standing point, measure the magnetic azimuth to the landmark with a compass. Then this azimuth is converted to the reverse (add or subtract 180°), and the last - to the directional angle along which a direction is drawn from a landmark on the map and the measured distance is plotted along this direction.

The resulting point will be the desired standing point. . Example The magnetic azimuth to the landmark (geodetic point) is 30°, the distance is 1500 m, the correction to the magnetic azimuth when moving to the directional angle is +12°. Determine the standing point.

Solution

Determining the standing point on the map by resection in one direction . This method is used when you are on a road (or other linear object), from which only one landmark is visible, located to the side of it.

The map is oriented as accurately as possible and sighted on a landmark. The intersection point of the hairline and the road will be the desired standing point. The standing point under the same conditions can be determined by the following method: measure the magnetic azimuth to the landmark, convert it to the opposite one, and convert the latter into a directional angle. Based on the value of the directional angle, the direction from the landmark to the intersection with the road is drawn.

The average error in determining the standing point using this method, when carefully performing the techniques, is about 10% of the range at the notching angle from 30 to 60° and from 120 to 150° and about 5% at the notching angle from 60° to 120°. Determination of the standing point on the map by resection in three (two) directions

. This method is used mainly in open areas, poor in landmarks, when three (at most two) landmarks are identified. If possible, you should use landmarks located closer to the standing point so that the directions from the landmarks at the standing point intersect at angles within 30-150°. Rice. 5.13

Determining the standing point by resection

The map is carefully oriented using a compass, a ruler is applied to the symbol of one of the landmarks on the map and directed to the same landmark on the ground, then a line is drawn towards yourself (Fig. 5.13). Without confusing the orientation of the map, the directions to the second and third landmarks are drawn in the same way. The intersection of three directions usually forms a triangle, the center of which will be the standing point. In two directions, the standing point is determined less accurately, and most importantly, without control.

Under the same conditions, when working with the map is difficult (it is raining, etc.), the standing point can be determined by magnetic azimuths measured from the standing point to landmarks. Magnetic azimuths are converted into reverse ones, and the latter into directional angles, and directions on the map from the corresponding landmarks are drawn using them.

The average error in determining the standing point by resection using three landmarks is about 15% of the average distance to the landmarks. Comparison of the map with the terrain

To find an object visible on the map on the map, mentally or using a ruler, draw a line from the standing point to the terrain object and, in the direction of this line, find the symbol of the object being sought or make sure that the object is not shown on the map. To more accurately determine the direction to an object, measure the magnetic azimuth to it using a compass, calculate the directional angle of this direction, and use its value to draw the direction on the map.

To solve the inverse problem, i.e. to identify an object on the ground, indicated on the map, mentally or using a ruler, sight along the line connecting the standing point and the symbol of the object, and in this direction, taking into account the distance to the desired object, search for it on the ground.

Map navigation on the move . Depending on the nature of the terrain, when orienting on the move, they usually use a map at a scale of 1:100000 or 1:200000. The main task of orienteering in motion is to maintain a given route or one outlined on the map. Orientation while moving is carried out continuously in order to constantly know your location on the map, which is determined visually by comparing the map with the terrain. To do this, prepare a map in advance, and follow a certain order along the way.

§ 1.5.5. Creating a raster map

To create a raster map we will use the SASPlanet program.

Initially, you need to find the area of interest by scrolling the map. Do not pay attention to the highlighted rectangle - this is a trace of the previous search (it will disappear when starting a new search).

Having selected the area of interest at the desired scale, you need to click on “select rectangle”.

Rice. 5.14 Search for a site

Move the mouse pointer to the map field (upper left corner) and left-click once (this sets one of the corners of the rectangle); move the mouse pointer diagonally down the screen without pressing a key; Having outlined the desired rectangle, click the left mouse button; The Selected Area Operations dialog box appears.