Basic laws of the structure of the human body. Basic laws of animal development

2.Modern methods of anatomical research

Anatomical principles of the structural organization of the human body.

The main stages of human ontogenesis.

Anatomy is one of the most important biomedical disciplines, since the subject of study of anatomy is man, the most highly organized living organism. At the same time, it is a morphological discipline, as it studies the external forms and internal structure of the entire body and each organ separately. Modern anatomy attempts to explain the reason for the structure of the human body in relation to its function. Together with physiology, anatomy forms the basis or foundation of theoretical and practical medicine.

The name anatomy comes from the word “antemno” (Greek) – dissection, dismemberment. This term is due to the fact that the original and main method of obtaining facts was the method of dissecting a human corpse.

The study of human anatomy provides the necessary conditions for mastering other disciplines necessary for the practical work of a doctor.

The importance of anatomy for medicine was pointed out by many prominent scientists and medical figures.

“Study the basics of science before trying to climb to its heights, never take on the next without mastering the previous one” - I.P. Pavlov.

“The study of the structure of the human body is the fundamental basis of medicine” Hippocrates

“Anatomy is the first science, without it there can be no healing” ancient Russian manuscript.

“I would consider the highest reward for me to be the conviction that I managed to prove to our doctors that anatomy does not, as many people think, constitute only the alphabet of medicine” - Pirogov N.I.

“without anatomy there is no surgery or therapy, but only signs and prejudices» - Gubarev A.P.

Currently, other methods are used to understand the structure of not only a dead person, but also a living person:

Anthropometry, which allows you to measure the length and weight of the body, identify their relationships, determine the proportions of the body, the type of constitution;

Injection method - filling body cavities, lumens of the bronchial tree, blood and lymphatic vessels, and hollow organs with a colored mass.

It has been used since the 16th century. The injection method is complemented by subsequent corrosion and enlightenment of organs and tissues;

The microscopic method appeared with the invention of magnifying objects using a magnifying glass and a microscope. Thanks to this method, it was possible to identify networks of blood and lymphatic capillaries, intraorgan plexuses of vessels and nerves. The structures of lobules and acini have been clarified;

Fluoroscopic radiographic methods that make it possible to study the intravital form and functional characteristics of a living person. Currently, computed tomography, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance radiography), and spiral computed tomography are used. Radiography is often supplemented by the use of x-ray contrast agents;

Endoscopic research method (gastroscopy, bronchoscopy, colonoscopy, laparoscopy, cystoscopy, hysteroscopy, etc.). It allows you to see, with the help of optical instruments introduced through natural and artificial openings, the color, relief of organs and mucous membranes;

Ultrasound examination (echography), based on the reflection of ultrasound by tissues, makes it possible to determine the external shape, size, thickness of the walls of the organs being studied, and their internal structure.

Structural organization of the human body.

The structural and functional unit of all living things, including the human body, is the cell. There are a huge number of cells in the human body. Each type of cell differs in shape, size and internal structure, but each has a nucleus and cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane. The cytoplasm of cells contains organelles: mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and others, as well as inclusions of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and pigment granules. Cells can be mononucleated or multinucleated. Cells form tissues. Textile

- a historically established system consisting of cells of a common structure, origin and function. In addition to cells, tissue contains a living intermediate intercellular substance.

There are 4 main tissues in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous. Each of them has a number of varieties. Epithelial tissue

Epithelium covers the entire body from the outside (skin) and lines the internal organs and various cavities of our body from the inside (the mucous membrane of the digestive tube, respiratory tract and genitourinary system). The epithelium forms the excretory organs (sweat, sebaceous, mammary, digestive, mucous, reproductive and endocrine glands).

This tissue is characterized by the fact that it consists of closely packed epithelial cells of various shapes located on the basement membrane.

Between the cells there are only thin layers of adhesive intercellular substance. There are single-layer and multilayer epithelium, single-row and multi-row epithelium.

Connective tissue has a mechanical significance, forming solid supporting tissues, due to which the hard and soft skeleton of the human body is built. This includes bone, cartilage and fibrous (fibrous) connective tissue. Blood and lymph also belong to connective tissue and perform a trophic function. The main difference between connective tissue is the presence of a larger amount of intermediate substance, consisting of collagen and elastic fibers and the main amorphous substance. Collagen fibers have high mechanical strength. Elastic fibers have the ability to stretch and return to their original thickness and length after the force ceases.

Muscle carries out the movement of the body in space, the movement of blood in the vessels and the contraction of the walls of internal organs. There are smooth and striated muscle tissue.

Nervous tissue They connect the body with the external environment and ensure the integral function of the whole organism. It consists of nerve cells (neurons) and neuroglia. The brain and spinal cord, nerves and nerve ganglia are built from nervous tissue.

Tissues do not exist in isolation, but together participate in the construction of certain organs.

Organ - this is a part of the body that occupies a certain position in the body, is distinguished by a unique shape, has a special structure and performs a special function inherent in it.

Organs of the body are usually combined into systems and apparatuses.

Organ system - this is a series of organs that are anatomically and topographically connected to each other, have a common structural plan, a common origin in phylo- and ontogenesis and perform the same function.

Apparatus – it is rather a physiological association of organs that perform a homogeneous function, but they do not have a topographic connection or common structure.

ONTOGENESIS.

Ontogenesis is the development of the body from the moment of conception to death.

In ontogenesis there are 2 periods: prenatal and postnatal.

The prenatal period is the development from conception to birth. It is divided into 2 stages: embryonic and fetal.

The postnatal period is the development from birth to death. It distinguishes age groups from newborns to centenarians.

Functional anatomy of the skeletal system.

Skeletal functions.

The structure of bone as an organ, the structure of bone substance and tissue.

Chemical composition of bones.

Classification of bones.

The skeletal system is morphologically, functionally and genetically embodied in the skeleton. The hard or bony skeleton forms the basis of the body and is a kind of reinforcement for the complex structure of the human body. When studying anatomy, the skeleton is an incomparable silent guide, since it is easy to navigate the location of all organs.

The mass of the skeleton is 1/5-1/7 of the body mass, and the absolute numbers depend on the length of the body.

The main elements of the skeleton are individual bones, the number of which in the body is more than 200. The skeleton performs the following functions.

1.Function of support for muscles and internal organs;

2.Protection function, forming cavities and channels that protect organs and tissues from mechanical damage. For example, the skull is the cavity in which the brain is located; the spinal cord is located in the spinal canal; the heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage, etc.;

3. The function of locomotion - movement. Bones form rigid levers driven by muscles;

4. Anti-gravity function. Bones resist the force of gravity and help maintain an upright body position;

5. The function of mineral metabolism. The skeleton is a depot of mineral salts, especially calcium and phosphorus;

6. Hematopoietic function. The bones contain red bone marrow, a hematopoietic organ.

The hard skeleton is divided into somatic and visceral.

Somatic skeleton consists of the axial skeleton and the skeleton of the limbs. The axial skeleton includes the vertebrae, cranial bones and ribs. The skeleton of the limbs includes the bones of the limb girdles (clavicle, scapula, pelvic bone) and the bones of the free part of the limbs: shoulder, forearm, hand, thigh, lower leg, foot.

Visceral skeleton unites the bones of the facial skull, the hyoid bone and the auditory ossicles.

Each bone is an independent organ that has a complex structure and occupies a specific place in the skeleton. The basis of the bone is compact and spongy bone substance. The outside of the bone is covered with periosteum. Inside the bone contains bone marrow. Bones, like all other organs, have blood vessels and nerves. Bone substance is formed from bone tissue. Bone tissue is a type of connective tissue. Mature bone tissue consists of bone cells and intercellular substance. There are 3 types of cells in bone tissue: osteocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts. The intercellular substance consists of primary ossein fibrils (collagen fibers), microcrystals of mineral salts (oxyapatites) and an amorphous ground substance containing mucopolysaccharides and retaining water.

Plates and beams are built from bone tissue; their composition and relative position determine the design of the bone substance. It can be compact (dense) and spongy. The bodies of long tubular bones consist of a compact substance. It covers the outer surfaces (lamellae) of all bones. The compact substance consists of osteons.

Spongy substance is located under the compact substance of flat, spongy and mixed bones, as well as at the ends of tubular bones. There are no osteons in the spongy substance; bone plates form beams here.

Between them remain cells filled with red bone marrow. Periosteum

participates in the nutrition of the bone, due to it the bone develops and grows in thickness. The periosteum is involved in the formation of new bone tissue at the fracture site. It is tightly fused with the bone. It distinguishes between the outer fibrous membrane and the inner cambial membrane. Bone marrow

is a hematopoietic organ, as well as a place of deposition of nutrients. Bone marrow is found in the bone cells of the spongy substance of all bones and in the canals of long bones. There are red and yellow bone marrow. Red bone marrow

consists of delicate, reticular (mesh) tissue, rich in blood vessels and nerves. In the loops of this tissue there are hematopoietic elements - blood stem cells, which give rise to the formed elements of blood. Yellow bone marrow

consists of fat cells, which determines its color. During the period of growth and development of the body, red bone marrow predominates in the bones. With age, it is partially replaced by yellow. In an adult, red bone marrow is normally found only in the spongy substance, and yellow bone marrow is found in the canals of the tubular bones. .

In the bones of an adult, water occupies about 50%. 28% comes from organic substances and 22% from inorganic substances. Organic substances give bones flexibility and elasticity.

Inorganic substances give bones strength. These are mainly Ca, P, Mg salts. With age, the amount of organic matter decreases and bones become brittle.

Classification of bones.

Bones are divided according to shape and size. The following groups of bones are distinguished:

Tubular - long and short. They form the skeleton of the limbs. The middle part of the tubular bones is called the diaphysis, and the ends are called the epiphyses. The transition zone between the diaphysis and the epiphysis is called the metaphysis. There may be apophyses at the ends of these bones.

Flat or wide bones that typically serve a protective function by forming natural body cavities or provide extensive surfaces for muscle attachment. They are characterized by the presence of 2 compact plates, between which there is a spongy substance.

Short spongy bones are located in places of greatest mobility of the body, combined with resistance to significant forces compressing the skeleton (carpus and tarsus); they are built from spongy substance, covered with a thin layer of compact.

Mixed bones (vertebrae) have several parts fused together and have different shapes, functions and development.

Airborne (pneumatized) bones, which have cavities lined with mucous membrane and filled with air.

Bone development

Primary bones go through 2 stages of development:

Membranous

Bone

These include the bones of the roof of the skull and the collarbone.

Secondary bones of the skull go through 3 stages of development:

Membranous

Cartilaginous

Bone

These include all other bones

Methods of osteogenesis:

Endesmal

Echondral (endochondral)

Perichodral, periosteal

Anomalies and variants of bone development

Additional rib

Missing rib

Assimilation of the atlas with the skull

Vertebral arch bifida

Sacralization

Lumbalization

A split or hole in the xiphoid process

Cleft sternum throughout

Absent radius

This threatens her destruction or the destruction of the world. Therefore, any form of existence, including humans, is built on a natural basis.

The initial form of the child is created on the basis of its own material, laid down as the basis by the parental cells. After the fusion of the masculine and feminine principles, the mechanism for building the baby’s body is activated, observing the order of the development process. When two different genetic foundations (male and female) are combined, they are initially adapted to the conditions of existence in a new state, then a regime coefficient comes into play, establishing the regime of future processes of production of new cells.

There are no special construction principles at the initial stages, but the gene code program sets the goal - to create the required number of cells that meet certain quality indicators. These cells should serve as the basis for subsequent structural formations. The determinant who participates in the construction of the child’s physical body must know within what limits of the law he is obliged to work, and within what limits he is free.

The program for building a physical body contains the sequence of constructing the child’s organs, various body systems and at the appropriate time activates a special mode of operation. Each organ is built separately from the others, has its own structure, chemical composition, individual technology, a separate subroutine for its construction and a separate program for its functioning. The structures of organs must be built in such a way as to ensure their further normal operation, its correct rhythm and provide, through the use of special coefficients, the interconnection of their processes with others.

The complexity of the relationship lies in the fact that completely different processes are combined, often giving opposite results (for example, venous and arterial blood are combined in the work of the heart). And the great art of the Creators who created man lies in skillfully combining them in the functions of one organ, although it is necessary to combine various chemical compositions, reactions, various complex technologies for receiving and releasing energies of a wide range of frequencies, and much more that is little known to man.

The physical body, in addition to the material basis, also contains an energy system with the presence of negative and positive energies, which are formed together with the construction of the child’s body itself. The energy system, located directly in the material shell, has its own conducting energy channels and energy collectors. In addition, each cell, each organ has its own energy structure, which, when combined, create the energy structure of the entire body, that is, the work of the material shell is based on the functioning of many individual systems. And only thanks to the presence of strong common connections that unite everything together, the basis for the fundamental structure and its progressive development in subsequent stages is created.

The program for the formation of the physical body, which is a separate program distinct from the program for the subsequent progression of a person, includes the sequence of building the organs and the body as a whole. And for this purpose, the program contains a regime adaptation coefficient, which helps to form the qualitative composition of organ cells over a given period of time. If the outer body requires 9 months to form, then each organ and system of the body is given its own time.

Any organ has its own cells, different in structure and quality from the cells of other organs. Accordingly, the quality of the energy of the organs is individual, or in other words, we can say that any organ works on its own type of energy, therefore all such complexities must be taken into account during construction and docked correctly.

The construction of organs in the body is distributed in a given way over time: some organs are created earlier, others later, energy systems are formed within them, everything is correlated in a certain way with each other and the general body, since the necessary correlation of their structures must be maintained, because due to their functional dependence they they cannot all be built at the same time.

The location of the emerging volumes of organs and systems relative to each other spatially in a certain order is also important in the sense that not all organs should immediately get involved and begin their direct functioning. Initially, organs and systems are built that, in connection with the mother’s body, must work together, and then organs that switch to an autonomous mode of operation. The program for building a physical body must also take into account the fact that some parts of the body quickly wear out under overload and therefore will require restoration processes of the cells of organs and tissues. All this is foreseen and laid down in advance.

When forming the physical body, the chemical, physical, and energy balance of all systems and the body as a whole must be maintained. The body must work stably - this is the success of the future normal development of the child. Such balance and control over the established relationships between organs and systems is supported and maintained by a special balancing apparatus.

Organs, as private components of a single organism, work as independent factories: using their own fuel, they produce their products, and their technological processes are individualized. They also have personal reserves of energy, that is, each organ has its own reserve of energy on the subtle plane, which, according to the norms, is allocated to this organ by the Determinant of a given person. He directly monitors the feeding of the organs with the necessary energy at certain periods. At the same time, being involved in the process of work, the organs themselves begin to produce energy of their own type, which is collected into egregors - certain energy collectors at the disposal of the Determinant.

The systematic construction of forms and systems represents in the program a staged arrangement of them in the production volume of the body and a sequential, systematic build-up of cells and energy components, connecting them with connections and channels, which should in the future ensure their coordinated joint work, as well as the construction of certain boundaries for each type of cell, united by a common goal and functioning, i.e. The initial step is the exact spatial arrangement of all parts and systems located inside the volume of the body, and then their immediate detailed construction begins.

Each organ is endowed with its own external boundaries, which make it possible to isolate the internal contents of the organ from others to improve its independent functioning. Isolation rids cells of extraneous influences that could impair their functioning. And at the same time, the boundaries, fulfilling the necessary diffusion connections, limit the influence of the cells of a given organ on other systems.

The physical body is a multiphase formation, since it contains multi-level structures arranged in a given order. The presence of organs and systems belonging to different Levels indicates the presence in them of different qualitative energies and different potentials of the organs.

Every organ has its own energy potential. And in order to combine such heterogeneity and texture into a single mechanism that works smoothly in the human body, correct construction alone is not enough. An accurate numerical calculation is required, which is carried out by special Higher Calculation Authorities that compose programs for the construction and development of the physical body for one life. The program they compiled includes all the calculation-code coefficients that are necessary for subsequent transformative-transition states in the body.

All internal life support processes of the human body, its regulation and management of development from the initial moment of origin to aging and death occur on the basis of a program of the physical body compiled from Above using a complex system of calculations. But it works under the control of the basic program of human life.

Programs for the development of body and soul are two different programs, but they are interconnected, since one cannot exist without the other.

The inclusion of the program for the development of the material body occurs from the initial moment of cell division, and then everything proceeds according to the program for building the organism, but under the constant supervision of the Determinant, who will subsequently guide this person through life.

The determinant controls the inclusion of the program and its subsequent reversal. He can also make the necessary adjustments in the construction of the body, introduce some kind of congenital diseases in certain organs or injuries, which the development program includes according to the law of cause and effect. That is, the Determinant changes the structure of some cells in the organs or members of the body in such a way that the normal functioning of the organism as a whole is maintained.

The construction of some parts of the body depends on the construction of others, just as, for example, the walls of a house cannot be built without a foundation, and the roof cannot be built without walls, because everything is dependent on each other if it concerns a holistic construction. Likewise, when creating an organism, there is a consistent interconnection of some parts with others, both in the material structure of the body and in the energy structure, in compliance with their hierarchical laws. All organs are located in the body from bottom to top according to their hierarchical distribution of importance, so everything that is lower is at the bottom, everything that is higher is at the top.

Each organ has, at the same time, its own hierarchy, therefore, although it is composed of cells of the same type that perform a homogeneous function, these cells are not equivalent to each other, and some of them are higher in energy, others less so. Therefore, in the hierarchy of an organ, there is their Level distribution according to energy order, and, consequently, functional priority.

The belonging of a group of organ cells to one or another Level indicates their dependence on the energies or quality indicators they have not collected. Each homogeneous cell (liver, heart, kidney) must have a certain nomenclature set of energies, and the content of the latter fluctuates in the cell within certain limits depending on their Level.

A certain coefficient existing at each Level expresses the dependence of the available energies on their full composition, which is necessary for the absolute composite of maximum formation. All energies produced by the cells of an organ are collected in some volumetric storage unit of a given energy spectrum. When the absolute composition is achieved, this volumetric accumulator contains a full set of energies of a specific spectrum and serves as the basis for another, even larger - maxi-volume with a corresponding set of qualities.

Since each organ as a whole represents an independent hierarchy, which embodies a certain total potential, the entire human body also exhibits a versatile potential of a certain power. Therefore, the human body is similar to the general system of the maxi-organism of Nature and the Universe and has similar signs of development and striving towards a goal.

The similarity is manifested in the construction of shapes and volumes, as well as in any physiological construction in which many individual private forms are combined together to create an absolute qualitative composition of nominees.

In turn, the nominees are united into a large structure with an even greater degree of responsibility and consciousness: man - Essence - God - Absolute. In global buildings, awareness increases, which is the main factor determining the level of development. Absolutely constructed forms and volumes (Essence, God, Absolute) are characterized by a high degree of responsibility for their actions. And this is the main thing in any improvement. The higher the level of development, the greater the responsibility.

The fact of the sequential origin of organs in the body and their development according to certain patterns indicates the presence of special laws according to which each of them is built. The law of construction of the physical body includes sub-laws for the construction of specific organs. The general law of configurative construction, as the basis for the formation and arrangement of mini-systems in the body, takes their hierarchical arrangement at Levels, and therefore organs belonging to a low Level are built first, and higher ones are formed on their basis. And this is the main thing in the natural principles of construction; those. location in the body and order of structure begins from the lower Level of the hierarchy of the physical body. An exception in the order is the heart, which stands above all, but is formed earlier than some of the organs below it.

The entire organism exists in a certain time period specified by the general development program. But at the same time, each organ, as a potential system, lives and works in its own time, and they also have their own speed of processes. However, their interrelation in a single work on the whole organism indicates their dependence in functioning on each other. Therefore, the general program links in time the speed of various processes in individual organs.

The speed of processes in one organ can fluctuate within specified limits, so reactions can occur slowly or accelerated, depending on a number of other factors, and in particular, on the influence of other organs on this organ.

In accordance with the presence of the law of construction, the responsibility for the functioning of organs is introduced into the need to obey the Higher Level and b O greater potentials.

The mechanism of the structural arrangement and construction of particular forms in the body is dominant, subordinating all other processes for the period of time during which a given volume must be built. All the main processes during the construction period are aimed at creating the required structure, and therefore the reactions in the body under construction do not correspond to those processes that occur during the period of normal functioning, when all the individual components of the body have already been built. But since organs do not remain unchanged, but constantly change over time (in a child’s body they grow, in an old one they begin to reduce their activity), then the processes occurring in the body also change, which is included in the program.

Time plays a major role in the regulation of processes. Therefore, it is included in the body development program as the main regulator of the stages of progression.

Time, strictly connected with the program, includes at the right moment the points of completion of the set goals. This activates the body’s activity in the required direction and helps strengthen the potential of the entire human physiology. The program is aimed at complicating the work of the body in order to acquire maximum power (not including the aging stage, at which greater emphasis is placed not on the body, but on improving the soul).

The principle of development of the physiology of the body lies in the contractual order of functioning when improving certain actions by a person, that is, when he performs some actions (he runs), some organs are included in the work in a certain order sequence, during other actions (he eats) - other organs, and also in the sequence established for them. In these cases, the contract coefficient works, including the corresponding chain of relationships leading to the systematic work of the whole organism.

One of the main legislative processes occurring in the body is the timeliness of the creation of given states. This contributes to the inclusion of additional factors that activate the work of the body both in organic matter itself and in its subtle structures.

That is, any environmental irritants must cause corresponding and timely formations inside the body: this is a change in chemical reactions, the appearance of necessary physiological components or enzymes; response muscular reactions necessary for various life situations, or response to light, music, smell, temperature stimuli, etc. All this must also be coordinated in a certain chain of interactions in a purposeful form of progression, leading to the necessary results.

This method of developing such particular states as organs and other body systems allows us to improve a unified network of messages in the whole organism.

All cells of one organ, as a result of their interactions, create the potential of this organ, or its Essence. All connecting networks of the body form several Essential instances of the corresponding names, which form connecting connections on an even larger scale.

Description of presentation Lecture General principles of the structure of the human body. Cells and slides

Lecture General principles of the structure of the human body. Cells and tissues Plan: 1. Principles of the structure of the human body. 2. Cells. 3. Fabrics.

Anatomy from Greek. "anatome" - dissection, dismemberment. Anatomy is the science of the forms, structure, origin and development of the human body, its systems and organs. Anatomy examines the structure of the human body and its organs at different periods of life, from the intrauterine period of life to old age, and examines the characteristics of the body under the influence of the external environment. Anatomy includes sections: 1. topographic anatomy; 2. systematic anatomy; 3. Functional anatomy

Anatomy terms Symmetrical organs are a mirror image of each other. For example: right and left hand, etc. Asymmetrical organs - spleen on the left, liver on the right of the midline. Anatomical position: Vertical body position, upper limbs brought to the body, palms facing forward, neck straight, gaze directed into the distance.

The location of body parts and their constituent organs is described using imaginary lines or planes.

To indicate the location of organs in relation to: - The terms are used to the horizontal plane: Cranial (from Lat. Cranium - skull) (upper) Caudal (from Lat. - tail) (lower). — Frontal plane: — Ventral (lat. Ventral-stomach) (anterior) — Dorsal (lat. Dorsal-back) (posterior) — Lateral-lateral (farther from the middle) — Middle-medial (closer to the middle). — To designate parts of the limbs, the terms are: proximal (closer to the body), distal (farther from the body).

Levels of organization of a person as a living being: Molecular Cellular Tissue Organ Systemic Organism Organ - a part of the body that has its own unique shape, structure and occupies a certain place in the body and performs characteristic functions (muscle, liver, eye, etc.). An organ system is organs that have a common structural plan, a common origin and perform a single function. Organ apparatuses are organs that have different structures and origins, but are connected by performing a single function. The body is the systems and apparatus of organs that work as a single whole.

Organ systems: Bone Muscular Nervous Digestive Respiratory Cardiovascular Urinary Immune Genital Skin Apparatuses: Musculoskeletal Genitourinary Endocrine

A cell is the elementary unit of living things. Properties of living things: -metabolism; -heredity; -variability; -reproduction; -development and growth; -movement; -irritability; -adaptation. A CELL consists of cytoplasm and nucleus. Cytoplasm consists of hyaloplasm (cytosol) and organelles (organelles). Cells are divided into somatic and reproductive cells. The sizes and shapes of cells are varied.

The nucleus consists of chromatin, nucleolus, karyoplasm, and nuclear membrane. Core functions: storage and transmission of genetic information; implementation of genetic information (protein synthesis, regulation of cell activity) Chromatin - a complex of DNA and proteins (histones and non-histones) Chromatin Euchromatin (weakly condensed, active) Heterochromatin (strongly condensed, inactive) Facultative (contains genes that are not active in a given cell at a given time ) Constitutive (structural) does not contain a gene nucleus nucleolus euchromatin heterochromatin

Cytoplasmic membrane The membrane is a mobile fluid structure consisting of a bilipid layer (phospholipids) and protein molecules immersed in it. On the outer surface there is a glycocalyx (glycolipids, glycoproteins) Functions: Barrier protective Transport Receptor Secretory Formation of intercellular contacts Participates in cell movement

The endoplasmic reticulum is a system of channels and cavities. Two types: 1. rough (granular) contains ribosomes 2. Smooth (agranular) no ribosomes. Functions: Protein synthesis Synthesis and accumulation of carbohydrates and fats Spatial separation of cell enzyme systems

Golgi apparatus. A network of membrane cavities (5-8), from which tubes and vesicles extend. Functions: 1. Accumulation and chemical modification of substances that are synthesized in the ER 2. Transport of substances from the cell 3. Formation of lysosomes

Mitochondria This is a double-membrane organelle: the outer membrane is smooth, the inner one forms folds. Inside is a matrix containing liquid, circular DNA, RNA, ribosomes Function: ATP synthesis

Ribosomes Consist of 2 subunits: small and large. Chemical composition: RNA and proteins. Ribosomes are located freely in the cytoplasm and on the ER membrane, the nuclear envelope. Function: protein synthesis.

The cell center consists of two centrioles (mother and daughter) and a centrosphere. Consist of microtubules. Formula: (9 x3)+0 Functions: formation of the spindle, lie at the base of cilia and flagella.

Cilia, flagellum Cell outgrowths surrounded by a membrane are capable of movement. They consist of a protein - tubulin. Intra-axoneme (9 x2)+2 Function: provide movement.

Tissues are a group of cells and extracellular substances that have a common origin, structure and function. Types of tissues: Epithelial Connective Muscular Nervous

Epithelial tissues cover the surfaces of the body, line the mucous membranes of internal organs, and form most glands. Functions: barrier, protective, excretory, absorption. They are divided into integumentary and glandular. General structural features: 1. Epithelia consist of epithelial cells that form layers lying on the basement membrane 2. There is no intercellular substance between the cells; they are connected using special contacts. 3. There are no blood or lymphatic vessels, nutrition is carried out through the basement membrane by diffusion from the connective tissue. 4. They have the ability to quickly recover through mitosis. Covering epithelium is divided into single-layer and multilayer. Single-layer: cubic, prismatic, flat, etc. Multilayer: squamous keratinizing epithelium, squamous non-keratinizing epithelium, transitional epithelium.

Connective tissues are divided into: 1. Connective tissues proper: - Loose connective tissue; — Dense connective tissue 2. Connective tissues with special properties: fatty, pigmented, reticular, mucous. 3. Blood and lymph 3. Skeletal tissues - cartilage and bone

Blood and lymph Blood is red tissue, consisting of plasma (55%) and formed elements (45%). Formed elements: Red blood cells Leukocytes (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, monocytes) Platelets Blood functions: Respiratory Nutritional Protective Regulatory Homeostatic Immune. Lymph is a clear yellowish liquid. Consists of lymphoplasm and lymphocytes. Function: trophic, immune.

Loose connective tissue. This tissue forms membranes around organs, accompanies blood vessels, and fills the space between organ cells. The main function is to create conditions for the life of organ cells (trophic, respiratory, immune, regulatory and other functions). Loose connective tissue consists of cells and intercellular substance. PCT cells: fibroblasts, fibrocytes, macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, fat cells, adventitial cells. The intercellular substance consists of a ground (amorphous) substance and fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular). Fibers form three-dimensional networks and create a tissue frame; cells and substances move through them.

Dense connective tissue consists of cells (fibrocytes) and intercellular substance (many fibers, little amorphous substance). There are 2 types: formed (tendons, ligaments, capsules, etc.) and unformed (dermis of the skin).

Bone tissue: reticulofibrous, lamellar. Bone tissue consists of cells (osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts) and intercellular substance (ossein and minerals (calcium phosphates)

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APUD – SYSTEM (STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION, BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE IN NORMAL AND PATHOLOGICAL)
II. Organization of surgical services in Russia. Main types of surgical institutions. Principles of organizing the work of the surgical department.
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IV. Organization and implementation of anti-epidemic anti-cholera measures
V2: Bones of the lower limb, their connections. Features of the structure of the human foot. X-ray anatomy of the lower limb. Analysis of lecture material.

Introductory lecture.

The subject and tasks of anatomy, its place among biological disciplines, its significance for theoretical and practical medicine.

Modern methods of anatomical research

Anatomical principles of the structural organization of the human body.

The main stages of human ontogenesis.

The study of human anatomy provides the necessary conditions for mastering other disciplines necessary for the practical work of a doctor.

The importance of anatomy for medicine was pointed out by many prominent scientists and medical figures.

“Study the basics of science before trying to climb to its heights, never take on the next without mastering the previous one” - I.P. Pavlov.

“The study of the structure of the human body is the fundamental basis of medicine” Hippocrates

“Anatomy is the first science, without it there can be no healing” ancient Russian manuscript.

“without anatomy there is no surgery or therapy, but only signs and prejudices» - Gubarev A.P.

Currently, other methods are used to understand the structure of not only a dead person, but also a living person:

1) Anthropometry, which allows you to measure the length and weight of the body, identify their relationships, determine the proportions of the body, the type of constitution;

2) Injection method - filling body cavities, lumens of the bronchial tree, blood and lymphatic vessels, and hollow organs with a colored mass. It has been used since the 16th century. The injection method is complemented by subsequent corrosion and enlightenment of organs and tissues;

3) The microscopic method appeared with the invention of magnifying objects using a magnifying glass and a microscope. Thanks to this method, it was possible to identify networks of blood and lymphatic capillaries, intraorgan plexuses of vessels and nerves. The structures of lobules and acini have been clarified;

4) Fluoroscopic radiographic methods, which make it possible to study the intravital form and functional characteristics of a living person. Currently, computed tomography, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance radiography), and spiral computed tomography are used. Radiography is often supplemented by the use of x-ray contrast agents;

5) Endoscopic research method (gastroscopy, bronchoscopy, colonoscopy, laparoscopy, cystoscopy, hysteroscopy, etc.). It allows you to see, with the help of optical instruments introduced through natural and artificial openings, the color, relief of organs and mucous membranes;

Ultrasound examination (echography), based on the reflection of ultrasound by tissues, allows one to determine the external shapes, sizes, thickness of the walls of the organs being studied, and their internal structure.

There are 4 main tissues in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous. Each of them has a number of varieties.

There are 4 main tissues in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous. Each of them has a number of varieties. performs integumentary (border) and excretory (secretory) functions.

This tissue is characterized by the fact that it consists of closely packed epithelial cells of various shapes located on the basement membrane.

Between the cells there are only thin layers of adhesive intercellular substance. There are single-layer and multilayer epithelium, single-row and multi-row epithelium.

Muscle carries out the movement of the body in space, the movement of blood in the vessels and the contraction of the walls of internal organs. There are smooth and striated muscle tissue.

Tissues do not exist in isolation, but together participate in the construction of certain organs.

An organ is a part of the body that occupies a certain position in the body, is distinguished by a unique shape, has a special structure and performs a special function inherent in it.

Organs of the body are usually combined into systems and apparatuses.

An organ system is a number of organs that are anatomically and topographically connected to each other, have a common structural plan, a common origin in phylo- and ontogenesis and perform the same function.

Regarding their organs.

Planes and axes passing through the human body, location

The concept of organs, systems, apparatuses, soma and viscera.

The place of anatomy in biology, definition, subject and object of study.

2. The connection of anatomy with other sciences and its basic methods.

Anatomy is one of the biological disciplines.

Biology is a set of sciences about living nature, about the structure, development and diversity of living beings, their relationships and connections with the external environment.

Biology includes two main sections: morphology and physiology.

Morphology-studies the form and structure of living beings.

Physiology– the science of the vital activity of organisms, the processes occurring in their structures, and the regulation of functions.

Among the morphological disciplines is human anatomy – the science of the form and structure, origin and development of the human body, its systems and organs.

Man belongs to the animal world, therefore anatomy studies the structure of man, taking into account the biological laws inherent in all vertebrates, as well as taking into account age, gender and individual characteristics.

Anatomy serves as the foundation a number of biological disciplines: anthropology, histology, cytology, embryology, physiology, evolutionary studies, genetics and is closely related to them. All these disciplines arose in the depths of anatomy at different times, and then separated due to the emergence of new and improved research methods.

Basic anatomy methods:

1. Dissection (from the Greek anatome - I cut).

2. Filling hollow organs with hardening masses and obtaining casts (injection method).

3. Plastic anatomy(studies the shapes and proportions of the body, important for sculptors and artists).

4. X-ray anatomy ( studies the internal structure using x-rays).

5. Endoscopy(examination of internal hollow organs using special instruments through natural holes).

Organ (from Greek organon- tool, instrument) is distinguished by its unique location, shape and structure, adapted to perform a specific function.

Organs are built from tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous). Each organ has all types of tissues, but one of them is the working one, performing the main function of the organ.

Organs can be anatomically and functionally combined into systems and devices.

System - a number of organs that have a common structural plan, unity of origin and perform one major function.

According to different principles organs are combined into devices:

a) organs in the apparatus often have different structures and origins, may not be anatomically connected, but they are united by their participation in the execution general function(for example, ODA - musculoskeletal system);

b) in the apparatus, organs can be related by origin, but at the same time perform different functions(for example, the genitourinary apparatus).

In the human body there are:

1. Somu(from Greek soma- body): includes bones, joints of bones, skin and skeletal muscles that form cavities.

2. Entrails(from Greek splanchna or from lat. viscera) - organs located inside cavities.

Vessels and nerves approach the soma and viscera and branch into them. They are neither one nor the other.

Basic principles of the structure of the human body:

1. Polarity (different structure and functions of poles).

2. Segmentation or metamerism (repetition, more clearly preserved in the body).

3. Bilateral symmetry.

4. Correlation (relationship between individual parts).

Human anatomy is called normal anatomy. Each person is unique, at the same time, all people belong to the same species and have the same structure plan. Normal It is considered a state (structure) of an organ and organism in which their functions are not impaired.